UNIT 6

NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Syllabus: Introduction, Noise in Base band Systems, Noise figure, different types of noise,
System Model and Parameter, SNR at the output of a Base band System, Noise in AM
systems: System model and parameter, Noise in DSB and SSB Systems, Noise in Angle
Modulation Systems: Output SNR in Angle Modulation, Threshold effects in Angle
Modulation Systems. Improvement of SNR using Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis,
Comparison of Continuous Wave Modulation
In any communication system, during the transmission of the signal or while receiving the
signal, some unwanted signal gets introduced into the communication, making it unpleasant
for the receiver, and questioning the quality of the communication. Such a disturbance is called
as Noise.
What is Noise?
Noise is an unwanted signal, which interferes with the original message signal and corrupts
the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication process, leads to
the message getting altered. It most likely enters at the channel or the receiver.

The noise signal can be understood by taking a look at the following figure.
Hence, it is understood that the noise is some signal which has no pattern and no constant
frequency or amplitude. It is quite random and unpredictable. Measures are usually taken to
reduce it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.
Most common examples of noise are
• Hiss sound in radio receivers
• Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations
• Flicker in television receivers, etc
Types of Noise
The classification of noise is done depending on the type of the source, the effect it shows or
the relation it has with the receiver, etc.
There are two main ways in which noise is produced. One is through some external
source while the other is created by an internal source, within the receiver section.

External Source
This noise is produced by the external sources, which may occur in the channel of
communication system. This noise cannot be completely eliminated. The best way is to avoid
the noise from affecting the signal.
Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are
• Atmospheric noise (due to irregularities in the atmosphere).
• Extra-terrestrial noise, such as solar noise and cosmic noise.
• Industrial noise.
Internal Source
This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The components in the
circuits, due to continuous functioning, may produce few types of noise. This noise is
quantifiable (measurable). A proper receiver design may lower the effect of this internal noise.
Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are
• Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise)
• Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and holes)
• Transit-time noise (during transition)
• Miscellaneous noise is another type of noise which includes flicker, resistance effect
and mixer generated noise, etc.
Effects of Noise
Noise is an inconvenient feature, which affects the system performance. Following are the
effects of noise.
• Noise limits the operating range of the systems
Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an
amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise.
A system’s operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the smallest
signal that a receiver is capable of processing.
• Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers
Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the specified
quality output. Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system, which eventually
affects the output.

RECEIVER MODEL
For the situation at hand, we propose to use the receiver model of Fig. 1, shown in its most
basic form. In this figure, s(t) denotes the incoming modulated signal and w(t) denotes front-
end receiver noise. The received signal is therefore made up of the sum of s(t) and w(t); this is
the signal that the receiver has to work on. The band-pass filter in the model of Figure 6.1
represents the combined filtering action of the tuned amplifiers used in the actual receiver for
the purpose of signal amplification prior to demodulation. The bandwidth of this band-pass
filter is just wide enough to pass the modulated signal s(t) without distortion. As for the
demodulator in the model of Fig.1, its details naturally depend on the type of modulation used.
In performing the noise analysis of a communication system, the customary practice is to
assume that the noise w(t) is additive, white, and Gaussian. Let the power spectral density of
the noise w(t) be denoted by N0/2, defined for both positive and negative frequencies. That is,
N0 is the average noise power per unit bandwidth measured at the front end of the receiver. We

Figure 1. Noise receiver model

also assume that the band-pass filter in the receiver model of Fig. 1 is ideal, having a bandwidth
equal to the transmission bandwidth BT of the modulated signal s(t) and a mid-band frequency
equal to the carrier frequency fc. The latter assumption is justified for double sideband-

Figure 2. Idealized characteristics of bandpass filtered noise

suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation, standard amplitude modulation (AM), and frequency
modulation (FM). The cases of single sideband (SSB) modulation and vestigial sideband (VSB)
modulation require special considerations. Taking the mid-band frequency of the band-pass
filter to be the same as the carrier frequency fc, we may model the power spectral density SN(f)
of the noise n(t), resulting from the passage of the white noise w(t) through the filter, as shown
in Fig.2.
Typically, the carrier frequency fc is large compared to the transmission bandwidth B T. We
may therefore treat the filtered noise n(t) as a narrowband noise represented in the canonical
form
𝑛(𝑡) = 𝑛𝐼 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑛𝑄 sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

where 𝑛𝐼 is the in-phase noise component and 𝑛𝑄 is the quadrature noise component, both
measured with respect to the carrier wave Acos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡). The filtered signal x(t) available for
demodulation is defined as
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡)
The details of s(t) depend on the type of modulation used, in any event, the average noise power
at the demodulator input is equal to the total area under the curve of the power spectral density
SN(f). From Fig. 2 we readily see that this average noise power is equal to N0BT. Given the
format of s(t), we may also determine the average signal power at the demodulator input. With
the modulated signal s(t) and the filtered noise n(t) appearing additively at the demodulator
input in accordance with Eq. (6.2), we may go on to define an input signal-to-noise ratio,
(SNR), as the ratio of the average power of the modulated signal s(t) to the average power of
the filtered noise n(t).
Average⁡power⁡of⁡modulated⁡signal
Input SNR = (𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐼 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

A more useful measure of noise performance, however, is the output signal-to-noise ratio,
(SNR)o, defined as the ratio of the average power of the demodulated message signal to the
average power of the noise, both measured at the receiver output.
Average⁡power⁡of⁡demodulated⁡signal
Output SNR = (𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

The output signal-to-noise ratio provides an intuitive measure for describing the fidelity with
which the demodulation process in the receiver recovers the message signal from the
modulated signal in the presence of additive noise.
The output signal-to-noise ratio depends, among other factors, on the type of modulation used
in the transmitter and the type of demodulation used in the receiver. Thus, it is informative to
compare the output signal-to-noise ratios for different modulation-demodulation systems.
However, for this comparison to be of meaningful value, it must be made on an equal basis as
described here:
• The modulated signal s(t) transmitted by each system has the same average power.
• The front-end receiver noise w(t) has the same average power measured in the message
bandwidth W.
Accordingly, as a frame of reference we define the channel signal-to-noise ratio, (SNR)c, as
the ratio of the average power of the modulated signal to the average power of noise in the
message bandwidth, both measured at the receiver input. This ratio may be viewed as the
signal-to-noise ratio that results from baseband (direct) transmission of the message signal m(t)
without modulation, as modelled in Fig.3.
Average⁡power⁡of⁡modulated⁡signal
Channel SNR = (𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐶 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Figure 3. The baseband transmission model, summing a message signal of

bandwidth W, used for calculating channel signal-to-noise ratio

Figure of Merit/Noise figure

For the purpose of comparing different continuous-wave (CW) modulation systems, we
normalize the receiver performance by dividing the output signal-to-noise ratio by the channel
signal-to-noise ratio. We thus define a figure of merit for the receiver as the ratio of output
SNR and input SNR. It is denoted by F. It describes the performance of a device.
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂
𝐹=
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐼
Figure of merit of a receiver is also given as
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂
𝐹=
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐶
It is so because for a receiver, the channel is the input.
Note: It is evident that, the higher the value of the figure of merit, the better will be the noise
performance of the receiver. The figure of merit may equal one, be less than one, or be greater
than one, depending on the type of modulation used.
SNR & Figure of merit Calculations for AM (DSB-FC) System
Consider the following receiver model of AM system to analyse noise.

Figure 4. Noise model of AM receiver

We know that the Amplitude Modulated (AM) wave is
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝐶 [1 + 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Or 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝐶 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝐶 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Average power of AM wave is
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 {𝐾𝑎2 𝑚(𝑡)}2 𝐴2𝑐 (1 + 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃)
𝑃𝑠𝑖 = + =
2 2 2
where P is the average power of message signal 𝑚(𝑡) i.e. P={𝑚(𝑡)}2
Average power of noise in the message bandwidth (W) is
𝑃𝑛𝑖 = 𝑊𝑁𝑜
Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula
Average⁡power⁡of⁡AM⁡wave
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐶,𝐴𝑀 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
 𝑃𝑠𝑖
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐶,𝐴𝑀 = (𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑖,𝐴𝑀 =
𝑃𝑛𝑖

𝐴2𝑐 (1 + 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃)
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑖,𝐴𝑀 =
2𝑊𝑁𝑜
To evaluate the output signal-to-noise ratio, we first represent the filtered noise n(t) in terms of
its in-phase and quadrature components. We may therefore define the filtered signal x(t)
applied to the envelope detector in the receiver model of Figure 6.5 as follows:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡) = [𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐶 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)+𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

The output of AM demodulator is nothing but the envelope of the above signal as shown in Fig
6.6 for the case of high carrier-to-noise ratio

𝑦(𝑡) = √[𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑐 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑛𝐼2 (𝑡)]2 + (𝑛𝑄 (𝑡))2

The expression defining y(t) is somewhat complex and needs to be simplified in some manner
in order to permit the derivation of insightful results. Specifically, we would like to
approximate the output y(t) as the sum of a message term plus a term due to noise. In general,
this is quite difficult to achieve. However, when the average carrier power is large compared
with the average noise power, so that the receiver is operating satisfactorily, then the signal

Figure 5. Phasor diagram for AM wave plus narrowband noise for the case of high
carrier-to-noise ratio. (b) Phasor diagram for AM wave plus narrowband noise for the
case of low carrier-to-noise ratio

term 𝐴𝐶 [1 + 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)] will be large compared with the noise terms 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡) and 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡), at least
most of the time. Then we may approximate the output y(t) as
𝑦(𝑡) ≈ [𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑐 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)]
The presence of the dc or constant term 𝐴𝑐 in the envelope detector output y(t) of above
Equation is due to demodulation of the transmitted carrier wave. We may ignore this term,
however, because it bears no relation whatsoever to the message signal m(t). In any case, it
may be removed simply by means of a blocking capacitor. Thus, if we neglect the dc term Ac
in above Equation, we find that the remainder has, except for scaling factors, a form similar to
the output of a DSB-SC receiver using coherent detection.
𝑦(𝑡) ≈ [𝐴𝑐 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)] + [𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)]
Power of output demodulated signal is
𝑃𝑠𝑜 = 𝐴2𝐶 𝐾𝑎2 {𝑚(𝑡)}2 = 𝐴2𝐶 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃
Power of output noise is
𝑊𝑁𝑜
𝑃𝑛𝑜 =
2
𝑃𝑠𝑜
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂,𝐴𝑀 =
𝑃𝑛𝑜
Accordingly, the output signal-to-noise ratio of an AM receiver using an envelope detector is
approximately
𝐴2𝑐 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂,𝐴𝑀 ≈
2𝑊𝑁𝑜
Above Equation is, however, valid only if the following two conditions are satisfied:
1. The average noise power is small compared to the average carrier power at the envelope
detector input.
2. The amplitude sensitivity ka is adjusted for a percentage modulation less than or equal
to 100 percent.
Finally, figure of merit for AM system obtained is given as
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂,𝐴𝑀 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃
𝐹= =
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑖,𝐴𝑀 1 + 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃

Thus, figure of merit of an AM receiver using envelope detection is always less than unity.
Single-Tone Modulation
Consider the special case of a sinusoidal wave of frequency fm and amplitude Am as the
modulating wave, as shown by
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
The corresponding AM wave is
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝜇cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)]cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
where 𝜇 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐴𝑚 is the modulation index. The average power of the modulating signal wave
m(t) (assuming a load resistor of 1 ohm)
1
𝑃 = 𝐴2𝑚
2
Therefore, using the above relation for figure of merit (formula in rounded box) we get
 (𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂,𝐴𝑀 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃
𝐹= =
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑖,𝐴𝑀 1 + 𝐾𝑎2 𝑃

1 2 2
𝐾𝑎 𝐴𝑚 𝜇2
𝐹= 2 =
1 2 + 𝜇2
1 + 2 𝐾𝑎2 𝐴𝑚
2

Note: When 𝜇 = 1, which corresponds to 100 percent modulation, we get a figure of merit
equal to 1/3. This means that, other factors being equal, an AM system (using envelope
detection) must transmit three times as much average power as a suppressed-carrier system
(using coherent detection) in order to achieve the same quality of noise performance.

SNR & Figure of merit Calculations in DSBSC System

Consider the following receiver model of DSBSC system to analyse noise.

Figure 6. Model of DSB-SC receiver using coherent detection

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave is
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Average power of DSBSC modulated wave is
𝐴2𝑐 {𝑚(𝑡)}2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑃
𝑃𝑠,𝑖 = =
2 2
Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is
𝑃𝑛𝑖 = 𝑊𝑁𝑜
Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula
Average⁡power⁡of⁡DSBSC⁡modulated⁡wave
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐶,𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝐴2𝑐 𝑃
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑖,𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 =
2𝑊𝑁𝑜
Hence, the input of this product modulator is
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + [𝑛𝑄 (𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)]

= [𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)+𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)]

Local oscillator generates the carrier signal c(t)=cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡). Therefore, the product
modulator produces an output, which is the product of x(t) and c(t)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑐(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = [𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)+𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)] × cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

𝑣(𝑡) = [𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)+𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

1 + cos⁡(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) sin⁡(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = [𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)+𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)] − 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)
2 2
The low-pass filter in the coherent detector removes the high frequency components of v(t),
yielding a receiver output
𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = +
2 2
Above Equation indicates the following:
1. The message signal m(t) and in-phase noise component 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡) of the filtered noise n(t)
appear additively at the receiver output.
2. The quadrature component 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡) of the noise n(t) is completely rejected by the
coherent detector
Average power of the demodulated signal is
𝑃𝑚 = (𝐴𝐶 𝑚(𝑡)/2)2 = 𝐴2𝑐 𝑃/4
The average power of the in-phase noise component 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡) is the same as that of the (band-
pass) filtered noise n(t). Therefore, average power of noise at the output is
𝑊𝑁𝑜
𝑃𝑛𝑜 =
2
Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.
𝐴2𝑐 𝑃 𝑊𝑁𝑜 𝐴2𝑐 𝑃
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂,𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = ⁄ =
4 2 2𝑊𝑁𝑜
Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver formula.
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑂,𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝐴2𝑐 𝑃 𝐴2𝑐 𝑃
𝐹= = ⁄
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝐶,𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 2𝑊𝑁𝑜 2𝑊𝑁𝑜

𝐹=1
For Power calculation, refer to the notes provided here
Power of a periodic voltage signal x(t) flowing through a unit resistance (R=1Ω) is given as
𝑻
𝟏 ⁄𝟐
𝑷 = ∫ {𝒙(𝒕)}𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝑻 −𝑻⁄
𝟐

Where T is the time period of signal x(t)

𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝟏: Find average power of periodic signal shown below

Solution: This is a periodic signal with time period T=2. Thus, power is given as

𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝟐: Find power of 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡)

Solution: This is a periodic signal with time
period T=2𝜋 and maximum amplitude A
−𝑇⁄
1 2
2
1 𝜋
𝑃= ∫ {𝑥(𝑡)} 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ {𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡)}2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇⁄ 2𝜋 −𝜋
2

1 𝜋 𝐴2
𝑃= ∫ {
2𝜋 −𝜋 2
𝐴2 cos⁡(2𝑡)
+ } 𝑑𝑡 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
2
1 + cos⁡(2𝑡)
=
2
The area under the curve cost from -𝜋 to 𝜋 is zero so it reduces to
1 𝜋 𝐴2 1 𝐴2 𝑡=𝜋
𝑃 = ∫ { } 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡|
𝑇 −𝜋 2 2𝜋 2 𝑡=−𝜋

1 𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑃= 2𝜋 =
2𝜋 2 2
(𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆)𝟐
Therefore, power of sinusoidal or cosine signal is always = 𝟐
Therefore, the Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver is 1.

SNR Calculations in SSBSC System

Consider the following receiver model of SSBSC system to analyze noise.

We know that the SSBSC modulated wave having lower sideband is

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2

Average power of SSBSC modulated wave is

2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
Ps = (
s = (
)
) =
=
–
–
8
8
2√
2 √2
2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P
Pn = W N0
c = W N0
nc

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off S
SSSB
BSSC
C m
mood
duulla
atte
edd w
waav
vee
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,SSBSC =
=
C ,SSBSC
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e i
inn m
mees
sssa
agge
e b
baan
nddw
wiid
dtth
h

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,SSBSC =
=
C ,SSBSC
8
8WWN
N00

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with SSBSC modulated wave in the channel as shown in the above figure. This combination is applied as
one of the input to the product modulator. Hence, the input of this product modulator is

v
v1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)
1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v1 (t) =
1 (t) =
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] +
+nnI (t) cos(2πf c t
I (t) cos(2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t))
2
2

The local oscillator generates the carrier signal c

c((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
. This signal is applied as another input to the product modulator. Therefore,

the product modulator produces an output, which is the product of v

v1 (t)
1 (t)
and c
c((t
t)) .

v
v2 (t) = v 1 (
2 (t) = v1 (tt)
)cc(
(tt)
)

Substitute, v
v1 (t)
1 (t)
and c
c((t
t)) values in the above equation.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) = (
2 (t) = (
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] +
+nnI (t) cos(2πf c t
I (t) cos(2πfc t))−
−
2
2
 n
nQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t)))
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) =
2 (t) =
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)+
c t)+
2
2

2
2
n
nI (t) cos (2πf c t
I (t) cos (2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t)) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) =
2 (t) =
{
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(22f
fc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)} +
m t)} +
4
4

1
1++cos
cos((4
4ππf
fcct
t)) sin
sin((4
4ππf
fcct
t))
n
nI (t) (
I (t) (
)
)−−n
nQ (t)
Q (t)
2
2 2
2

When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output of low pass filter as

A
Am Ac n
nI (t)
I (t)
m Ac
d
d((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t) +
m t) +
2
2 2
2

Average power of the demodulated signal is

2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
Pm = (
m = (
)
) =
=
–
–
4
4√√2
2 32
32

Average power of noise at the output is

W
WNN0
0
P
Pn =
o =
no
4
4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off d
deem
mood
duulla
atte
edd s
siig
gnna
all
(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,SSBSC =
=
O,SSBSC
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e a
att o
ouut
tppu
utt

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
W
WNN0
0
A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NRR)
)O,SSBSC =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
) =
=
O,SSBSC
32
32 4
4 8
8WWN
N00

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver formula

(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,SSBSC
O,SSBSC
F
F =
=
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,SSBSC
C ,SSBSC

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
F
F =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
)
8
8WWN
N00
8
8WWN
N00

F
F =
= 1
1

Therefore, the Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver is 1.

The corresponding phasor diagram for the detector input x{ t ) - s( t ) + n( t) is shown in 215
Figure 6.6b, where we have used the noise as reference, because it is now the dominant 6.5 NOISE IN FM RECEIVERS
term. To the noise phasor r( t ) we have added a phasor representing the signal term
Ac [ 1 + kam( t ) ] , with the angle between them being equal to the relative phase i]/ ( t )
between the noise n{ t ) carrier cos( 2nfct ). In Figure 6.6b it is assumed that the carrier-to-
noise ratio is so low that the carrier amplitude Ac is small compared with the noise enve-
lope r( t ), at least most of the time. Then we may neglect the quadrature component of the
signal with respect to the noise, and thus find directly from Figure 6.6b that the envelope
detector output is approximately

~ r ( t ) + Ac cos[
y( t )
^( )] + Ackam( )cos [ l ( )]
t t \/ t (6.20)

This relation reveals that when the carrier-to-noise ratio is low, the detector output has no
component strictly proportional to the message signal m( t ). The last term of the
expression defining y( t ) contains the message signal m( t ) multiplied by noise in the form
of cos [tl/ ( t ) ] . From Section 5.12 we recall that the phase ifft ) of the narrowband noise
n( t ) is uniformly distributed over 2n radians. It follows therefore that we have a complete
loss of information in that the detector output does not contain the message signal m( t ) at
all. The loss of a message in an envelope detector that operates at a low carrier-to- noise
ratio is referred to as the threshold effect. By threshold we mean a value of the carrier-to-
noise ratio below which the noise performance of a detector deteriorates much more rap-
idly than proportionately to the carrier-to-noise ratio. It is important to recognize that
every nonlinear detector (e.g., envelope detector) exhibits a threshold effect. On the other
hand, such an effect does not arise in a coherent detector.

6.5 NOISE IN FM RECEIVERS

We finally turn our attention to the noise analysis of a frequency modulation (FM)
system, for which we use the receiver model shown in Figure 6.7. As before, the noise
w( t ) is modeled as white Gaussian noise of zero mean and power spectral density N012.
The received FM signal s( t ) has a carrier frequency fc and transmission bandwidth BT,
such that only a negligible amount of power lies outside the frequency band fc ± Brl2 for
positive frequencies.
As in the AM case, the band-pass filter has a mid -band frequency fc and bandwidth
BT and therefore passes the FM signal essentially without distortion. Ordinarily, BT is
small compared with the mid-band frequency fc , so that we may use the narrowband rep-
resentation for n{t), the filtered version of receiver noise w( t ), in terms of its in-phase and
quadrature components.
In an FM system, the message information is transmitted by variations of the instan-
taneous frequency of a sinusoidal carrier wave, and its amplitude is maintained constant.
Therefore, any variations of the carrier amplitude at the receiver input must result from

x [t ) v (t ) Baseband
FM Band- pass Output
Limiter Discriminator low- pass
signal s [ t ) filter signal
filter
A+

Noise
wit )
FIGURE 6.7 Noisy model of an FM receiver.
216 noise or interference. The amplitude limiter, following the bandpass filter in the receiver
NOISE IN CW MODULATION model of Figure 6.7, is used to remove amplitude variations by clipping the modulated
SYSTEMS wave at the filter output almost to the zero axis. The resulting rectangular wave is
rounded off by another bandpass filter that is an integral part of the limiter, thereby sup-
pressing harmonics of the carrier frequency. Thus, the filter output is again sinusoidal, with
an amplitude that is practically independent of the carrier amplitude at the receiver input.
The discriminator in the model of Figure 6.7 consists of two components:
1. A slope network or differentiator with a purely imaginary transfer function that varies
linearly with frequency. It produces a hybrid-modulated wave in which both amplitude
and frequency vary in accordance with the message signal.
2. An envelope detector that recovers the amplitude variation and thus reproduces the
message signal.
The slope network and envelope detector are usually implemented as integral parts of a
single physical unit.
The postdetection filter, labeled “ baseband low-pass filter ” in Figure 6.7, has a
bandwidth that is just large enough to accommodate the highest frequency component of
the message signal. This filter removes the out-of-band components of the noise at the
discriminator output and thereby keeps the effect of the output noise to a minimum .
The filtered noise n{t ) at the band-pass filter output in Figure 6.7 is defined in terms
of its in-phase and quadrature components by
niff ) = ni ( t ) cos ( 2nfct ) - «g ( t) sin (27t/cr )
Equivalently , we may express n( t ) in terms of its envelope and phase as
n( t ) = r ( r) cos [ ( 27t/cr) + ij/ ( t )\ (6.21 )
where the envelope is

r { t ) = \rf { t ) + nQ2 { t ) } 112 (6.22)

and the phase is
~ '

ijtiff ) - tan- l 0Q(

(6.23)
. «/ (0 .

The envelope tiff ) is Rayleigh distributed, and the phase ij/ ( t ) is uniformly distributed over
2n radians (see Section 5.11).
The incoming FM signal s( t ) is defined by

s ( t ) = Ac cos 2nfct + 2nkf m{ z ) dz (6.24)

0
where Ac is the carrier amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency , kf is the frequency sensi-
tivity, and miff ) is the message signal. Note that, as with the standard AM, in FM there is
no need to introduce a scaling factor in the definition of the modulated signal s( t ), since it
is reasonable to assume that its amplitude Ac has the same units as the additive noise
component n( t ). To proceed , we define

j ( t ) = 2nkf
() m( z ) dz (6,25)
0

We may thus express s( t ) in the simple form

s ( t ) = Ac eos [27t/cr + fi ( t ) ] (6.26)

 The noisy signal at the band-pass filter output is therefore 217
6.5 NOISE IN FM RECEIVERS
x( f ) = s( t ) + n ( t )
(6.27)
= Ac cos [27t/cf + 0 (f ) ] + r( t )cos [ 2nfct + 0 (f )]
It is informative to represent x( t ) by means of a phasor diagram, as in Figure 6.8. In this
diagram we have used the signal term as reference. The phase 0(f ) of the resultant phasor
representing x( t) is obtained directly from Figure 6.8 as

r( t ) sin [ij/ ( t ) - </ ) ( t )\

0 ( t ) = 0 ( f ) + tan- l (6.28)
Ac + r (f ) cos [0 ( f ) - 0 ( f ) ] ,
The envelope of x(f) is of no interest to us, because any envelope variations at the band-
pass output are removed by the limiter.
Our motivation is to determine the error in the instantaneous frequency of the carrier
wave caused by the presence of the filtered noise n(f ). With the discriminator assumed
ideal, its output is proportional to 0' ( t ) / 2n where 0' ( t ) is the derivative of 0( f ) with re-
spect to time. In view of the complexity of the expression defining 0 (f ) , however, we
need to make certain simplifying approximations, so that our analysis may yield useful
results.
We assume that the carrier-to-noise ratio measured at the discriminator input is large
compared with unity. Let R denote the random variable obtained by observing (at some
fixed time) the envelope process with sample function r(f ) [due to the noise n( t ) ] . Then,
at least most of the time, the random variable R is small compared with the carrier ampli-
tude Ac , and so the expression for the phase 9 ( t ) simplifies considerably as follows:

9( t ) ~ 0( f ) + —rAc( t ) sin [0 (f ) - 0(f )] ( 6.29 )

or, using the expression for ( j>( t ) given in Eq . (6.25),

r( t )
0 ( t) ~ 2nkf m( t ) dt + — — sin [0 (f ) - 0 (f ) ] (6.30)
Jo Ac
The discriminator output is therefore

1 dO { t )
»(») =
2n dt (6.31)
~ kftn{ t ) + nd ( t )
where the noise term nd( t ) is defined by

1
nd ( t ) |{ r(f ) sin [0 (f ) - 0(f )] }
2nAc dt
(6.32)

We thus see that provided the carrier-to-noise ratio is high, the dis-
criminator output i>(f ) consists of the original message or modulating
wave m( t ) multiplied by the constant factor kf , plus an additive noise
component nd ( t ). Accordingly, we may use the output signal-to- Resultant
r(t)
noise ratio as previously defined to assess the quality of perform-
ance of the FM receiver. Before doing this, however, it is instructive
to see if we can simplify the expression defining the noise nd { t ). A }
- 4> { tK
\|f i t )

From the phasor diagram of Figure 6.8, we note that the effect FIGURE 6.8 Phasor diagram for FM wave plus narrow-
of variations in the phase 0(f ) of the narrowband noise appear in band noise for the case of high carrier-to-noise ratio.
To understand Equation 6.28, refer to the diagram shown below:

𝜓(𝑡) 𝜑(𝑡)

𝜑(𝑡) 𝜃(𝑡)

Reference axis

Resultant 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 [𝜓(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)]

𝜃(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)

𝐴𝐶 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝜓(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)]

𝑟(𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝜃(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)]
𝜃(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝐴𝐶 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠[𝜃(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)]

Or
𝑟(𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝜃(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)]
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑡) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝐴𝐶 + 𝑟(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠[𝜃(𝑡) − 𝜑(𝑡)]
218 combination with the signal term cj)( t ). We know that the phase ij/ ( t ) is uniformly distribu-
NOISE IN CW MODULATION ted over 2n radians. It would therefore be tempting to assume that the phase difference
SYSTEMS il/ ( t ) - ( j)( t ) is also uniformly distributed over 2n radians. If such an assumption were
true, then the noise nff ) at the discriminator output would be independent of the
modulating signal and would depend only on the characteristics of the carrier and narrow-
band noise. Theoretical considerations show that this assumption is justified provided that
the carrier-to-noise ratio is high. Then we may simplify Eq . (6.32) as:

1
nd { t ) si - { r(t) sh# (f )]} (6.33)
2nAc dt
However, from the defining equations for r( t ) and we note that the quadrature com-
ponent nQ( t ) of the filtered noise n( t ) is

nQ ( t ) = r (/ ) sin [ ( t) ]
Therefore, we may rewrite Eq. (6.33) as
^ (6.34)

1 driQ ( t )
nd { t ) -2 (6.35)
nAc dt

This means that the additive noise nd { t ) appearing at the discriminator output is deter-
mined effectively by the carrier amplitude Ac and the quadrature component nQ( t ) of the
narrowband noise n( t ).
The output signal-to- noise ratio is defined as the ratio of the average output signal
power to the average output noise power. From Eq. (6.31), we see that the message com-
ponent in the discriminator output, and therefore the low-pass filter output, is kjm( t ) .
Hence, the average output signal power is equal to kjP , where P is the average power of
the message signal m( t ).
To determine the average output noise power, we note that the noise nd ( t ) at the dis-
criminator output is proportional to the time derivative of the quadrature noise com-
ponent nQ{ t ). Since the differentiation of a function with respect to time corresponds to
multiplication of its Fourier transform by j2nf , it follows that we may obtain the noise
process nd ( t ) by passing nQ( t ) through a linear filter with a transfer function equal to
ftrf jf_
=
2nAc Ac
This means that the power spectral density S N f f ) of the noise nd ( t ) is related to the
power spectral density Sjve( / ) of the quadrature noise component nQ( t ) as follows:

f
W /) 4S»s ( /) (6.36)

With the band-pass filter in the receiver model of Figure 6.7 having an ideal fre-
quency response characterized by bandwidth BT and mid-band frequency fc , it follows
that the narrowband noise n( t ) will have a power spectral density characteristic that is
similarly shaped. This means that the quadrature component nQ( t ) of the narrowband
noise n( t ) will have the ideal low-pass characteristic shown in Figure 6.9a . The corre-

-f
sponding power spectral density of the noise nd {t ) is shown in Figure 6.9 that is,

N« f 2
A2 ' l/l
M /) (6.37)
0, otherwise
In the receiver model of Figure 6.7, the discriminator output is followed by a Wf )
low-pass filter with a bandwidth equal to the message bandwidth W. For »0
wide-band FM, we usually find that W is smaller than BTI 2 , where BT is the
transmission bandwidth of the FM signal. This means that the out-of -band
components of noise nd ( t) will be rejected. Therefore, the power spectral den-
sity SNo ( /) of the noise njf ) appearing at the receiver output is defined by

Nof 2
A ’ ? \ f \^ W Bj 0 Bj
)
W) ( 6.38 )
2 2
0, otherwise (« )

as shown in Figure 6.9c. The average output noise power is determined by inte- V/)
grating the power spectral density %,( / ) from - VTto W. We thus get the result:

W
No [
Average power of output noise =
Aclw fdf
2
(6.39)
2NQW 3
34?
BT 0 BT
Note that the average output noise power is inversely proportional to the aver- 2 2
age carrier power A / 2 . Accordingly, in an FM system , increasing the carrier
^
power has a noise -quieting effect.
Earlier we determined the average output signal power as kjP. Therefore,
(b)

sNff )
provided the carrier-to- noise ratio is high, we may divide this average output
signal power by the average output noise power of Eq . (6.39) to obtain the out-
put signal-to-noise ratio

2
3AckjP
(SNR ) 0,FM (6.40)
2N0W 3
-w o w
The average power in the modulated signal s( f) A2
is / 2, and the average noise
power in the message bandwidth is WNQ. Thus the channel signal-to-noise ratio is ( c)

FIGURE 6.9 Noise analysis of FM recei-

ver. ( a ) Power spectral density of quad-
(SNR ) C,FM % (6.41 ) rature component nQ( t ) of narrowband
2WN0 noise n( t ). (b) Power spectral density of
noise nd ( t ) at discriminator output.
Dividing the output signal-to-noise ratio by the channel signal-to-noise ratio, we (c) Power spectral density of noise n0( t )
get the following figure of merit for frequency modulation: at receiver output.

(SNR)0 3kiP
1
(6.42)
(SNR ) C FM W2

From Section 4.3 we recall that the frequency deviation Af is proportional to the
frequency sensitivity kf of the modulator. Also, by definition , the deviation ratio D is
equal to the frequency deviation Af divided by the message bandwidth W . In other
^
words, the deviation ratio D is proportional to the ratio kfP 2/ W . It follows therefore
from Eq. (6.42) that the figure of merit of a wide-hand FM system is a quadratic function
of the deviation ratio. Now, in wide-band FM, the transmission bandwidth BT is approxi-
mately proportional to the deviation ratio D. Accordingly , we may state that when the

219
220 carrier-to-noise ratio is high, an increase in the transmission bandwidth Br provides a
NOISE IN CW MODULATION corresponding quadratic increase in the output signal -to-noise ratio or figure of merit of
SYSTEMS the FM system. The important point to note from this statement is that, unlike amplitude
modulation, the use of frequency modulation does provide a useful mechanism for the ex-
change of increased transmission bandwidth for improved noise performance.

EXAMPLE 6.2 Single-Tone Modulation

Consider the case of a sinusoidal wave of frequency fm as the modulating sig-
nal, and assume a peak frequency deviation Af The modulated FM signal is
thus defined by

A/
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2nfct + sin ( 27r/mt)
fm

Therefore, we may write

Af
2nkf m( z ) d x sin ( 27i/mr )
o fm

Differentiating both sides with respect to time and solving for m( t ), we get

m( t ) Af cos ( 27i mt)

kf
/

Hence, the average power of the message signal m{ t ) , developed across a

1-ohm load, is

2 Bf

Substituting this result into the formula for the output signal-to- noise ratio
given in Eq. (6.40), we get

3A? ( A/ ) 2
(SNR ) 0,FM
4AW3
3Atf
4 N 0W
where f = A f / W is the modulation index. Using Eq . (6.42) to evaluate the
corresponding figure of merit, we get

(SNR ) „ 3 4A
f
2

(SNR ) C FM 2\W
(6.43)
V
It is important to note that the modulation index ft = Af / W is determined by
the bandwidth W of the postdetection low -pass filter and is not related to the
sinusoidal message frequency fm, except insofar as this filter is usually chosen
so as to pass the spectrum of the desired message; this is merely a matter of
 consistent design. For a specified system bandwidth W, the sinusoidal mes-
sage frequency fm may lie anywhere between 0 and W and would yield the
same output signal-to-noise ratio.
It is of particular interest to compare the noise performances of AM
and FM systems. An insightful way of making this comparison is to consider
the figures of merit of the two systems based on a sinusoidal modulating sig-
nal. For an AM system operating with a sinusoidal modulating signal and
100 percent modulation, we have (from Example 6.1):
(SNR ) 0 1
(SNR ) C AM 3
Comparing this figure of merit with the corresponding result described in Eq .
(6.43) for an FM system, we see that the use of frequency modulation offers
the possibility of improved noise performance over amplitude modulation
when
3
P2 > -3
that is,

f>
V 2 = 0.471
3
We may therefore consider /1 = 0.5 as defining roughly the transition be -
tween narrowband FM and wide-band FM. This statement, based on noise
considerations, further confirms a similar observation that was made in Sec-
tion 4.3 when considering the bandwidth of FM waves.

CAPTURE EFFECT
The inherent ability of an FM system to minimize the effects of unwanted signals (e.g.,
noise, as discussed above) also applies to interference produced by another frequency-
modulated signal whose frequency content is close to the carrier frequency of the desired
FM wave. However, interference suppression in an FM receiver works well only when
the interference is weaker than the desired FM input. When the interference is the stron-
ger one of the two, the receiver locks onto the stronger signal and thereby suppresses the
desired FM input. When they are of nearly equal strength, the receiver fluctuates back
and forth between them. This phenomenon is known as the capture effect , which de-
scribes another distinctive characteristic of frequency modulation.

FM THRESHOLD EFFECT
The formula of Eq. (6.40) defining the output signal-to-noise ratio of an FM receiver is
valid only if the carrier-to-noise ratio, measured at the discriminator input, is high
compared with unity. It is found experimentally that as the input noise power is increased
so that the carrier-to-noise ratio is decreased, the FM receiver breaks. At first, individual
clicks are heard in the receiver output, and as the carrier-to-noise ratio decreases still
further, the clicks rapidly merge into a crackling or sputtering sound. Near the breaking
point, Eq. (6.40) begins to fail by predicting values of output signal-to-noise ratio larger
than the actual ones. This phenomenon is known as the threshold effect.1 The threshold is
defined as the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio yielding an FM improvement that is not
significantly deteriorated from the value predicted by the usual signal-to-noise formula
assuming a small noise power.

221