Unit–I 2

UNIT – 2

Unit 2: Includes
- Attitude: meaning and definition,
- Components of attitude
- Functions of attitude
- Formation of attitude and hanging of attitude, - Prejudice and attitude.
- Personality: meaning and definition,
- The big five personality model,
- The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator,
- Additional work related aspects of personality.
Objectives: Aim of this unit is to acquaint learners with the:
a. Concept, components and functions of Attitude
b. Process of forming and hanging attitude
c. Difference between prejudice and attitude
d. Concept of personality and the big five personality model
e. The Myers-Briggs type indicator and work related to aspects of personality
ATTITUDE: MEANING AND DEFINITION
Attitude is important variable in human behavior which helps in a person’s personality traits i.e.
optimistic or pessimistic, negative or positive etc.
According to Michael Hogg, “An attitude is a negative or positive evaluation of an object which
influences human’s behavior towards that object”.
Martin Fishbein defined attitude as “An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or
unfavorable manner towards people, an object, an idea or a situation”.
According to Stephen P Robbins, “Attitude are evaluative statements, either favorable or unfavorable
concerning objects, people or events.”
Schermerhorn says, “Attitudes is the predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to
someone or something in one’s environment.”
According to Newcomb, “Attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or
unfavorable manner with respect to given objective.”
Joseph Reitz says, “The word attitude describes a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular
way towards some objects.”
Unit–II 4

Often we come across different person, situations and things in our life and we form a certain kind of
view point for those persons, things or situation. That point of view may be positive or negative.
“Attitude is basically an examination of a person, thing or situation in terms of liking or disliking,
positive or negative and pro and anti”. Attitude mould a person’s behavior towards an object or a person
in a negative or positive way.
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
Famous psychologists, Rosenber, Eagley and Holand provided three components of Attitude:

Components
of Attitude

Cognitive Affective Behavioral

1. Cognitive component: This component is a combination of ideas, information, facts and knowledge
about a person or an object.
2. Affective component: In this component, it is the feelings or emotions towards an object or a person
which leads to liking or disliking, favoring or disfavoring.
3. Behavioral component: In this component, it is the behavior towards the object or a person.
5 Organizational Behaviour

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE

Characteristics of Attitude

Attitudes are learnt

Attitudes are predispositions

Attitude has an object

Attitude has an emotional

component

Attitude influence human behavior

Attitude is relatively stable

phenomena
1 Attitudes are learnt:
Attitude is learnt through experiences or social interaction or encounter of an event. It is not an inborn
phenomenon.
2. Attitudes are predispositions:
It is already formed opinion or predetermined on the basis of prior experience or information.
3. Attitude has an object:
It has an object (object can be an idea, a person or situation) which is favored or disfavored or analyzed
as positive or negative.
4. Attitude has an emotional component:
Attitude is having an emotional aspect in the form of like or dislike, or positive or negative.
5. Attitudes influence human behavior:
Attitude has all the power to mould the behavior of a person in a positive or negative form.
6. Attitude is relatively stable phenomena:
Attitude is basically a stable phenomenon which persists for a period of time. It does not change so
frequently.
FUNCTIONS OF ATTIUDE:
“Attitude allows us to respond to the individual or object in a meaningful way or manner.” It is
necessary to hold a certain kind of attitude because of the below mentioned functions:
Unit–II 6

Utilitarian

Functions of Ego
Knowledge
Attitude Defence

Value
Expressive

1. Utilitarian

An attitude has a utility to develop certain kind of behavior which helps a person to draw conclusions. It
is the attitude which helps one in obtaining reward or avoiding punishment. “A worker finds that when
he expresses a negative attitude towards his boss, his co-workers pay attention to and sympathies with
him, but when he expresses a positive attitude, he is ignored or chastened. The negative attitude is
instrumental in obtaining rewards (acceptance) and avoiding punishment (reflection)”.

2. Ego-defence

Individuals usually create these conducts to protect their own self-images. For example , a person may
feel discouraged in their organization by the employment or development of female employees and may
develop biases towards new employees as well. He may develop an attitude such as rookies being less
skilled or less experienced and may mistreat such workers, this is known as an attitude of ego protection
which is usually developed and used to cope with a sense of guilt or risk. That sort of mindset will
remain unchanged until it eliminates this feeling.

3. Value Expressive

The attitude of one is the reflection of his system of values and the value of expressive attitudes depends
on our concept of oneself. One who values freedom is the individual who expresses very positive
attitudes towards the organization's decentralization of authority and provides a cordial work
environment.
7 Organizational Behaviour

4. Knowledge

Knowledge pertaining to a particular object leads to a positive attitude towards that object and absence
of knowledge leads to negative attitude towards that object. In the absence of knowledge sometimes we
form stereotype attitude too.

FORMATION OF ATTITUDE

Individuals usually learn attitudes from various sources, it should be noted that attitudes are formed but
not inherited from them. Among the most significant attitude-gaining sources are:

Direct
experience with
the object

Classical
Mass
conditioning
communication
and Attitude

Formation
of
Economic Attitude Vicarious
condition and
learning
occupation

Family and Peer

Neighborhood
groups

1. Direct experience with the object

One can form attitude towards an object with the help of his direct exposure or direct experience of that
object. Employees, for example , generally form their attitude to jobs based on their previous
experiences. Attitudes can develop from an object experience which is personally rewarding or
punishable. And the attitude created by experience can hardly be modified.
Unit–II 8

2. Classical conditioning and attitude

One can also develop attitude with the help of classical condition. If an event occurs again and again, it
develops a different kind of learning and that will leads towards a particular kind of attitude.
Operant conditioning and Attitude acquisition
One can also develop an attitude with the help of operant conditioning. According to Skinner (1938),
“operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and
consequence”. According to this theory learning a behavior is usually followed by a reward or
punishment. Operant conditioning depicts that the behavior of an individual is depend on the kind of
different situations. Generally people used to act in a certain way when they get rewards and sometimes
people used to discourage actions from when they're not getting something. Such conduct may create a
particular sort of attitude.

3. Vicarious learning

One can also learn certain things by observing the behavior of other people which automatically develop
a certain kind of attitude. And this learning is known as vicarious learning in which a person learns by
observing behavior of others. For example watching TV, movies etc.

4. Family and Peer groups

A person may also learn the attitudes by imitating his or her parents or other family members. Even from
his party of peers too. If parents have a positive attitude toward a particular phenomenon, the child will
admire his parents, and it is evident that he will adopt a similar attitude, even without being told.
Similarly, behaviors in universities, schools, are learned from peer groups.

5. Neighborhood

Sometimes neighbors also play a significant role in developing a particular kind of attitude. Each and
every neighbor has something different value system or culture aspects which will automatically provide
a kind of impact on our personality.

6. Economic condition and occupation

The economic condition and work-related roles of one often lead a great deal to the creation of a certain
kind of behavior, and this will shape an attitude automatically. Our socio-economic history has a very
important part to play in our current and future attitudes.

7. Mass communication

Mass media like television, radio, newspaper, and magazines can also add a lot to somebody's
personality. Media coverage is designed to build a public attitude.
9 Organizational Behaviour

CHANGING OF ATTITUDE

Employee behaviors that operate within an organization may be modified because it is in the best
interest of the organization. Yet change is complicated, because there are some hurdles in it.

Hurdles to change

Usually people resist change of attitude because of balance and consistency theory of attitude.
Accordingly, a person wants their attitudes towards people and things to be in line with one another's
own acts and objects (i.e. safe, consistent). If habits aren't identical and consistent, people typically try
rewarding internally to eliminate differences.

The second barrier

When a person is bound by certain commitment or protocol then his attitude is really hard to change like
every organization has some different kind of value system, protocol etc.

The third barrier

Sometimes a person sees no strong cause or sufficient amount of information then that person finds it
difficult to change his attitude.

WAYS OF CHANGING ATTITUDE

There are certain ways for changing attitudes which are as follows:

1. Providing new information

When a person is well informed with all latest and accurate information about a particular object then
that person changes himself accordingly. New information always helps change attitudes. Once
employees become conscious of the fact that the management think about the welfare of the workers,
they modify their attitude and turn pro-management.

2. Use of Fear

Sometimes fear can prove to be a powerful weapon for changing attitude. The change will no doubt
depend on the degree of fear. Yet often people tend to become stubborn in their actions when they are
being challenged too far and people can fail to adjust.

3. Influence of friends or peers

Changes of attitude can also be influenced by friends or peers. Here credibility of the peers or friends
matters a lot. Peers or friends having high creditability put more influence on change.
Unit–II 10

4. The co-opting approach

Co-opting also can be an efficient means of changing habits. When people are unhappy with a particular
situation, and involve them in changing things. Co-opting can be the most effective form of changing
attitude.

5. Others

It is also found that a person is more likely to alter an attitude kept in private than one that he has
publicly mentioned.

Ways of changing
Attitude

Providing New
Information

Use of Fear

Influence of
friends or peers

The co-opting
approach

Others

ATTITUDE AND PREJUDICE

Many times people consider attitude and prejudice the same as both are people's feelings and
expressions, but there is a considerable difference between the two. Among all human beings attitude is
a very normal phenomenon. People usually have both positive and negative attitudes towards different
things, and they may favor something or not. While prejudice is a prejudice over something without
knowing the facts behind that particular situations or having exposed it to a situation's reality. Most of
the prejudice is contradictory with the actual situation. However, the fact remains that almost every
person can see both attitudes and prejudices. Gordon Allport described attitudes as "the most distinctive
and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology. Attitude is an important part of one's
personality and one's way of thinking is a very important basis for creating the kind of life we want to
live in. No doubt attitude and discrimination are both essential condition of one's personality and one's
way of thinking is a very important basis for creating the kind of life we want to live in. No doubt
attitude and discrimination are both essential condition of one's personality and both contribute to one's
11 Organizational Behaviour

behavior or lifestyle. They are still feeling emotional against someone;. Attitude may be targeted at a
individual, an event, a location, or a circumstance, but bias is targeted at a person of community.
Positive or negative disposition positive or unfavorable, but discrimination is often a negative felling.
Attitudes are usually developed after a full investigation into a particular issue or event or circumstance
or individual, while prejudice is founded on bias without any investigation being carried out. Prejudice
can be regarded as an attitude which is not established without examining the evidence. All attitudes and
biases can change over time as they are not ideologies of permanence. When people are aware of their
emotions, they can better control their behaviors and attempt to change them before it is demonstrated
by behaviour. Research evidence indicates a behavioral shift can alter values and attitudes.
PERSONALITY: MEANING AND DEFINITION
Personality is a term derived from the Latin word 'persona' which means mask or dress up. This is a mix
of certain characteristics or qualities which define the character of a person. This is a dynamic
phenomenon that combines many distinct human traits. It's hard to grasp as it has contextual personal
characteristics to it. Personality defines a person's recurring psychological patterns or emotions, feelings,
beliefs, and behavior. It represents the overall profile or combination of stable traits capturing a person's
unique nature.
Personality has components, internal as well as external. External characteristics or physical features are
measurable actions based on which we draw inferences about the personality of a individual. The inner
factors or cognitive characteristics are inherently more complex feelings, thoughts, ideas, values and
interests.
Definition
According to G W Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustment to his environment.”
According to R. B. Cattell, “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a
given situation.”
According to Hogan, “Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of behaviors and consistent
internal states that explain a person’s behavioral tendencies.”
According to Eysenck, “Personality is more or less a stable and enduring organization of a person’s
character, temperament, intelligence and physique which determine his unique adjustment to the
environment.”
According to Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization with the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”
According to Valentine, “Personality is the sum total of innate and acquired disposition.”
According to Child, “Personality refers to more or less stable, internal factors that makes one person’s
behavior consistent from one time to another and different from the behavior of other people would
manifest in comparable situations.”
Unit–II 12

Burges says, “Personality is an individual’s unique and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts
and feelings.”
Thus, personality is a reflection of the overall behavior of a person. It is the sum of all the actions and
reactions of a person towards other persons. Every person has a unique personality and they act in
different situations in a different way according to their personality traits. Every manager should have
understanding of personality dimensions of employees in order to manage them. Managers have to use
varied motivation techniques to influence the behavior of their employees.

Characteristics or Nature
of Personality

Psycho-physical System

Adjustment Ability

Uniqueness

Persistency

Goal Directed

THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MST')

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment questionnaire pinpoints varied
psychological preferences of people while decision making. This is a popular questionnaire containing
100 questions and is widely used to comprehend personalities' different work setting. This questionnaire
was developed by Isabel Myers and Katherine B based on their work with Carl Jung's theory of
personality type. This questionnaire inquires people about their feelings or actions in particular
situations. The MBTI helps in assessing personality types. It is a useful determinant of communication
preferences during management employees. It also assists in employing 'right person at the right job'
during selection process. The Four different scales of the questionnaire:

Extraversion (E) Sensing (S)

Introversion (I) Intuition (N)

Thinking (T) Judging (J)

Feeling (F) Perceiving (P)

On the basis of these four scales, the following 16 four letters code were generated
The sixteen personality traits according MBTI
ISTJ - The Inspector INFJ - The Advocate ESTP - The Persuader ENFP - The
13 Organizational Behaviour

Champion
ISTP - The Crafter INFP - The Mediator ESTJ - The Director ENFJ - The Giver
ISFJ - The Protector INTJ - The Architect ESFP - The Performer ENTP - The
Debater
ISFP - The Artist INTP - The Thinker ESFJ - The Caregiver ENTJ - The
Commander
These personality divisions provide an insight about the personality of a person or tendencies of his/her
behavior. According to the Myers & Briggs, it is important to note that every personality type has its
own merits and demerits. The strength and weaknesses of every individual should be considered in
group tasks to achieve the desired objectives.
THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY MODEL
The big five model of personality or popularly known as the ‘Big Five’ is a part of ‘Trait theories of
Personality’. Earlier trait theories illustrated variety of possible traits. Some of the popular theories are
“Gordon Allport's list of 4,000 personality traits, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors, and Hans
Eysenck's three-factor theory. The five core personality traits theory has been supported by many
researches such as D. W. Fiske (1949), Norman (1967), and Goldberg (1981). Robert McCrae and Paul
Costa (1987) later developed the Five-Factor Model, or FFM, which describes personality in terms of
five broad factors.” The big five personality model describes the essential traits that are the fundamentals
of personality of a person. Curiously, all five personality variables indicate a variation between two
extremes, i.e. high or low. Individuals in the real world normally fall between these two extremes
somewhere in between.
The five factors of this model or fives traits of the personality are:
1. Agreeableness
2. Extraversion
3. Conscientiousness
4. Neuroticism
5. Openness to experiences
Unit–II 14

Five Traits of
Personality

Agreeableness

Extraversion

Conscientiousness

Neuroticism

Openness to
experiences

A brief description of the above five factors are as follows:

1. Agreeableness: It applies to one person's willingness to get along with others. The trait is
characterized by confidence, collaboration, compassion and empathy. Those who are highly agreeable
value harmony more than just having a say or a way. They're cooperative, and trust other people. People
who concentrate more on their own needs than on acceptability needs of those who are weak.
15 Organizational Behaviour

Note: The acronym CANOE (for conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and
extraversion) is helpful while remembering the big five personality traits.
2. Extroversion: It represents the degree of comfort a person has with relationships. Extroverts are
sociable, talkative, assertive and open to new relations. Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, less
assertive, and more reticent about beginning new relationships.
3. Conscientiousness: This trait refers to the number of targets a person is focusing on. At one
point, a person of high conscience focuses on very few goals. Such individuals are believed to appear to
be well organized, cautious, responsible, self-disciplined, and centered. A person with low
conscientiousness tends to be less concentrated, and at one time may seek to accomplish several goals.
4. Neuroticism or Emotional stability: This personality trait centers on the ability of an individual
to cope with stress. Emotionally stable individuals tend to be calm, enthusiastic and secure. The
emotionally unstable person, on the contrary, appears to be anxious and deprived with insecurities.
5. Openness to Experiences: Creativity and innovation intrigue especially transparent humans.
They 're willing to listen to new ideas in reaction to new knowledge, and change their own ideas, beliefs
and attitudes. At the other hand, those with low levels of transparency tend to be less inclined towards
new ideas and less likely to change their minds, respectively. These do seem to be less adventurous and
have less and fewer focused interests.
The “Big Five” framework is considered valuable for managers as study of these personality dimensions
give them with the power to predict the behavior of individuals in certain situations.
However, there are many demographic, cultural, and environmental factors that influence the Big Five
traits. These factors should be taken into consideration while taking decisions based on The Big Five
Personality dimensions.
Unit–II 16

Several other Personality Measures or Traits

Self
Monitoring

Other
Proactive
Self Efficacy Personality
Personality
Traits

Self Esteem

In addition to the Big Five, researchers have suggested several other personality measures, or traits.
Things include self-monitoring, self-esteem, positive temperament and self-efficacy.
1. Self-Monitoring: It refers to the degree to which a person is capable in social contexts of
controlling his or her behavior and appearance. "People who are social monitors are social chameleons
who understand what the situation demands and act accordingly, while low social monitors tend to act
the way they feel (Snyder, 1974)".
2. Proactive personality: This refers to the desire of a person to correct what is wrong, to change
things and to use initiative to overcome problems. Rather of waiting to be told wlat to do, positive
people are taking steps to bring about real change and through the barriers that they face along the way.
Proactive individuals tend to be more effective in both work searches and career paths.
3. Self-esteem: It's the degree to which a person has positive feelings about himself or herself
overall. People with a high self-esteem take a positive view of themselves are confident and respect
themselves.
Those with low self-esteem, by comparison, experience high levels of self-doubt and challenge their
self-worth. High self-esteem is linked to higher levels of work satisfaction and higher levels of
performance on the job.
4. Self-efficacy: It is a belief that one can perform a specific task successfully. Evidence indicates
the assumption that anything we can do is a strong indicator of how we can actually do it. Self-efficacy
varies from other personality characteristics, since it is unique to the task. You may have a high degree
of self-efficacy in being academically effective but low self-efficacy with respect to your ability to
repair your car.
17 Organizational Behaviour

Factors Influencing development of Personality

Factors influencing development of

personality

Biological or
Environmental Psychological Situational
Hereditary

Physique, Social, Cultural, Mental

Intelligence, Geographical, Development,
Gender Family will power,
Environment attitude,

Relationship between Personality and Organizational Behavior

The study of personality has a significant impact on Organizational behavior. If an entrepreneur wants to
run his business organization successfully and smoothly, then it is very essential to understand the key
components of personality traits. To understand the concept of human behavior, one needs to understand
the different concepts of personality. And study of human behavior itself included in the study of
Organizational behavior. Many decisions are taken in an organization in which personality and their
traits play a significant role, it can be shown in the following diagram:

Matching Job with

people

Determining
Control System

Determining
Motivation System

Short Questions:
Unit–II 18

1. Define attitude.
2. Differentiate between prejudice and attitude.
3. Explain the meaning of personality.
4. What are the various components of attitude.
5. Define prejudice.
Long Questions:
1. What do you mean by the term personality? Explain the Big five Personality model in detail.
2. Write a detailed note on additional work related aspects of personality
3. What do you mean by attitude. Explain process of formation of attitude in detail
4. Explain the components of attitude and also explain function of attitude.
5. Define prejudice. In what ways prejudice is different from attitude.
 UNIT – 3

Unit 3: Includes
- Perception: meaning and definition,
- Process of Perception, - Factors influencing perception,
- Perceptual errors or distortions.
- Group Dynamics and Team Development: Group dynamics- definition and importance,
- Types of groups,
- Group formation,
- Group development,
- Group performance factors,
- Group norms,
- Group status,
- Group size, cohesiveness, social loafing.
- Team: types,
- Team composition factors,
- Team development.
Objectives: Aim of this unit is to acquaint students with the:
a. Meaning, process of perception and factors influencing perception
b. Meaning of Group dynamics, procedure of group formation, types of groups and group performance
factors
c. The concept team, types of team, composition of team and team development
PERCEPTION:
Perception can be characterized as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
measurable experiences so as to give sense to their situation. Whoever it may be, maybe what you see
may not be exactly the same as target reality. This doesn't have to be, but there's a daily difference e.g.:
It's possible that all members of an organization with an excellent working atmosphere, fantastic
working conditions, interesting job mission, great pay, understanding and diligent administration but, as
most of us know, discovering such a place of work is very shocking. Throughout OB’s investigation,
awareness is critical throughout light of the cons of individuals.
Unit–III 20

According to Joseph Reitz; “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives
information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.”
In the words of Luthens Fred, “Perception is an active psychological process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”
Udai Pareek said, “Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting, organising,
interpreting, checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.”
According to Rickey Griffin, “Perception is a set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of
and interprets information about the environment.”
Characteristics or nature of
perception

Mental Process

Subjective Process

Provides meaning to Stimulus

Activation Process

Provides check on behavior

Process of Perception:
There are three stages of perception process are;
1. Selection.
2. Organization.
3. Interpretation.

Process of Preception
Selection

Organization

Interpretation
• Selection
21 Organizational Behaviour

The world around us was packed with endless stimuli that we should follow, but our brains didn't have
the energy to pay attention to everything. And the first decision stage is to decide what we want. When
we pick one object in our universe, whether it's a smell, a feeling, a sound, or something else, it's the
stimulus that's being attended. Selecting is the first aspect of the perception process, where we
concentrate our attention on the sensory feedback that is coming in. In selection, we choose stimuli
which attract our attention. We focus on those that distinguish our senses (seeing, sound,smell, taste and
touch).
• Organization

When we have chosen to take care of stimuli in the world, and the option sets in our brain a sequence of
reactions. This neural process starts when our sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing)
are triggered. Organizing is the second part of the process of perception in which we sort and categorize
information we perceive based on cognitive patterns that are innate and learnt. Through using proximity,
similarity, and difference (Stanley, mo), we sort items into patterns three ways.
• Interpretation
Having attended to a stimulus, and having obtained and arranged the information from our minds, we
perceive it in a way that makes sense using our current knowledge. The word Interpretation means
we're taking the information we've sensed and organized and turning it into something we can classify.
We can better understand and react to the world around us by putting different stimuli into the
categories. Other experiences include sensing, arranging, and processing details about people and what
they are doing and doing. The feeling is a primary function of perception, because it relates to external
information. First of all the perceiver will pick what will be experienced in the perceptual phase.
Instead, as listeners recognize the type of sound and equate it with other sounds heard in the past, the
organization is retained. Interpretation and categorization are generally the most subjective areas of
perception, since they involve decisions as to whether listeners like what they hear and want to
continue listening. We conduct instant assessments that cause unconscious conclusions of positive and
negative reactions to others outside of our consciousness.
Selection, organization, and interpretation of perceptions can differ from one person to another. Based
on these, the perceptual performance of the perceiver implies varying beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, etc.
Therefore, when people react differently in a situation, by examining their perceptual process, they can
explain part of their behavior, and how their perceptions lead to their responses.
Factors Affecting Perception
Perception is the technique a man or woman uses to select, „oz and interpret facts to create a meaningful
picture. However, perception no longer relies solely on the physical stimulus but also on the relationship
between the stimulus and the surrounding environment and the conditions within the person. Perception
is a way by which people arrange and interpret their sensory perceptions to provide their environment
with what means.
How one perceives, however, can be significantly different from objective truth. It is the system that
selects, receives prepares and interprets the data from the outdoor surroundings to make it significant.
Unit–III 22

This input of significant selections and behavior resulting in the details. A number of elements work to
form and distort perception from time to time. These elements may live in the perceiver within the
perceived object or goal, or in the context of the situation in which the understanding is made.
When a person arrives at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, the perception is closely
influenced by the individual perceiver's personal traits.
Personal traits which affect perception consist of the attitudes, personalities, motivations, interests, past
experiences, and expectations of a individual.
There are certain elements that affect the goal like- novelty, motion, sounds, size, background,
proximity, similarity, etc.
The characteristics of the destination being determined will influence what is perceived. Since goals no
longer exist in isolation, the relationship between a goal and its context also affects interpretation, as
does our propensity to group dosing items together and comparable matters.
There are also certain situational factors, such as the time of perceiving others, work environments,
social settings, etc., which affect the process of perception.
Besides these: there are several separate elements such as perceptual learning which is entirely based on
previous experiences or any extraordinary training we receive: each of us learns to prioritize certain
sensory stimuli and ignore others.
Another issue is the mental set: which refers to being prepared or ready to acquire a certain sensory
input. This anticipation holds the disciplined man or woman with favorable attention and focus. The
understanding stage we have may also change how we perceive his or her behaviors.
For instance; if a person knows that his friend is being pressured for household troubles then she may
forget her snappy comments. Learning has an important perceptional effect.
In humans it generates anticipation. Additionally, the essence of the matters that must be interpreted is
an important factor. By nature we mean, whether or not the object is visible or audible, and whether or
not it includes images, persons or animals.
With the assistance of every human being's physiological and psychological characteristics, perception is
determined when feeling is conceived with only the physiological characteristics.
Therefore, perception is no longer simply what one sees through the eyes it is a far more complex
mechanism by which a person selectively absorbs or assimilates the stimuli in the world, cognitively
organizes the interpreted data into a specific pattern and then interprets the information to make an
assessment of what is happening in one's setting.
When a man or woman appears at a target and tries to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is
closely influenced by the perceiving person's personal characteristics.
Perception Errors
There are a few mistakes in perception which are describes as follows:
1. Illusion.
23 Organizational Behaviour

2. Hallucination.
3. Halo Effect.
4. Stereotyping.
5. Similarity.
6. Horn Effect.
7. Contrast.

Illusion

Contrast Hallucination

Perception
Errors
Horn Effect Halo effect

Similarity Stereotyping

Illusion
False thinking is delusion. The individual is going to botch an improvement here, and see it wrongly. In
darkness, for example, a rope is mixed up like a snake, or the other way around. An unknown
individual's voice is mixed up like the voice of a friend. An person that remains a way off and that may
not be seen as a recognized entity.
Hallucination
Wherever the individual sees any stimuli, it can't in present in any situation. This mystery is called
Hallucination. The person may see an object, a person, and so on, or he may hear some voice out, but
there are actually no articles and sounds.
Halo effect
Individuals are evaluated on the basis of apparent positive quality, aspect, or function. A corona impact
works when we draw a general impression about a person based .4 for example, on a solitary trademark,
knowledge, friendliness or appearance. In the end of the day, that is the tendency to score a man
consistently high or low in different characteristics on the off chance that he is exceedingly high or low
in one specific attribute: if a worker does not have several unfortunate shortcomings, his boss will award
him a high rating in any other region of work.
Unit–III 24

Stereotyping
Individuals will typically fall into a general class based on physical or social characteristics in either
situation, and then they are assessed. We use the simple route called stereotyping at the point where we
judge others based on our understanding of the gathering that the individual has a place to.
Similarity
Frequently, individuals will in general search out and rate all the more emphatically the individuals who
are like themselves. This propensity to affirm of comparability may make evaluators give better
appraisals to representatives who show similar interests, work techniques, perspectives or models.
Horn Effect
At the point where the person is judged solely on the basis of an obvious negative attribute or highlight.
These findings are lower than an acceptable rate in a general ranking. He can't spruce up in the office,
which is why he could possibly grind away too.
Contrast
The propensity to rate individuals comparative with others instead of to the individual execution the
individual is doing. Or maybe will assess a representative by contrasting that worker's exhibition and
different workers.
Group Dynamics
A group is when "two or more people share a common definition and evaluation of themselves and
behave in accordance with such a definition." (Vaughan & Hogg, 2002, Page 200).
According to Keith Davis – “The social process by which people interact face to face in small groups is
called group dynamics. It is concerned with the interaction of individuals in a face to face relationship. It
focuses on team work, wherein small groups are constantly in contact with each other and share their
ideas to accomplish the given tasks.”
Importance of Group Dynamics
The following importance of group dynamics as under:
The group can influence the way it believes the members. The leaders are often informed by other
leaders interacting within the party. Compared to a group with a bad leader, a group with a strong leader
makes good.
1. The group will provide the impact of collective effort, i.e. if the collective is made up of positive
thinking then each time its performance is more than double.
2. Apart from that, group dynamism can give the individuals work fulfillment.
3. Group may also impart the spirit of the team among members.
4. Also members' attitudes & ideas depend on group dynamism. For example, with the help of the
facilitator negative thinkers convert to positive thinkers.
25 Organizational Behaviour

Types of Group
A common way of classifying a group is through whether they are formal or informal in nature or not.
Formal working groups are set up to achieve Organizational goals through an organization. Also, formal
groups could take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. It is decided by
using the Organizational chart that depicts accepted formal connections within an organization between
persons. Examples of command group are managers and faculty members in a business school, college
managers and teachers, manufacturing supervisors and supervisors, and so on.

Types Of Groups

Command Groups Task Groups Functional Groups

1. COMMAND GROUPS
Through the aid of the Organizational map, command groups are assured, and sometimes consist of a
supervisor and the subordinates who report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is the
president of the academic division and the representatives of the faculty within that department.
2. TASK GROUPS
Task groups consist of people working collectively to attain a common task. Members are collectively
added to achieve a narrow variety of goals within a specified period of time. Task groups are often
referred to as task forces, too. The organization appoints members and assigns the targets and duties to
be fulfilled. Examples of assigned tasks include the development of a new product, the enhancement of a
production process or the motivational contest proposal.
3. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
With the support of the enterprise a functional group is formed to accomplish dear objectives within an
unspecified time frame. Functional organizations remain in place until existing goals d priorities have
been accomplished. Examples of functional group may be a department for advertising and marketing, a
department for the customer service, or an accounting department.
Unlike formal groups, informal groups are shaped naturally and responsively to individuals' common
interests and shared values. They are created for purposes other than the attainment of Organizational
objectives and no longer have a specified time frame. Informal groups may have a significant effect both
pleasant and negative in groups. Informal groups may take the font of interest groups, groupings of
friendships or reference groups.
Unit–III 26

• Informal Group –
There are different types of informal groups:

Types of
Informal Groups

Interest
Groups

Friendship
Groups

Reference
Groups
1. INTEREST GROUPS.
Interest groups generally go on over time, and may also end longer than general informal groups.
Furthermore, leaders of interest groups may not be in the same Organizational department process today,
but they are certain collectively by some shared interest. Team hobbies' aspirations and ambitions are
special to each group and can no longer be aligned with corporate expectations and goals. College
students who work together to create a community learning for a particular class will be an example of
an interest group.
2. FRIENDSHIP GROUPS
Friendship groups are influenced by members sharing common social events, political views, oral
values, or different regular bonds. Members enjoy the company of each other, and meet frequently to
engage in these events after work. For example, as soon as a month, a group of employees structuring a
friendship group may also have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch. Friendship groups
enhance things to do or stage the office drama among the Organizational members when they share
some common hobby such as taking part in certain sports activities, etc.
3. REFERENCE GROUPS
A reference category is kind of a category that people use to find themselves. The fundamental purposes
of the reference groups, Cherrington says, are social validation and social comparison. Public approval
encourages people to explain their behaviors and beliefs and public affirmation enables individuals to
understand their own actions by comparing themselves against others. Reference classes have a
significant impact on the actions of members. Through discussing themselves with other stakeholders,
individuals will evaluate if their conduct is acceptable or not, and whether their behaviors and beliefs are
right or wrong.
Group Development
27 Organizational Behaviour

Stages of Group Development

Forming

Storming

Norming

Performing

Adjourning

According to the Five-Stage Model of group development, groups go through five distinct stages during
the process of its development. These are as follows:
1. Forming is the early stage of community growth where the group leaders come in touch with
each other first and get to know each other. This stage is primarily characterized by a feeling of
confusion among the group participants as they are now trying to develop floor policies and relationship
patterns among themselves.
2. Storming is the next stage characterized by a high level of conflict between the members.
Members often show greater animosity to each other and resist influence by the chief. If such disputes
are no longer resolved correctly, the community can also dissolve additionally.
Nonetheless, usually the group ends up in phrases with all the specific and recognizes the position of
leadership at this stage's giving up.
3. Norming is the third stage of the group growth process at some point where the individuals of the
group come closer to each other and the group continues to act as a cohesive unit. The group members
now identify with the group and share a responsibility to achieve the group's desired stage of success.
The standardization stage is complete when members of the community can set a common goal and
decide on how to accomplish it.
4. Performing is the fourth stage when the group is prepared to start its work sooner or later. As the
group is now fully formed after their intemal acceptance and sharing responsibility conflicts, pave been
resolved, they can now devote strength to achieving their goals.
5. Adjouming is the closing stage when the group starts to dissolve itself periodically after meeting
the goals for which it was once formed.
Unit–III 28

Group Performance Factors

A group is described as two or more interacting and independent individuals who have collectively come
to attain specific goals. With the assistance of certain significant variables or influences, group habits are
influenced or influenced. The principal variables are:
1. Formal leadership:
Virtually every task force has a structured chief. Superior, foreman, mission chief, department manager,
general manager, chairman or managing director etc. are the general titles of such leaders. Such leaders
may play an important role in the success of the party. Furthermore they are responsible for group loss.
2. Roles:
The world is a stage, with all men and women simply being players. All individuals in groups are actors;
they enjoy distinctive kinds of roles. A function is a projected action in a social unit at a given position.
Specific groups place extraordinary positions on particular individuals. In a community, we can have
unique ideas about function.

Formal
Leadership

Group
Roles
Cohesion

Group
Performance
Factors
Composition
of the Group Norms

Group
Group Size
Status

Role identity: there are positive behaviors and attitudes that are consistent with a position. This is called
identity of role.
• Perception of the role: Team leaders want perception of the role. Task comprehension in an
individual's understanding of how he or she will behave in a given situation.
29 Organizational Behaviour

• Role expectations: Role expectations are described as how others behave in a given situation when
one needs to act.
• Role conflict: Role conflict is a scenario in which a man or woman is confronted through
expectations of a divergent role.
3. Norms:
Both classes have certain norms set up. Norms refer to suitable behavioral requirements that are shared
by members of the group. Formalized principles are written in corporate documents, and certain rules
and legislation are guaranteed to be followed by all individuals within an organization. But in
organizations most norms are informal.
4. Group status:
Status may also be described, through others, as a social rank or position given in a group. We live in a
community organized by categories. Status is important to leaders of the party.
5. Group size:
The group dimension determines the ordinary overall performance or behavior of the group. Small
groups are faster at assignment finish than big ones. If the group is influenced by problem solving, the
best for small groups is to large groups. So if the aim of the hand is to achieve productivity, smaller
groups are better.
6. Composition of the group:
Since group is affiliation with variety of abilities and knowledge of unique kinds of humans. If a group is
heterogeneous in terms of age , gender, ethnicity, educational background, attitudes , beliefs, abilities,
and expertise as an alternative to homogeneous, it can be tremendous to a job as a whole.
7. Group cohesion:
The degree to which individuals are attracted to each other and inspired to remain in the group is known
as group cohesiveness. The cohesiveness of group behavior is considerably affected by the use of group.
The following suggestions can make cohesiveness of a larger group: i. the group smaller
a. Make Increase the members spend together
b. Encourage agreement about group goals
c. Increase the status of the group
d. Stimulate opposition with different group
e. Give reward to the group rather than the members
f. Physically isolate the group
Social loafing
Social loafing refers to people 's propensity to put even less energy into functioning within a group
context. This phenomenon, further considered to be the Ringelmann effect, was first cited in 1913
through the French agricultural engineer Max Ringelmann. In one study, in my view, and in groups, he
had human beings pull on a rope. He concluded that as the number of pulling people grew, the overall
pulling pressure of the group used to be much less than the effort of the individual had been when
measured alone.
Unit–III 30

Teams and Types of Teams

Teams have a wide variety of things to do. They will produce products, provide services, conclude deals,
plan projects, advise and take decisions. The four most popular types of groups that you are likely to
find in an organization are defined aptly throughout this section: problem-solving teams, self-managed
work teams, cross-fiction teams and virtual teams.

Problem
Solving
Team

Project Types of Multifunct

Team Team ional Team

Self
Managed
Team

1. Problem-Solving Teams
The feedback or offer suggestions about how to develop work strategies and approaches in
problemsolving teams. Rarely, however, are such teams allowed to arbitrarily bring all of their supported
behavior into law. Some of the most widely practiced functions of problem-solving teams at some point
in the 1980s was once great circles that are working teams of eight to ten workers and managers who
have a common place of duty and typically meet to address their best issues, see why the problems
occur, propose solutions, and take corrective action.
2. Multifunctional teams
There are teams made up of around the same hierarchical level of workers, but from distinct areas of
work that come together to accomplish a task. The goal was to improve verbal communication and job
tracking, leading to better productivity and more happy customers.
3. Self-managed teams
Self-managed teams work in many departments to organize complex tasks involving research , design,
process creation, and even resolution of Organizational problems , particularly for cross-departmental
projects involving people of similar age. Although a self-managed team's internal leadership style is
fantastic from ordinary management and helps to neutralize the often-related problems with ordinary
leadership styles, a self-managed group also needs to assist senior management to function effectively.
Additionally, the teams which are self-managed can be interdependent or independent. Of course, the
mere mistreatment by a self-managed team of a team of people does not make them both a team and self
managed.
31 Organizational Behaviour

4. Project teams
Also known as an enterprise team will be a team which was used solely for a given period of time and
for a specific, clearly definable purpose. Typically managers label human groups as "teams" based
primarily on having a common goal. Members of these teams may belong to different groups, but tasks
for the same project may be assigned, allowing outsiders to see them as a single entity.
Short Questions:
1. Define perception
2. Explain the perceptual errors?
3. What do you mean by group dynamics?
4. Explain the term team.
5. Explain the concept of social loafing?
6. What do you mean by group performance factors?
7. Define group. Long Questions:
1. Define perception and also explain the factors which influence perception?
2. What is group dynamics? What are the types of groups?
3. Explain the stages of group formation?
4. Explain the team types and stages of team development?
5. Describe in details the types of groups and also explain process of group formation.
6. Write a detailed note on team development.
7. What do you mean by team. Also explain the team composition factors in detail.
 UNIT – 4

Unit 4: Includes
- Organizational Conflict: Dynamics and management;
- Sources of Organizational conflict,
- Patterns, levels, and types of conflict;
- Traditional and modern approaches to conflict; - Functional and dysfunctional
Organizational conflicts;
- Resolution of conflict.
- Organizational development: Concept; - Need for change, resistance to change;
- Theories of planned change;
- Organizational diagnosis;
- OD intervention.
Objectives: Aim of this unit is to acquaint students with the:
a. Meaning and concept of Organizational conflict, sources of Organizational conflict
b. Concept of patterns, levels, types, resolution and approaches of conflict
c. Meaning and concept of Organizational development
d. Need for change, resistance to change and theories of planned change
e. Organizational diagnosis and Organizational development intervention
Organizational Conflict
In easy words Organizational conflicts may be defined as “a situations in which there is a breakdown in
decision making, just because of irrational and incompatible stand taken by one or all concerning parties
to decision making.”
James D. Thompson defines, “conflict as Organizational conflict is that behavior by the Organizational
members which is expanded in opposition to other members.”
As per S. P. Robbins, “Conflict has been defined as referring to all kinds of opposition antagonistic
interaction.”
Joseph Reetz states, “In an organization, conflict can be described as a break down or disruption in
normal activities in such a way that the individual concerned experience difficulty in working together”.
33 Organizational Behaviour

In general, the conflict is viewed as something negative and harmful to any organization. This is
essentially accurate but the full reality is not. In order to understand conflict in Organizational behavior,
we first have to consider various strategies or conflict perspectives.
There are three different views as regards confrontation, or we may say approaches. They are:-

Organizational
Conflict

Point of view of
Traditional Interactioninsts
human
Point of View point of view
relations

Functional Dysfunctional
Conflict Conflict

1. The traditional point of view: This implies that some sort of dispute is evil, and therefore
should be avoided. In the conventional view, the word had a negative connotation. It was widely viewed
as the result of a lack of good communication and trust between people and managers' inability to
understand and respond to the needs of employees who are dependent on them.
2. The point of view of human relations: According to this approach, conflict is an inevitable
natural phenomenon and therefore cannot be eliminated from any organization altogether. The conflict
was viewed in a positive light here, as it was suggested that this could lead to an improvement in a
group's performance.
3. Interactionist point of view: The most recent approach, i.e. the interactionist viewpoint, says
that for a group to function effectively a certain level of conflict is very necessary. A harmonious and
cooperative community can become stagnant, indifferent, and may not meet evolving and creativity
requirements. Under this context, disputes can be divided into two categories:-
A) Functional form of conflict-This is also known as a positive form of conflict, as it respects the
goals and priorities of the party.
B) Dysfunctional form of conflict - This is often called destructive form of conflict, since this type
of conflict has a detrimental effect on a group's results, which in turn directly or indirectly affects the
organization.
On the basis of the following three components, the functional form of the conflict can be distinguished
from the dysfunctional form of the conflict:
Unit–IV 34

1. Task conflict-Is linked to the work's material and objectives.

2. Relational friction-This has to do with interpersonal relations.
3. Process method-It is connected to the way the research is performed
The varying studies revealed this:
A) Conflict rates of low to moderate activities are good for the community and the company as they
promote exchange of ideas, which leads to improved engagement and performance.
B) A low degree of process friction is often useful in successfully making things happen.
C) Conflicts over relationships have typically proven damaging. Ego disputes and workplace rivalries
also affect the organization..
Sources for Organizational Conflict

Sources of
Organizational
Conflict

Administrative
Expectations

Communication
Disturbance

Misconception

Absence of
Accountability

1. Administrative Expectations:
Representative is expected to accomplish the aims, imposed by his / her superior, and clashes arise when
such expectations are misconstrued or not fulfilled within the stipulated period.
2. Communication Disturbance:
35 Organizational Behaviour

One of the main causes for difficulty in the workplace is communication disturbance, for example in the
event that one individual requests some data from another, which does not respond accordingly,
difficulty starts in the association.
3. Misconception:
Data confusion can also reduce contest in association, as in case one person misinterprets any data, it can
cause dispute resolution.
4. Absence of accountability:
If in an undertaking responsibilities are unsatisfactory and any slip-up has arisen, in which no person
from the community may also transform into a cause for difficulty within the organization to assume
liability needs.
The reasons for Organizational conflict are to be referred to determine them as right on time as could be
expected under the circumstances, since it prevents the proficiency, adequacy and profitability of the
workers and the organization too, which at last hampers its prosperity.
Patterns of conflict
The following various patterns of conflicts in an organization can be primarily viewed as under:
1. Behavioral Pattern 2.
Structural Conflict, and
3. Resource.

Behavioral
Pattern

Patterns
of
Conflict
Structural
Resource
Conflict

1. Behavioral Pattern:
Unit–IV 36

In a large portion of the organization, it has been seen that the issues are mostly identified with people.
For instance, singular clashes show because of different causes like unsatisfactory quality, vulnerability
and contrariness. At the point when an individual aims for the outcome and doesn't get it, it gets
contradictory with a goal to accomplish.
In this manner, there is no fulfillment. Unsuitability and vulnerability are constantly observed among the
people because of different reasons.
A conflict between people can come up as a result of:
(I) Frustration, and (ii)
Goal conflict.
(I) Frustration:
This happens in a person's standard of conduct, when his motivational drives are prevented preceding to
arriving at the desired objective. Disappointment prompts numerous other mental issues like dynamic
and emotional vulnerability to discover legitimate other options. The solution for such circumstances is
fitting inspiration of the person to acknowledge the choices to maintain a strategic distance from clashes.
(ii) Goal Conflict:
Wherever a state of competing goals exists, it creates conflict between individuals, for one is not in a
position to select from appropriate agenda to strike collaboration acceptable to all.
Similarly, there might be various associations having their own philosophies. The perspectives on these
associations and the administration may not be comparative. Along these lines, to the greatest advantage
of the association, the administration and associations may need to work together for smooth working.
Joint effort is very basic when accomplices are committed to various responsibilities and a trade off may
unfavorably influence their inclinations.
2. Structural Conflict:
Structural conflict in an organization can be divided into four main
heads: i. Hierarchical ii. Functional iii. Line and staff, and iv.
Formal and informal.
37 Organizational Behaviour

Structural Conflict

Hierarchical Functional

Formal and
Line and Staff
Informal

i. Hierarchical Conflict –
It is those conflicts, which exist with various degrees of the board of an association. For instance, the top
management may struggle with the center management.
ii. Functional Conflict –
This surface between different useful divisions of the organization. For example, production division
having conflict with the marketing division.
iii. Line and staff Conflict –
This might be expressed as the contention between individuals from line and individuals from the staff.
This regularly happens, for the staff individuals have no authority over the line the executives.
iv. Formal and Informal conflict –
This, as is normally done, happens between formal association and informal association existing in a
foundation.
Formal Organizations are organized to give, the hierarchical interest. They are typically framed to
accomplish explicit assignment of an association. They are shaped under proper guidelines and
guidelines. While informal associations are made for fulfilling the different social needs. Here the
conflict happens on occasion when 'Hierarchical Needs' and 'Social Needs' conflicts one another.
Levels of conflict
Conflict rates of Organizational actions differ between micro- and macro-levels. The intra-individual
conflict is located at the micro level, that is, the conflict which occurs within an person for different
reasons. It is the most basic form of conflict where an person finds himself confronted.
The following factors can lead to an intra-individual conflict-
A) Due to frustration -Some kind of physical or mental interference contributes to disappointment
in him in the way of a person's goals. Unless it stems from jobs, this anger can contribute to workplace
hostility and abuse. The reasons can range from an abusive boss to a job that is dead end without
prospects for development. Frustration can lead to positive results as, depending on the situation, the
Unit–IV 38

individual can make more effort to meet their goals or make improvements to their goals. But the
frustration is not good in most cases and so the organization must try to eliminate it.
B) Conflict of objectives -It results from two or more reasons to block an person. When a
individual has-it happens
• Goal which is both positive and negative.
• Two or more goals which are constructive yet mutually exclusive.
• They prefer to avoid two or more negative, however mutually exclusive, targets. The positive
characteristics of an Organizational objective at the very beginning are more dominant than the
negative according to psychology. But as the target gets closer, the negatives begin to become more
important to the person. The point where the approach equals avoidance is when the individual
develops tension, indecision, depression or reluctance and other such mixed feelings; which is
detrimental to his as well as organization.
c) Role conflict and ambiguity - The role is characterized as a position the expectations of which
develop set standards. Different roles are associated with different expectations and requirements
which sometimes lead to conflicting roles. There are three types of disputes over positions-• Between
person and role-refers to the differences between the attributes of a person's personality and the
expectations associated with that role.
• Intrarole- An ambiguous situation arises for the person because of conflicting expectations
about how to play a given role.
• Interrole- Due to the specific requirements of 2 or more positions to be played concurrently,
contradictions occur between positions. This occurs mainly in the case of professional and
nonprofessional roles. For example, a working mother has two separate roles at home and in the office.
Interactive conflict (macro level)-This includes both individual and group conflicts.
1. Interpersonal conflict-between two parties is the most common type of conflict in any or organization.
The interpersonal conflict has four main reasons
A) Differences between people of different backgrounds, culture and family , education and values.
B) Communication failure in the organization.
C) Unlike their interdependent duties and responsibilities, the contradictory positions of managers;
D) An atmosphere characterized by tension in the workforce, downsizing, market competitiveness and
instability often contribute to conflict
2. Behavior and conflict between groups –“This is the conflict between members of one group and
members of another. The reasons for this may be:-
A) Competition for organization's limited resources, such as money, space, labour, etc.
B) Its objectives and priorities differ.
C) Ambiguity on the part of the group's responsibility and authority;
39 Organizational Behaviour

D) Jealousy between groups or unequal treatment of a group with regard to bonuses, assignments,
conditions of employment, rights, etc.”
Resolution of conflict
There are following ways to manage the conflicts are:

Resolution of
Conflict

Collaborate

Compromise

Accomodating

In
Competition

To avoid

1. Collaborate
It follows "I win, you win" rule. Collaborating means working together through the incorporation of
ideas shared by different individuals. The aim here is to find a creative solution that is acceptable to all.
It requires a significant commitment of time but is not suitable for all the conflicts.
Example-A business person can work with the manager to develop policies, but joint decisions about
office supplies are spending more time on other activities.
2. Compromise
It applies the 'You fold, I fold' rule Compromise means adapting to other people's opinions and ideas,
and thinking of a solution where both parties can hear specific points. Equally, both parties must
abandon some of their ideas and agree with each other.
Example-Two friends have clashed and, by mutual understanding, they agree to reconcile.
Unit–IV 40

3. Accomodating
This follows the "I lose, you win" rule Adapting means giving up thoughts and ideas so that the other
party wins and ends the conflict.
Example-We decide to let them win when we compete with someone we love.
4. In competition
It applies the "I win, you lose" rule Competition means a individual or community is reluctant to
cooperate or change in the event of a conflict, but wants the opposing party to lose.
Example-The party with the most evidence wins during a debate.
5. To avoid
It follows "no winners, no losers" rule. We have resisted implies that proposals proposed by both sides
have been ignored and a third party that decides without endorsing either side.
Example-Rahul and Rohit fought, their mother came and they both were punished.
Organizational Change
“Change refers to any modification that happens in the entire work environment. Generally humans are
used to a well-established lifestyle, and any shift in or deviation from that lifestyle can often be
considered a change. Transition can either be very simple just like changing the workplace field, or it
can also be a more complex technical transition that can even challenge certain people's very life in the
company.”
"The term change refers to any alteration which occurs work surroundings of an organization."
The further definition "When an Organizational system is disturbed by means of some inner or exterior
force, change often occurs. Change, as a process, is clearly changed of the structure or process of a
system. It may be good or bad, the concept is descriptive only”.
The Need for Planned Change
If there is a need for change due to two kinds of powers, expected change takes place within an
organization. These forces are grouped into inner and outer sources.
• Internal factors contributing to a scheduled change of organization, consisting of obsolescence of
output and service, emerging business prospects, new strategic strategy, increased diversity of the
workforce and changing socio-cultural values.
• External forces leading to a deliberate Organizational change consisting of regulators,
competitors, market forces, customers and technology. All of these forces can generate urgent demand
for change in small or large, public or private, corporate or non-commercial organizations.
Process/ Theory of Planned Change
When the management wants to implement any Organizational changes, it wishes to be carried out
cautiously because this is a very sensitive topic. Adapting to change is very important for all of the
41 Organizational Behaviour

employees. The expected Organizational change is being implemented in three different stages
according to Kurt Lewin. You are –
Stages of Planned Change

Unfreezing

Changing

Refreezing
1. Unfreezing –
At this point, where the change is needed or not, the company studies whether and why the change is
necessary. Considering the situation as a whole, the organization decides for an appropriate change. As
required a plan and approach is formulated.
2. Changing –
The organization is executing the change plan and programme at this stage. To this end, sufficient steps
are taken to ensure cohesion and collaboration between the staff and management, preventing
miscommunication or conflicts. Adequate supervision and control shall be structured as required.
3. Refreezing –
To convey Organizational change, this is the ultimate stage. The company is attempting to evaluate the
feasibility of the transition by means of oversight. When the management collects all this material, it
interprets whether or not to continue with or replace change by any other alternatives or to make more
minor changes.
Resistance to Organizational Change:
Change resistance can be one of the puzzling problems a manager faces because of the fact that it may
take several forms. People may also leave, they may also show lateness, lack of motivation to work,
increased absenteeism, transfer demands, wild-cat strikes, shoddy work, productivity reduction etc.
Resistance to change may also be labeled as:
1. Industrial Resistance
2. Organizational Resistance
1. Industrial Resistance:
Unit–IV 42

Individual resistance might also be there due to the fact of the following reasons: A.
Economic Reasons:
(a) Obsolescence of Skills:
When a man or woman feels his abilities will simply become obsolete with the introduction of newer
processes: he will resist the change. A twenty-year professional accountant, for example: is more likely
to face the implementation of a pc to plan wage payments due to the fact that he thinks his salary and
status may be affected.
(b) Economic loss scare:
People face change because it opens the risk of directly or indirectly cutting their earnings. B.
Personal reasons for doing so:
(a) Defensiveness to the Ego:
A sales manager can often honestly refuse a salesman's advice because the manager perceives his ego
may be deflated by accepting the suggestion.
(b) Quo Status. Most human beings fed relaxed with the status quo and resist change strongly. as it may
also contain uncertainty and risk.
(c) Afraid of Unknown:
Transition brings with it unknown and expected threats and sores people regularly. A manager may also
refuse to promote that requires his relocation to some other state, for unknown concern. C. Social
Considerations:
(a) Social displaced persons: The implementation of change (e.g. relocation) may also result in the
dissolution of working groups and, for that reason, in disruption of people's established social ties.
(b) Peer issuing: Whenever the peers are reluctant to change, they force the individual subordinate
workers bent to embrace the transition, to oppose it.
2. Organizational Resistance:
Additionally, resistance may also be present at the Organizational level. Many organizations are built so
that they can stand up to innovation. Some of the motives of Organizational resistance are:
(a) Threats to Power and Influence: Many people (especially sitting at the top levels) face change as
they undergo a shift that can affect their organization's role, influence, and effect.
(b) Organizational Composition: Many Organizational frameworks (e.g., hierarchical structure) have
mechanisms built in to alter resistivity.
(c) Resource Constraints: Failure to access financial, content, and human capital may also serve as a
resistance to change.
43 Organizational Behaviour

(d) Cost of sinking: In some firms the constant or permanent assets block heavy capital. When such
a organization needs to implement improvement, otherwise problems occur because of the fact that these
costs have sunk down.
Organizational Diagnosis
Dr. D. Dutta Roy, Ph.D. defines “Organizational diagnosis is a process based upon behavioral science
theory for publicly entering a human system, collecting valid data about human experiences with that
system, and feeding that information back to the system to promote increased understanding of the
system by its members (Alderfer, 1981). Purpose of Organizational diagnosis is to establish a widely
shared understanding of a system and based upon that understanding to determine whether change is
desirable.”
Organizational Development
“Organizational development is a topic of study, theory, as well as a practice committed to improving
understanding and effectiveness of how people achieve positive organizational change and production.”
Organizational development is no longer a transition in a single day that can be completed in an
organization, but rather a gradual process that needs to be achieved gradually and with the aid of taking
care of the outside world.
Organization Development Techniques/ Interventions
Organizations follow the methodology of Organizational improvement to modify the actions of certain
individuals who oppose change. It is an application for bringing about a change in human slues, norms,
attitudes, perception and behavior and for improving the quality of interpersonal relations. Some of the
major systemic development strategies are —
1. Sensitivity Technique
Sensitivity refers to the psychological dimension of the human mind which has to be formed by the
community to behave as anticipated. Through this strategy it reveals one's own vulnerability d
participants understand how others respond to it. Stress is about group dynamics and resolving conflicts
over interrelationships. The intention is to improve human actions with the goal of maintaining a smooth
interpersonal relationship without any power or control. Members are encouraged to have an open,
heart-to-heart talk for healthy relationship growth. Training in sensitivity borders on psychotherapy,
where both the feelings and the body language are considered.
2. Survey Feedback
In this technique, the discrepancies between groups are weeded out by using questionnaires that perceive
the difference in perception between the same working family, group or department. The data obtained
are then tabulated and allocated for further deliberation. These acts as the basis for further discussions
and discrepancies if any can be resolved through open discussions with all concerned, defending and
opposing until there is consensus. For most cases, this approach focuses on concepts and now not on
people who put forward these concepts.
3. Process Consultation
Unit–IV 44

Through this strategy, a organization can also also search for expert assistance from inside the
organization or from outside. The firm will look at the process consultation is performed by an external
specialist with the required assistance from within the company given by the authorities.
4. Building a team,' Team Building
Attempts at group or intergroup level are made in this technique. The key aim is to enhance teamwork
while enhancing the overall performance as a group. This can be achieved by setting goals: building
interpersonal relationships, evaluating roles and responsibilities to interpret roles and responsibilities as
well as examining team processes. 5. Intergroup Development
Intergroup development approach aims to alter group beliefs about themselves or about other groups.
This can be done with the help of organizing unbiased group meetings: creating a list consisting of
selfperception, views of other departments and how others view them: trying to recognize and solve the
real cause of conflicts, or sub-grouping the groups to get rid of the difference in perceptions and
impressions that groups have about each other.
Short Questions:
1. Define Organizational conflict.
2. What do you mean by Organizational development
3. Define change.
4. Explain the term Organizational development intervention.
Long Questions:
1. Define Organizational conflict.
2. Define Organizational conflict? Explain the sources and patterns of conflict?
3. How to resolve the Organizational conflict?
4. Explain the approaches of the Organizational conflict?
5. What do you mean by Organizational change? Why need for change is arises in organization?
6. Explain the process of planned change?
7. Define Organizational development? Explain the also Organizational development interventions?