Q What is IoT?

Give an Overview

**The **Internet of Things (IoT)** is a vast network of

interconnected physical devices, objects, and systems
embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies
that allow them to collect, exchange, and process data
over the internet. These devices can range from everyday
household items like smart thermostats, refrigerators, and
fitness trackers to complex industrial machines, vehicles,
and even entire city infrastructures. The core idea of IoT is
to enable objects to "sense" their environment,
communicate with other devices, and make intelligent
decisions without requiring direct human intervention.

IoT devices typically gather data from their environment

through sensors, which can monitor a wide variety of
conditions such as temperature, motion, humidity,
location, and more. This data is then transmitted over the
internet, often to cloud-based platforms or edge devices,
where it can be analyzed in real-time or stored for future
use. The ability to connect and communicate remotely
allows IoT applications to operate in a fully automated
manner, improving efficiency, convenience, and
productivity.

The scope of IoT applications is vast and spans multiple

industries. In the **consumer sector**, it powers smart
homes, where devices like lights, security systems, and
appliances can be controlled via smartphones or voice
commands. In **healthcare**, IoT enables remote
monitoring of patients, tracking vital signs, and managing
medical devices for better care. In **agriculture**, IoT
helps optimize irrigation, monitor crop health, and manage
livestock, leading to more sustainable farming practices.
In **manufacturing**, IoT is used for predictive
maintenance, asset tracking, and process optimization,
making factories smarter and more efficient.
Q Explain the flavors of IOT.
The **Internet of Things (IoT)** refers to a network of
physical devices connected to the internet, which can
communicate and exchange data with each other. These
devices range from household items like refrigerators and
thermostats to industrial machinery and wearable health
devices. The **flavors of IoT** refer to the different
categories or types of IoT applications based on their use
cases, technology, and scale. Here are the major flavors of
IoT:

### 1. **Consumer IoT (CIoT)**

- **Overview**: This refers to IoT devices designed for
everyday consumer use, enhancing daily life with
connected devices.
- **Examples**: Smart home devices like thermostats,
lights, smart TVs, voice assistants (Amazon Alexa, Google
Assistant), fitness trackers (e.g., Fitbit), and wearable
health monitors.
- **Purpose**: To improve convenience, comfort, and
efficiency in the home or personal life by automating
routine tasks and providing real-time insights.

### 2. **Industrial IoT (IIoT)**

- **Overview**: Focuses on the integration of IoT in
industrial settings such as manufacturing, energy,
agriculture, and logistics.
- **Examples**: Smart sensors in factories, connected
machines that monitor their performance, predictive
maintenance systems, industrial robots, and fleet
management solutions.
- **Purpose**: To increase operational efficiency, reduce
downtime, and improve safety and productivity in
industries. IIoT systems can monitor real-time data,
analyze it, and optimize processes.

### 3. **Healthcare IoT (IoMT – Internet of Medical

Things)**
 - **Overview**: IoT devices used in healthcare to
monitor patients, manage medical devices, and improve
the quality of care.
- **Examples**: Wearables that track health data (e.g.,
heart rate, glucose levels), connected medical equipment
(e.g., smart infusion pumps), remote monitoring devices,
and telemedicine solutions.
- **Purpose**: To enhance patient care, enable real-time
health monitoring, facilitate telemedicine, and provide
better outcomes through data-driven insights.
Q Explain the IoT stack with a Diagram
The **IoT stack** consists of multiple layers, each
responsible for a specific part of the IoT system. Here's a
brief overview:
1. **Perception Layer**: This is the physical layer where
devices and sensors collect data from the environment,
such as temperature, motion, or pressure sensors.
Actuators may also be included to perform actions based
on sensor data.
2. **Network Layer**: It is responsible for transmitting
data from the perception layer to other systems.
Communication protocols like Wi-Fi, 5G, and Bluetooth are
used to connect devices and transfer data.
3. **Edge Layer**: This layer processes data closer to the
source (at the "edge"), reducing latency and saving
bandwidth. It enables real-time decision-making for critical
applications.
4. **Data Processing Layer**: This layer involves
analyzing, storing, and processing data, typically in the
cloud. It uses platforms like AWS or Azure to process raw
data and extract valuable insights.
5. **Application Layer**: This layer provides the user
interface and enables users to interact with the IoT
system, such as through apps, dashboards, or control
panels.
6. **Business Layer**: It handles business management
and decision-making, aligning IoT system functionality
with organizational goals and managing overall business
operations.
### IoT Stack Diagram:
```+--------------------------------------------+
| Business Layer |
+--------------------------------------------+
| Application Layer |
+--------------------------------------------+
| Data Processing Layer |
+--------------------------------------------+
| Edge Layer |
+--------------------------------------------+
| Network Layer |
+--------------------------------------------+
| Perception Layer |
+--------------------------------------------+
```

Q Explain calm Technology and ambient Technology.

### **Calm Technology**:

Calm technology refers to technology that operates in the

background, providing information or assistance without
demanding constant attention. The goal of calm
technology is to create a more natural, unobtrusive
interaction where technology supports rather than
dominates the user's experience. It’s designed to engage
the user only when necessary and to minimize
distractions, allowing people to focus on their primary
tasks. An example of calm technology is a smart home
system that adjusts temperature or lighting without
requiring constant user interaction, or notifications that
provide relevant alerts without interrupting the flow of
work.

### **Ambient Technology**:

Ambient technology is similar to calm technology but

places an even stronger emphasis on creating an
environment where technology is seamlessly integrated
into the surroundings. It interacts with the user in a way
that feels almost invisible, blending into the environment
and responding to changes without being noticed or
requiring direct input. Examples include ambient lighting
that changes based on the time of day or weather, or
ambient sounds that provide soothing background noise,
helping users stay focused or relaxed. Ambient technology
enhances the user's experience by making the
environment more responsive, but it does so without
drawing attention to the technology itself.

Both calm and ambient technologies aim to create a more

intuitive, efficient, and comfortable user experience,
ensuring that technology enhances daily life without
overwhelming the user with constant interaction or
information overload.

Q Explain in detail the Web Of Things(WOT).

The **Web of Things (WoT)** is an extension of the

**Internet of Things (IoT)** that integrates web
technologies to enhance the interoperability and
scalability of IoT devices. While IoT involves connecting
physical devices to the internet, WoT takes this a step
further by enabling these devices to communicate using
standard web protocols such as HTTP, WebSockets, and
RESTful APIs. This allows devices from different
manufacturers, with varying technologies, to interact
seamlessly. WoT enables devices to be represented as
**Things**, each described by a **Thing Description
(TD)**, which is a machine-readable document that
outlines the device's capabilities, properties, and services.
By using widely adopted web protocols, WoT reduces the
complexity of integrating IoT systems, making them more
accessible to web developers and users. Additionally, WoT
incorporates **semantic interoperability**, where devices
can share a common understanding of data, allowing for
automatic interpretation and interaction between devices
from different sources. Security is also a key focus in WoT,
leveraging web security standards such as OAuth and
TLS/SSL to ensure safe communication and data privacy.
Overall, the Web of Things offers a flexible, scalable, and
interoperable framework for building and managing IoT
applications, enabling devices to be controlled and
monitored through simple web interfaces while fostering
greater integration and automation across diverse IoT
systems.

Q Write a short on graceful degradation.

**Graceful degradation** is a design principle that focuses

on ensuring a system, application, or service continues to
function, albeit with reduced functionality, when certain
components fail or when the system is operating under
less-than-ideal conditions. The idea behind graceful
degradation is that a system should be designed to offer a
full range of features and performance under optimal
conditions, but it should still provide users with a usable
experience even when parts of the system experience
issues, fail, or when the system is under constraints (such
as slower network speeds, older devices, or less powerful
hardware).This approach is particularly common in **web
design**, where websites are built to function optimally on
modern browsers and devices but still offer a meaningful
experience on older browsers or less capable devices. For
instance, a website might feature advanced JavaScript-
driven interactions, but if the browser does not support
these features, the website can still display static content,
ensuring that the core information is accessible.**Graceful
degradation** contrasts with another design principle
called **progressive enhancement**, which involves
starting with a simple, functional version of a website or
system that works for all users, and then adding enhanced
features for those with more advanced devices or
browsers. While both principles aim to ensure usability
across various conditions, graceful degradation focuses on
maintaining core functionality even when performance is
degraded.

Q Explain avoiding poor affordance

**Affordance** refers to the qualities of an object or

interface that suggest its function or use. In the context of
design, particularly user interface (UI) and user experience
(UX) design, **poor affordance** occurs when the design
of an object, button, or interaction does not clearly convey
how it should be used. This can lead to confusion,
frustration, or inefficient interactions for users.

*Avoiding poor affordance** involves ensuring that design

elements intuitively communicate their purpose and how
they can be interacted with. Here are key strategies to
avoid poor affordance:

1. **Consistency**: Use established design patterns that

users are familiar with, such as clickable buttons that look
like buttons (e.g., using shadowing or 3D effects) and
swipe gestures that users expect in mobile apps.
Consistency helps users immediately recognize how to
interact with elements.

2. **Clear Visual Cues**: Ensure that interactive elements

(like buttons, links, and icons) have clear visual cues that
suggest their function. For example, buttons should look
clickable (e.g., have a distinct shape, color, or hover
effect), and links should look like text links (underlined,
blue, or clickable).

3. **Feedback**: Provide immediate and clear feedback

when a user interacts with an element. For example, a
button should change appearance when clicked (like
changing color or showing a pressed effect) to reassure
the user that their action has been registered.

4. **Intuitive Layout**: Arrange elements in a way that

makes sense based on user expectations. For instance,
place important buttons in expected places (e.g., the
"Submit" button at the bottom of a form) and group
related items together. This prevents confusion and makes
the interface more predictable.

Q The **seven principles of IoT*

The **seven principles of IoT** ensure the effective and

responsible deployment of IoT systems:

1. **Interoperability**: Devices and systems should work

seamlessly across different platforms and protocols.
2. **Scalability**: IoT systems must handle growth,
accommodating more devices and data.
3. **Security**: Strong security measures are essential to
protect devices and data from breaches.
4. **Privacy**: Personal data must be handled according
to privacy laws and protected against unauthorized
access.
5. **Data Management & Analytics**: Efficient handling
and analysis of vast data generated by IoT devices are key
to extracting insights.
6. **Automation & Control**: IoT systems should automate
tasks based on real-time data with minimal human
intervention.
7. **Sustainability**: IoT designs should minimize
environmental impact, focusing on energy efficiency and
recycling.

These principles guide the creation of robust, secure, and

efficient IoT systems that benefit users while addressing
privacy and sustainability concerns.

Q Difference between TCP and UDP

Aspe TCP (Transmission UDP (User Datagram
ct Control Protocol) Protocol)
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Connect protocol (requires a protocol (no
ion Type connection to be connection
established). establishment).
Reliable (ensures data is Unreliable (no
Reliabili
delivered in the correct guarantee of data
ty
order with error checking). delivery or order).
Data Ensures reliable, Data is sent
Transmissio ordered, and error- without guarantee
n checked data of order or delivery.
 transmission.
Includes error
Error Includes error detection
detection, but no
Checkin and correction (checksum,
error correction
g retransmissions).
(checksum).
Yes, it uses flow control No flow control; packets
Flow
to prevent congestion are sent without
Contro
(via mechanisms like consideration of network
l
sliding window). congestion.
Q

Q . Difference between IPv4 and IPv6.

Feature IPv4 IPv6
Address
32 bits 128 bits
Length
Four
decimal
octets Eight groups of four hexadecimal
Address separated digits separated by colons (e.g.,
Format by periods 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e
(e.g., :0370:7334)
192.168.1.1
)
Number of 2^32 2^128 (about 340 undecillion
 Feature IPv4 IPv6
(about 4.3
Addresses billion addresses)
addresses)
Address Dotted
Represent decimal Hexadecimal notation
ation notation
More
Header
complex
Complexit Simplified header with 8 fields
header with
y
12 fields
Requires
Can auto-configure through
Configurat manual
Stateless Address
ion configuratio
Autoconfiguration (SLAAC)
n or DHCP
Security not
inherently
IPSec support is mandatory for
Security built-in
encryption and authentication
(optional
with IPSec)
Routers and
sender can
Fragmenta Only the sender performs
perform
tion fragmentation
fragmentati
on
Supports
Broadcast broadcast No broadcast support (uses
Support communica multicast instead)
tion

Q
Aspe HTTP (HyperText HTTPS (HyperText
ct Transfer Protocol) Transfer Protocol Secure)
An application layer
A secure version of HTTP
Definiti protocol used for
that uses encryption to
on transmitting data over
protect data transmission.
the web.
Secure, uses SSL/TLS
Not secure, data is
Securi encryption to protect
transmitted in plain text,
ty data integrity and
which can be intercepted.
privacy.
Por Operates on port 80 by Operates on port 443 by
t default. default.
No encryption, data Data is encrypted using
Data
can be easily SSL/TLS, making it
Encryptio
intercepted during unreadable to
n
transmission. unauthorized parties.
Server identity is
No authentication,
Authenticat verified via SSL
the server identity is
ion certificates, preventing
not verified.
impersonation.
Faster due to
Slower due to encryption and
Performan lack of
decryption overhead required
ce encryption
for secure communication.
overhead.
Used for websites Used for websites requiring
Use that do not require secure transactions, e.g.,
Cases secure data, e.g., online banking, e-commerce,
blogs, static sites. login forms.

Q How does SSL and TLS work?

**SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)** and **TLS (Transport
Layer Security)** are cryptographic protocols designed to
secure communication over a network, mainly the
internet. While SSL is the predecessor to TLS, both
protocols serve the same purpose of encrypting data and
ensuring privacy, integrity, and authentication.

### How SSL/TLS Work:

1. **SSL/TLS Handshake**:
 - **Client Hello**: The client (browser) sends supported
encryption options to the server.
- **Server Hello**: The server selects encryption
methods and sends its **digital certificate** (containing its
public key) to the client.
- **Key Exchange**: The client verifies the server’s
identity using the certificate, and both parties generate a
shared **session key** using asymmetric encryption.
- **Finished Messages**: Both client and server
exchange encrypted "Finished" messages to confirm the
handshake.

2. **Symmetric Encryption**:
- After the handshake, symmetric encryption is used for
data transfer, which is faster than asymmetric encryption.
The shared session key encrypts the data.

3. **Session Termination**:
- Once communication is complete, both the client and
server send "close_notify" messages to securely end the
session and discard the session key.

### Summary:
SSL/TLS ensures secure communication by encrypting
data, verifying server identity via certificates, and using a
combination of **asymmetric** (for key exchange) and
**symmetric** (for data transfer) encryption. TLS is the
more secure and efficient version of SSL.

Q .what is prototyping and write down the 1 guidelines for

for prototyping

### **Prototyping**:
Prototyping is the process of creating an early model or
sample of a product (often a software or system) to
visualize and test concepts or functionality before full-
scale development. It allows designers, developers, and
users to explore the feasibility, usability, and design of a
product, make improvements based on feedback, and
iterate on the idea before final production.

Prototypes are often incomplete, focusing on key features

to represent the final product's core functions. There are
different types of prototypes, such as **throwaway
prototypes** (created and discarded after feedback),
**evolutionary prototypes** (iterated over time), and
**incremental prototypes** (built in parts or modules).

### **Guideline for Prototyping**:

**1. Focus on Core Features**:
- **Guideline**: When developing a prototype, focus on
the most critical features or aspects of the product,
especially the ones that will be tested with users. The
prototype should highlight these functionalities, allowing
users to experience the product's key functions. This
allows early validation and feedback on the concept
without investing excessive time in developing every
detail. Non-essential features can be left out of the
prototype to avoid unnecessary complexity.

By focusing on the core features, you can ensure that the

prototype is functional enough for testing, while being
simple and flexible for iterative improvements based on
feedback.

Q .what is sketching? write down benetints of sketching

**Sketching** is a freehand drawing technique used to
quickly and simply represent an idea, object, or concept. It
is a visual form of communication that often involves basic
lines, shapes, and shading without focusing on fine details
or accuracy. Sketching can be done on paper or digitally
and is commonly used in fields such as art, design,
architecture, engineering, and product development.

### Benefits of Sketching:

1. **Enhances Creativity**:
- Sketching encourages spontaneous thinking, helping to
generate new ideas and solutions quickly. It allows for
exploration and experimentation with concepts.

2. **Improves Visualization**:
- It helps transform abstract ideas into visual
representations, aiding in better understanding and
refining of concepts.

3. **Faster Communication**:
- Sketches can convey complex ideas faster than written
descriptions, especially when trying to explain concepts to
others in collaborative settings.

4. **Refines Design Process**:

- Sketching is an essential tool for designers and
engineers, allowing them to visualize product designs and
refine them before moving to the final stage of
development.

5. **Cost-Effective**:
- It's a low-cost way to experiment with ideas before
committing time and resources to more detailed or
finalized designs.

6. **Improves Problem-Solving**:
- Sketching can help break down problems visually,
making it easier to identify patterns, issues, and solutions
during the brainstorming or planning stages.

=
Q .Explain soc in detail

A **System on Chip (SoC)** is an integrated circuit that

consolidates most or all components of a computer or
electronic system onto a single chip. SoCs are used in a
wide range of applications, from mobile phones and
embedded systems to consumer electronics, medical
devices, and automotive technology. Unlike traditional
computing systems that use separate chips for different
functions (e.g., processor, memory, graphics), an SoC
integrates these components into one compact unit,
including the **central processing unit (CPU)**, **graphics
processing unit (GPU)**, **memory** (RAM),
**input/output interfaces**, **storage controllers**, and
even specialized subsystems like **signal processors** or
**wireless communication modules** (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
5G).

The primary advantage of an SoC is its efficiency and

space-saving capability. By integrating multiple functions
into a single chip, SoCs consume less power, take up less
space, and reduce the overall cost of a device. This makes
them ideal for mobile and portable devices, where space
and battery life are crucial considerations. For example,
smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, and IoT devices
commonly use SoCs to deliver high performance in a
compact form factor.

SoCs also tend to be optimized for specific applications.

For example, a mobile SoC might include power-efficient
CPU cores, a powerful GPU for gaming and media, and a
modem for communication. In contrast, an SoC used in a
smart home device might include processing units
optimized for low-power, always-on applications, with
support for sensors and communication technologies like
Zigbee or Z-Wave.

Q .write the down the difference. -Computing and open

source ! close Source
Aspe
Open Source Closed Source
ct
Software whose source Software whose
code is made available to source code is kept
Definiti
the public for use, private and is not
on
modification, and made available to the
distribution. public.
Anyone can access, Source code is restricted
Accessibil modify, and and only accessible to the
ity distribute the source owner or authorized
code. users.
High level of Limited
Customizat customization as users customization, as
ion can modify the code to users cannot modify
suit their needs. the source code.
Often free, though some
Usually requires
Cos open-source projects may
purchasing a license or
t offer paid versions or
subscription to use.
services.
Community-driven Vendor or
Communit support, often with forums, company-driven
y Support documentation, and user support with official
contributions. customer service.
Security is controlled by
Security is often
the company or
Securi community-reviewed;
organization, and
ty vulnerabilities are typically
updates are
addressed by contributors.
proprietary.
Distributed under open-
Closed source software is
source licenses (e.g.,
usually distributed under
Licensi GPL, MIT) that define
proprietary licenses, with
ng how the code can be
restrictions on use and
used, modified, and
modification.
shared.
Frequently updated with Updates are released
Updat
community contributions by the company, often
es
and improvements. at their discretion.
Exampl Linux, Apache, Microsoft Windows, Adobe
es Firefox, WordPress Photoshop, Oracle Database
Q .Explain business benefit of prototyping

Prototyping offers significant business benefits by enabling

early-stage testing and feedback, which helps businesses
save time and reduce risks. It allows stakeholders to
visualize and interact with a model of the final product
before full development begins, ensuring that ideas are
aligned with customer needs and expectations. By
identifying potential flaws, usability issues, or design
inconsistencies early on, businesses can make necessary
adjustments before committing significant resources to
production. This iterative process leads to more informed
decision-making, minimizes costly changes later in the
development cycle, and improves the overall quality of the
product. Additionally, prototyping fosters better
communication between developers, designers, and
clients, enhancing collaboration and ensuring that the final
product meets both business objectives and user
requirements. Ultimately, prototyping accelerates time-to-
market and enhances the likelihood of a successful
product launch, providing a competitive edge in the
marketplace.
.Difference between SBC's and Euses & extension
Single-Board Embedded System
Feature
Computer (SBC) (EU)
A fully functional
A specialized system
computer on a single
designed to perform a
circuit board, with
specific task or function,
Definition processor, memory,
often with limited
storage, and
computing power and
input/output
resources.
peripherals.
Typically includes a
Includes CPU,
microcontroller or
memory, storage, I/O
microprocessor,
Componen ports, and
sensors, actuators, and
ts connectivity features
sometimes
(e.g., Ethernet, USB,
communication
HDMI).
interfaces.
General-purpose
Task-specific; performs
computing; can run
a single or set of tasks
Purpose an operating system
without running a full
(OS) and support
OS.
multiple applications.
Supports full Often does not require a
Operating operating systems full OS (e.g., running
System (e.g., Linux, firmware or real-time
Windows, Android). OS).
High flexibility, can
be programmed and Low flexibility, designed
Flexibility repurposed for for a dedicated function
different or application.
applications.
Generally higher due
Power Typically low-power, as
to the need for more
Consumpti it is optimized for
powerful components
on specific tasks.
(CPU, RAM, etc.).
Moderate to high,
Low to moderate, as it is
due to the inclusion
Cost often built to perform
of a full computing
simple, specific tasks.
environment.
Examples Raspberry Pi, Home appliances,
 Single-Board Embedded System
Feature
Computer (SBC) (EU)
industrial machines,
BeagleBone, Arduino
automotive control
(with full OS).
systems.