a) What is ethereum? How ethereum facilitates decentralization of applications.

[6]

What is Ethereum?

Ethereum is a decentralized, open-source blockchain platform that enables the creation and
execution of smart contracts and decentralized applications (DApps). It was proposed in late
2013 by programmer Vitalik Buterin and development was crowdfunded in 20142. The network
went live on July 30, 2015.

How Ethereum Facilitates Decentralization of Applications

Ethereum facilitates decentralization through several key features:

1. Smart Contracts:

o Description: Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the
agreement directly written into code. They automatically execute and enforce the
terms when predefined conditions are met1.

o Decentralization: Smart contracts run on the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM),

which is decentralized and runs on every node in the Ethereum network. This
ensures that the contract's logic is consistently applied across all participants,
eliminating the need for a centralized authority1.

2. Decentralized Applications (DApps):

o Description: DApps are applications that run on a decentralized network of

computers instead of a single server. They leverage the Ethereum blockchain to
operate transparently and without intermediaries1.

o Decentralization: Each node in the Ethereum network maintains its copy of the
blockchain and executes the DApp's logic locally. This fosters a distributed and
transparent system where no single entity has control over the application1.

3. Ether (ETH):

o Description: Ether is the native cryptocurrency of the Ethereum network. It is used

to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the network1.

o Decentralization: Ether incentivizes network participants (miners or validators) to

validate transactions and execute smart contracts. This decentralized economic
model ensures that the network remains secure and functional without centralized
control.

4. Peer-to-Peer Network:

o Description: Ethereum operates as a peer-to-peer network where nodes

communicate directly with each other without intermediaries.

o Decentralization: This peer-to-peer structure ensures that no single entity can

control or censor the network, making it resistant to censorship and centralization.

5. Open Source and Permissionless:

o Description: Ethereum is open-source, meaning anyone can review, use, and

contribute to its code.
 o Decentralization: The permissionless nature of Ethereum allows anyone to join the
network, participate in its governance, and develop applications on it, fostering a
truly decentralized ecosystem.

Summary

Ethereum is a powerful platform that enables decentralized applications and smart contracts
through its decentralized, open-source, and permissionless nature. By leveraging smart
contracts, DApps, and a peer-to-peer network, Ethereum ensures that applications run
transparently, securely, and without central control, promoting a decentralized digital future4

b) What is ethereum virtual machine? Explain its working. [6]

Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a decentralized computing environment that runs on
the Ethereum network. It is the runtime environment for smart contracts in Ethereum, enabling
developers to write and deploy code (smart contracts) that can be executed on the blockchain.
The EVM makes it possible for Ethereum to function as a global "world computer," where all
nodes in the network execute smart contracts in a consistent manner.

How the EVM Works

1. Execution Environment:

o The EVM provides an isolated, sandboxed environment in which smart contracts are
executed. This isolation ensures that the execution of smart contracts does not
interfere with the underlying system or other contracts.

2. Bytecode Execution:

o Smart contracts written in high-level programming languages like Solidity are

compiled into EVM bytecode. The EVM executes this bytecode, which is a low-level
set of instructions that the EVM can understand and process.

3. Gas and Gas Limit:

o Gas: Each operation in the EVM consumes a certain amount of gas, which is a unit of
computational effort. Gas is paid using Ether (ETH), and it prevents abuse of
computational resources.

o Gas Limit: The gas limit is the maximum amount of gas a transaction or contract
execution can consume. It ensures that the execution will terminate even if it runs
into an infinite loop.

4. Stack-Based Architecture:

o The EVM uses a stack-based architecture for computation, meaning it operates on a

last-in, first-out (LIFO) data structure. Operations are performed using values stored
in the stack.

5. State and Storage:

 o The EVM maintains the state of the Ethereum blockchain. The state includes account
balances, smart contract storage, and other data structures necessary for contract
execution.

o Storage: Each smart contract has its own storage, a key-value store, which persists
across transactions.

6. Opcode Instructions:

o The EVM executes a set of predefined instructions called opcodes, each representing
a specific operation (e.g., arithmetic operations, data storage, control flow). These
opcodes are executed sequentially as defined by the bytecode.

7. Deterministic Execution:

o The EVM ensures that the execution of smart contracts is deterministic, meaning
that given the same input and state, the execution will always produce the same
output. This consistency is crucial for achieving consensus across the decentralized
network.

Example Workflow

1. Smart Contract Deployment:

o A developer writes a smart contract in Solidity and compiles it into EVM bytecode.

o The compiled bytecode is deployed to the Ethereum network, creating a new

contract on the blockchain.

2. Transaction Initiation:

o A user sends a transaction to interact with the deployed smart contract. The
transaction includes the necessary gas to cover the computational cost.

3. EVM Execution:

o Each node in the Ethereum network executes the transaction within the EVM. The
bytecode is processed, and the contract's state is updated accordingly.

o The EVM ensures that the execution is consistent across all nodes, maintaining the
integrity of the blockchain.

4. State Update:

o After execution, the resulting state changes (if any) are recorded on the blockchain.
This updated state is shared across the network, ensuring all nodes have the same
view of the blockchain.

Summary

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a core component of the Ethereum network, enabling
the execution of smart contracts in a decentralized, isolated, and consistent manner. By providing
a secure and deterministic execution environment, the EVM facilitates the development and
deployment of decentralized applications (DApps) on the Ethereum blockchain.
c) Explain Ethereum lanuages, census approach & algorithm. [6]

Ethereum Languages

Ethereum supports several programming languages for writing smart contracts and decentralized
applications (DApps). The most commonly used languages are:

1. Solidity:

o Description: Solidity is a statically-typed, curly-braces programming language

designed specifically for developing smart contracts on Ethereum. It is influenced by
C++ and JavaScript1.

o Features: Supports inheritance, libraries, complex user-defined types, and has a

syntax similar to JavaScript.

2. Vyper:

o Description: Vyper is a Pythonic programming language for writing smart contracts.

It emphasizes simplicity and security, with strong typing and a small, understandable
compiler code2.

o Features: Strong typing, efficient bytecode generation, and a syntax similar to

Python.

3. Yul:

o Description: Yul is an intermediate language for the Ethereum Virtual Machine

(EVM). It is used for writing low-level code that can be compiled into EVM
bytecode2.

o Features: Designed for simplicity and efficiency, suitable for writing complex
contracts.

4. Fe:

o Description: Fe is an emerging smart contract language that is still under heavy

development. It aims to provide a more secure and efficient alternative to existing
languages2.

o Features: Experimental, with a focus on security and performance improvements.

Ethereum Census Approach

The Ethereum census approach refers to the use of blockchain technology to conduct national
population and housing censuses. This approach aims to enhance transparency, accountability,
privacy, and security in the census process3.

1. Blockchain-Based Census:

o Description: Blockchain technology can be used to create a decentralized and

immutable record of census data. This ensures that the data is tamper-proof and
transparent3.

o Benefits: Enhanced data integrity, reduced risk of fraud, and improved privacy and
security.
2. Architecture Design:

o Description: A blockchain-based census system typically involves a distributed ledger

that records demographic data, individual characteristics, and living conditions.

o Components: The system may include smart contracts for data validation, encryption
for privacy protection, and consensus mechanisms for data verification.

3. Implementation Example:

o Example: A national census conducted using Hyperledger Fabric, a blockchain

platform, can provide a robust, transparent, scalable, and tamper-proof solution for
collecting and managing census data.

o Outcome: Improved accuracy and reliability of census data, leading to better-

informed policy decisions and socio-economic advancements.

Ethereum Algorithm

The Ethereum algorithm refers to the consensus mechanism used to validate transactions and
add new blocks to the blockchain. Ethereum initially used the Proof of Work (PoW) algorithm,
known as Ethash, but is transitioning to Proof of Stake (PoS) with the Ethereum 2.0 upgrade5.

1. Proof of Work (PoW):

o Description: Ethash is Ethereum's PoW algorithm, which requires miners to solve

complex mathematical puzzles to validate transactions and mine new blocks.

o Process: Miners fetch random data from the state, compute selected transactions,
and return the hash of the result. The first miner to find a valid hash is rewarded
with Ether4.

2. Proof of Stake (PoS):

o Description: PoS is a more energy-efficient consensus mechanism where validators

are chosen to create new blocks based on the amount of Ether they hold and are
willing to "stake" as collateral.

o Process: Validators are randomly selected to propose and validate blocks, and their
stake is at risk if they act dishonestly.

Summary

Ethereum supports multiple programming languages for smart contracts, including Solidity,
Vyper, Yul, and Fe. The Ethereum census approach leverages blockchain technology to enhance
the transparency, accountability, privacy, and security of national censuses3. The Ethereum
algorithm has transitioned from PoW (Ethash) to PoS, improving energy efficiency and security
Q4) a) What is ethereum wallet? Explain its types. [6]

Ethereum Wallet

An Ethereum wallet is a digital tool that allows users to interact with the Ethereum blockchain. It
enables users to store, send, receive, and manage their Ether (ETH) and other Ethereum-based
tokens (such as ERC-20 tokens). Additionally, Ethereum wallets provide access to decentralized
applications (DApps) and allow users to execute smart contracts.

Types of Ethereum Wallets

1. Hardware Wallets

o Description: Hardware wallets are physical devices that securely store the user's
private keys offline. They offer a high level of security by keeping the keys isolated
from internet-connected devices.

o Examples: Ledger Nano S, Trezor.

o Advantages: Highly secure against online threats, phishing attacks, and malware.

o Disadvantages: Can be expensive and require physical access to the device for
transactions.

2. Software Wallets

o Description: Software wallets are applications or programs installed on a computer

or mobile device. They store private keys and allow users to manage their Ethereum
assets.

o Types:

▪ Desktop Wallets: Installed on a personal computer and provide full control

over the private keys.

▪ Examples: Mist, Atomic Wallet.

▪ Mobile Wallets: Installed on a smartphone, offering convenience for

managing assets on the go.

▪ Examples: Trust Wallet, MetaMask.

o Advantages: Convenient and easy to use, often feature-rich.

o Disadvantages: Vulnerable to malware and hacking if the device is compromised.

3. Web Wallets

o Description: Web wallets are online services that allow users to access their
Ethereum assets through a web browser. They are typically hosted by a third party,
which manages the private keys on behalf of the users.

o Examples: MyEtherWallet (MEW), MetaMask.

o Advantages: Accessible from any device with an internet connection, easy to use.

o Disadvantages: Trust in the third-party service is required, and they are more
susceptible to phishing attacks.
 4. Paper Wallets

o Description: Paper wallets are physical documents that contain a user's private and
public keys printed on them. They are considered a form of cold storage as they are
kept offline.

o Advantages: Immune to online threats, secure if stored properly.

o Disadvantages: Easily lost, damaged, or stolen; not practical for frequent

transactions.

5. Hardware/Software Hybrid Wallets

o Description: Hybrid wallets combine the security of hardware wallets with the
functionality of software wallets. They often involve using a hardware device for key
storage and a software interface for transaction management.

o Examples: MetaMask with Ledger integration.

o Advantages: Combines high security with user-friendly interfaces.

o Disadvantages: May require additional setup and configuration.

Summary

Ethereum wallets come in various types, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Hardware
wallets offer top-notch security, software wallets provide convenience, web wallets are easily
accessible, paper wallets offer offline security, and hybrid wallets combine the best of hardware and
software features. Choosing the right type of wallet depends on the user's needs, preferences, and
security requirements.

b) What is distributed hash table? What are the features of hash distribution.[6]

Distributed Hash Table (DHT)

A Distributed Hash Table (DHT) is a decentralized system used to distribute and lookup data
efficiently across a large network of nodes. DHTs are often used in peer-to-peer (P2P) networks to
manage and retrieve data without the need for a central coordinator. Each node in a DHT is
responsible for a portion of the data, which is identified by unique keys generated through a hash
function.

How DHT Works

1. Hash Function:

o A hash function is used to generate unique identifiers (keys) for the data. This
ensures that each piece of data can be uniquely identified and located within the
network.

2. Key-Value Pair Storage:

o Data is stored in the form of key-value pairs. The key is generated using the hash
function, and the value is the actual data associated with that key.
 3. Node Participation:

o Each node in the network is assigned a portion of the key space. This assignment is
typically done using consistent hashing, which ensures that the key space is evenly
distributed among the nodes.

4. Routing:

o When a node wants to store or retrieve data, it uses the DHT's routing mechanism to
locate the node responsible for the key. This is done through a series of hops, where
each node forwards the request to a node that is closer to the target key.

5. Scalability:

o DHTs are designed to scale efficiently. As new nodes join the network, the key space
is dynamically repartitioned to accommodate them, ensuring balanced load
distribution.

Features of Hash Distribution in DHT

1. Decentralization:

o DHTs operate without a central coordinator, making them robust against single
points of failure. Each node in the network participates equally in the storage and
retrieval of data.

2. Scalability:

o DHTs can scale to accommodate a large number of nodes. As the network grows, the
hash space is dynamically adjusted to ensure that each node handles an appropriate
share of the load.

3. Efficient Lookup:

o DHTs provide efficient lookup mechanisms, allowing data to be located within a

logarithmic number of hops relative to the number of nodes. This ensures that data
can be retrieved quickly even in large networks.

4. Fault Tolerance:

o DHTs are designed to handle node failures gracefully. When a node leaves the
network, its data is redistributed among the remaining nodes, ensuring that no data
is lost.

5. Load Balancing:

o Consistent hashing ensures that data is evenly distributed across the nodes,
preventing any single node from becoming a bottleneck. This balanced load
distribution enhances the overall performance of the network.

6. Self-Organization:

o DHTs are self-organizing, meaning that they can dynamically adjust to changes in the
network topology. New nodes can join, and existing nodes can leave without
disrupting the overall functionality of the system.
Summary

Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) are decentralized systems used for efficient data distribution and
lookup in large networks. They utilize hash functions to generate unique keys for data and ensure
balanced load distribution across nodes. Key features of DHTs include decentralization, scalability,
efficient lookup, fault tolerance, load balancing, and self-organization.

d) Explain Secure Hash Algorithm Version 1 in detail.

Secure Hash Algorithm Version 1 (SHA-1)

SHA-1 is a cryptographic hash function designed by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) and the National Security Agency (NSA) for use in the Digital Signature
Standard (DSS). It produces a 160-bit (20-byte) hash value, typically rendered as a 40-digit
hexadecimal number.

How SHA-1 Works

1. Padding:

o The input message is padded so that its length is congruent to 448 modulo 512.
Padding involves adding a single '1' bit followed by enough '0' bits to meet the length
requirement, and finally, the original message length (in bits) is added as a 64-bit big-
endian integer.

2. Message Processing:

o The padded message is divided into 512-bit blocks. Each block is processed in a
series of 80 steps, where each step involves bitwise operations, modular additions,
and compression functions.

3. Initialization:

o SHA-1 uses five 32-bit words (A, B, C, D, E) as working variables. These are initialized
to specific values: A=0x67452301, B=0xEFCDAB89, C=0x98BADCFE, D=0x10325476,
and E=0xC3D2E1F0.

4. Main Loop:

o Each 512-bit block is processed through a loop that includes 80 rounds of operations.
These operations involve bitwise operations (AND, OR, XOR, NOT), addition modulo
2322^{32}, and left circular shifts.

5. Final Hash Value:

o After all blocks are processed, the final hash value is obtained by concatenating the
values of the five working variables (A, B, C, D, E) in that order.

Features of SHA-1

1. Deterministic:
 o The same input will always produce the same hash value, ensuring consistency and
predictability.

2. Fixed Output Length:

o SHA-1 always produces a 160-bit hash value, regardless of the input size.

3. Efficiency:

o SHA-1 is designed to be computationally efficient, allowing for quick processing of

large amounts of data.

4. Pre-image Resistance:

o It is computationally infeasible to reverse the hash function and retrieve the original
input from its hash value.

5. Collision Resistance:

o It is highly unlikely for two different inputs to produce the same hash value, although
vulnerabilities have been discovered over time.

6. Avalanche Effect:

o A small change in the input message will produce a significantly different hash value,
ensuring that any modification to the data is easily detectable.

Security Concerns

While SHA-1 was widely used for many years, it is no longer considered secure due to
vulnerabilities that allow for collision attacks (where two different inputs produce the same hash
value). As a result, many organizations have moved to more secure hash functions like SHA-256
and SHA-512.

Summary

SHA-1 is a cryptographic hash function that produces a 160-bit hash value. It is deterministic,
efficient, and designed to be collision-resistant and pre-image resistant. However, due to
discovered vulnerabilities, it is no longer recommended for security-sensitive applications.

a) What is ethereum? Write use of solidity, Remix, Ganache and Myether Wallet in ethereum.
[10]

What is Ethereum?

Ethereum is a decentralized, open-source blockchain platform that enables the creation and
execution of smart contracts and decentralized applications (DApps). It was proposed by Vitalik
Buterin in late 2013 and went live on July 30, 2015. Ethereum provides a decentralized
environment for developers to build and deploy applications without the need for
intermediaries, enhancing transparency, security, and reliability.

Use of Solidity, Remix, Ganache, and MyEtherWallet in Ethereum

1. Solidity:

o Description: Solidity is a high-level, statically-typed programming language

specifically designed for writing smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain. It is
influenced by C++, Python, and JavaScript.

o Use: Developers use Solidity to write smart contracts that define the rules and
behaviors of decentralized applications. These contracts are then compiled into EVM
bytecode and deployed to the Ethereum network.

2. Remix:

o Description: Remix is an integrated development environment (IDE) for writing,

compiling, testing, and deploying smart contracts written in Solidity. It is a web-
based tool that provides a user-friendly interface for developers.

o Use: Remix is used to write and debug Solidity code, compile contracts into
bytecode, and deploy them to the Ethereum blockchain. It offers features like syntax
highlighting, auto-completion, and a debugger to make smart contract development
more efficient.

3. Ganache:

o Description: Ganache is a personal blockchain for Ethereum development that

allows developers to deploy contracts, run tests, and perform other blockchain
operations locally. It is part of the Truffle Suite.

o Use: Ganache is used to simulate an Ethereum blockchain on a local machine. This

allows developers to test and debug their smart contracts in a controlled
environment before deploying them to the live Ethereum network. Ganache
provides features like instant mining, detailed logging, and the ability to control
block mining.

4. MyEtherWallet (MEW):

o Description: MyEtherWallet is a free, open-source, client-side interface for

interacting with the Ethereum blockchain. It allows users to create wallets, manage
their Ether and tokens, and interact with smart contracts.

o Use: MyEtherWallet is used to generate and manage Ethereum wallets, send and
receive Ether and ERC-20 tokens, and access DApps. It provides a secure interface for
users to interact with the Ethereum blockchain, perform transactions, and manage
their crypto assets without relying on third-party services.

Summary

Ethereum is a robust platform that enables decentralized applications and smart contracts. Key
tools such as Solidity, Remix, Ganache, and MyEtherWallet play crucial roles in the development,
testing, deployment, and management of Ethereum-based applications. Solidity is used for
writing smart contracts, Remix provides an IDE for development, Ganache simulates a local
blockchain environment, and MyEtherWallet allows users to interact with the Ethereum network
securely.
b) Explain working process, features and applications of ethereum. [8]

Working Process of Ethereum

Ethereum operates as a decentralized platform, running smart contracts and decentralized

applications (DApps) on its blockchain. Here is an overview of its working process:

1. Smart Contracts and DApps:

o Developers write smart contracts in high-level programming languages like Solidity.

These smart contracts are self-executing and automatically enforce the terms and
conditions written into them.

2. Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM):

o The EVM is a decentralized runtime environment that executes smart contracts. It

runs the bytecode compiled from high-level languages, ensuring that contract
execution is consistent across all network nodes.

3. Transactions:

o Users interact with smart contracts and DApps by sending transactions to the
Ethereum network. Transactions include data and fees, known as "gas," paid in Ether
(ETH) to compensate for computational effort.

4. Mining and Proof of Stake (PoS):

o Initially, Ethereum used the Proof of Work (PoW) consensus mechanism where
miners solved complex puzzles to validate transactions and create new blocks. With
Ethereum 2.0, the network is transitioning to Proof of Stake (PoS), where validators
are chosen based on their stake in Ether.

5. Blockchain:

o Transactions and blocks are recorded on the Ethereum blockchain, an immutable

ledger maintained by decentralized nodes. Each block contains a list of transactions
and the hash of the previous block, creating a secure chain of data.

Features of Ethereum

1. Decentralization:

o Ethereum operates on a peer-to-peer network without a central authority, ensuring

that no single entity controls the network.

2. Smart Contracts:

o Smart contracts automate and enforce agreements without intermediaries. They run
exactly as programmed, reducing the risk of fraud and errors.

3. Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM):

o The EVM ensures consistent and secure execution of smart contracts across the
network, enabling decentralized computation.

4. Ether (ETH):
 o Ether is the native cryptocurrency used to pay for transaction fees and
computational services on the network. It incentivizes validators and participants.

5. Token Standards:

o Ethereum supports various token standards like ERC-20 for fungible tokens and ERC-
721 for non-fungible tokens (NFTs), facilitating diverse applications.

6. Interoperability:

o Ethereum provides tools and frameworks for interoperability with other blockchains
and platforms, enhancing flexibility and integration.

Applications of Ethereum

1. Decentralized Finance (DeFi):

o DeFi platforms on Ethereum offer financial services like lending, borrowing, and
trading without intermediaries. Examples include Aave, Uniswap, and Compound.

2. Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs):

o NFTs represent ownership of unique digital assets. Ethereum's ERC-721 standard is

widely used for creating and trading NFTs. Examples include CryptoKitties and digital
art on platforms like OpenSea.

3. Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs):

o DAOs are organizations governed by smart contracts. They enable decentralized

decision-making and governance without centralized control. Examples include
MakerDAO and DAOstack.

4. Supply Chain Management:

o Ethereum-based solutions enhance transparency and traceability in supply chains,

ensuring the authenticity and quality of products. Examples include VeChain and
IBM's Food Trust.

5. Identity Management:

o Decentralized identity solutions on Ethereum provide secure and user-controlled

digital identities, reducing the risk of identity theft. Examples include uPort and
Sovrin.

6. Gaming:

o Blockchain-based games on Ethereum offer true ownership of in-game assets and

enable play-to-earn models. Examples include Axie Infinity and Decentraland.

Summary

Ethereum is a versatile blockchain platform that supports smart contracts, DApps, and a
decentralized environment. Its features include decentralization, smart contracts, the EVM,
Ether, token standards, and interoperability. Ethereum's applications span DeFi, NFTs, DAOs,
supply chain management, identity management, and gaming, showcasing its potential to
revolutionize various industries.
a) What is Hashing in data structure? Write types of hashing in data structure. [6]

What is Hashing in Data Structures?

Hashing is a technique used in data structures to map data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values, called
hash values or hash codes, using a hash function. Hashing is commonly used to efficiently locate and
access data within a database, array, or other data structures. The main advantage of hashing is that
it provides a fast way to search, insert, and delete data.

Types of Hashing in Data Structures

1. Direct Hashing (Trivial Hashing)

o Description: In direct hashing, a key is directly used as the address for storing the
data. This method is simple and efficient when the key space is small and the keys
are uniformly distributed.

o Example: For a small set of integer keys ranging from 0 to 100, each key can be used
as an index in an array.

2. Modular Hashing (Division Method)

o Description: In modular hashing, a key is divided by a chosen prime number, and the
remainder is used as the hash value. This method helps to distribute the keys
uniformly across the hash table.

o Example: If the chosen prime number is 7, the hash function can be

hash(key)=key%7\text{hash}(key) = key \% 7.

3. Multiplicative Hashing

o Description: In multiplicative hashing, a key is multiplied by a constant fraction, and

the integer part of the product is used as the hash value. This method is less
sensitive to the choice of the table size compared to modular hashing.

o Example: Using a constant fraction AA (where 0<A<10 < A < 1), the hash function can
be hash(key)=⌊m(key⋅A%1)⌋\text{hash}(key) = \lfloor m (key \cdot A \% 1) \rfloor,
where mm is the table size.

4. Universal Hashing

o Description: Universal hashing uses a family of hash functions and selects one at
random for a given dataset. This method provides good performance on average and
reduces the likelihood of collision attacks.

o Example: A set of hash functions HH is defined, and one function hh from HH is

selected randomly for the dataset.

5. Perfect Hashing

o Description: Perfect hashing is used when a static set of keys is known in advance. It
ensures that there are no collisions by designing a specific hash function for the
given set of keys.

o Example: Creating a minimal perfect hash function that maps each key to a unique
index in a fixed-size hash table.
 6. Double Hashing

o Description: Double hashing uses two hash functions to compute the hash value. If a
collision occurs, the second hash function is used to find the next available slot.

o Example: The primary hash function h1(key)=key%mh1(key) = key \% m and the

secondary hash function h2(key)=1+(key%(m−1))h2(key) = 1 + (key \% (m - 1)). The
final hash value is computed as (h1(key)+i⋅h2(key))%m(h1(key) + i \cdot h2(key)) \%
m, where ii is the collision count.

Summary

Hashing in data structures is a crucial technique for efficient data storage and retrieval. Various types
of hashing, such as direct hashing, modular hashing, multiplicative hashing, universal hashing,
perfect hashing, and double hashing, provide different methods to handle data and reduce collisions.
Each type of hashing has its specific use cases and advantages, making hashing a versatile tool in
computer science.

c) How does Hashing in data structure works? Explain with example. [6]

How Hashing in Data Structures Works

Hashing is a technique used to efficiently store and retrieve data in a data structure. It involves
using a hash function to convert data (keys) into a fixed-size hash value, which is then used as an
index to store the corresponding value in a hash table. This process allows for fast access to data
since it minimizes the need to search through the entire structure.

Steps of Hashing in Data Structures

1. Hash Function:

o A hash function is applied to the key to generate a hash value. This function takes
the input (key) and produces a fixed-size string of characters (usually an integer).

o Example Hash Function: hash(key)=key%m\text{hash}(key) = key \% m, where mm is

the size of the hash table.

2. Index Calculation:

o The hash value is used to determine the index in the hash table where the value will
be stored.

o This index is calculated using the hash value: index=hash(key)\text{index} =

\text{hash}(key).

3. Insertion:

o The data (value) is stored at the calculated index in the hash table.

o If two keys produce the same hash value (collision), a collision resolution strategy is
used to handle it.
4. Retrieval:

o To retrieve the value, the key is hashed again, and the hash value is used to find the
index in the hash table.

o The value is retrieved from the calculated index.

Example of Hashing in Data Structures

Let's consider a simple example of storing and retrieving student IDs using hashing:

1. Hash Function:

o Suppose we have a hash table of size 10 and a simple hash function:

hash(key)=key%10\text{hash}(key) = key \% 10.

2. Insertion:

o We need to store the following student IDs: 123, 456, 789.

o For Student ID 123:

▪ Hash Value: 123%10=3123 \% 10 = 3

▪ Store the ID at index 3 in the hash table.

o For Student ID 456:

▪ Hash Value: 456%10=6456 \% 10 = 6

▪ Store the ID at index 6 in the hash table.

o For Student ID 789:

▪ Hash Value: 789%10=9789 \% 10 = 9

▪ Store the ID at index 9 in the hash table.

3. Hash Table:

o After insertion, the hash table looks like this:

o Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

o [ ] [ ] [ ] [123] [ ] [ ] [456] [ ] [ ] [789]

4. Retrieval:

o To retrieve Student ID 456:

▪ Compute the hash value: 456%10=6456 \% 10 = 6.

▪ Access the value at index 6 in the hash table.

▪ Retrieved Value: 456.

Summary

Hashing in data structures involves using a hash function to convert keys into hash values, which
are used as indices to store and retrieve data in a hash table. This process allows for efficient
data access and minimizes search time. In the example provided, student IDs are stored and
retrieved using a simple hash function and a hash table.

d) Explain Secure Hash Algorithm Version 3 in detail.

Secure Hash Algorithm Version 3 (SHA-3)

SHA-3 is the latest member of the Secure Hash Algorithm family of standards, released by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) on August 5, 2015. Unlike its predecessors
(SHA-1 and SHA-2), SHA-3 is based on a different cryptographic primitive called Keccak.

Design and Structure

SHA-3 uses a method known as sponge construction. This method allows for inputting
(absorbing) any amount of data and outputting (squeezing) any amount of data, providing great
flexibility1. The sponge construction consists of two phases:

1. Absorption Phase:

o During this phase, the input data is divided into blocks and processed sequentially.
Each block is XORed with a portion of the sponge's current state, and a
transformation function called ff is applied to mix the data.

2. Squeezing Phase:

o In this phase, the hash value (output) is produced by extracting bits from the
sponge's state. The amount of data output can be adjusted based on the required
hash length1.

Variants of SHA-3

SHA-3 includes several variants with different digest sizes. Here are the main variants:

• SHA3-224: Produces a 224-bit hash value.

• SHA3-256: Produces a 256-bit hash value.

• SHA3-384: Produces a 384-bit hash value.

• SHA3-512: Produces a 512-bit hash value.

• SHAKE128: Produces an arbitrary-length output with a 128-bit security level.

• SHAKE256: Produces an arbitrary-length output with a 256-bit security level.

Applications of SHA-3

SHA-3 is designed to be a robust and versatile hashing algorithm, suitable for various
applications, including:

• Digital Signatures: Ensuring the integrity and authenticity of digital documents.

• Password Hashing: Storing user passwords securely.

 • Data Integrity: Verifying that data has not been altered during transmission or storage.

• Cryptographic Protocols: Enhancing the security of cryptographic protocols and systems.

Summary

SHA-3 is a secure and flexible hashing algorithm based on the Keccak cryptographic primitive. It
uses sponge construction to process data and offers multiple variants with different digest sizes

SHA-3 is suitable for a wide range of applications, providing robust security for digital signatures,
password hashing, data integrity, and cryptographic protocols.

a) What is ethereum? Explain working of ethereum. [4]

What is Ethereum?

Ethereum is a decentralized, open-source blockchain platform that enables the creation and
execution of smart contracts and decentralized applications (DApps). It was proposed by Vitalik
Buterin in late 2013 and went live on July 30, 2015. Ethereum's native cryptocurrency, Ether (ETH), is
used to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the network.

Working of Ethereum

1. Smart Contracts and DApps:

o Developers write smart contracts in high-level programming languages like Solidity.

These smart contracts are self-executing programs that automatically enforce and
execute the terms written into them. DApps use these smart contracts to provide
decentralized services.

2. Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM):

o The EVM is a decentralized runtime environment that executes smart contracts. It

ensures that the execution of contracts is consistent across all nodes in the network.
The EVM processes the bytecode compiled from high-level languages.

3. Transactions and Gas:

o Users interact with smart contracts and DApps by sending transactions to the
Ethereum network. These transactions require a fee known as "gas," paid in Ether.
Gas compensates for the computational effort required to execute the transactions
and prevents abuse of network resources.

4. Consensus Mechanism:

o Initially, Ethereum used the Proof of Work (PoW) consensus mechanism, where
miners solve complex mathematical puzzles to validate transactions and create new
blocks. With the Ethereum 2.0 upgrade, the network is transitioning to Proof of
Stake (PoS), where validators are selected based on the amount of Ether they hold
and are willing to "stake" as collateral.
 5. Blockchain:

o Transactions are grouped into blocks, which are then added to the Ethereum
blockchain. Each block contains a list of transactions and the hash of the previous
block, creating a secure and immutable chain of data. Nodes in the network validate
and maintain a copy of the blockchain, ensuring decentralization and security.

Summary

Ethereum is a powerful blockchain platform that facilitates decentralized applications and smart
contracts. It uses the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) to execute contracts, requires gas fees for
transactions, and is transitioning from Proof of Work to Proof of Stake for consensus. The blockchain
structure ensures data integrity and security across the decentralized network.

b) What is Hashing in data structure? Write types of hashing in data structure.[6]

What is Hashing in Data Structures?

Hashing is a technique used in data structures to map data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values,
called hash values or hash codes, using a hash function. Hashing is commonly used to efficiently
locate and access data within a database, array, or other data structures. The main advantage of
hashing is that it provides a fast way to search, insert, and delete data.

Types of Hashing in Data Structures

1. Direct Hashing (Trivial Hashing)

o Description: In direct hashing, a key is directly used as the address for storing the
data. This method is simple and efficient when the key space is small and the keys
are uniformly distributed.

o Example: For a small set of integer keys ranging from 0 to 100, each key can be used
as an index in an array.

2. Modular Hashing (Division Method)

o Description: In modular hashing, a key is divided by a chosen prime number, and the
remainder is used as the hash value. This method helps to distribute the keys
uniformly across the hash table.

o Example: If the chosen prime number is 7, the hash function can be

hash(key)=key%7\text{hash}(key) = key \% 7.

3. Multiplicative Hashing

o Description: In multiplicative hashing, a key is multiplied by a constant fraction, and

the integer part of the product is used as the hash value. This method is less
sensitive to the choice of the table size compared to modular hashing.

o Example: Using a constant fraction AA (where 0<A<10 < A < 1), the hash function can
be hash(key)=⌊m(key⋅A%1)⌋\text{hash}(key) = \lfloor m (key \cdot A \% 1) \rfloor,
where mm is the table size.
 4. Universal Hashing

o Description: Universal hashing uses a family of hash functions and selects one at
random for a given dataset. This method provides good performance on average and
reduces the likelihood of collision attacks.

o Example: A set of hash functions HH is defined, and one function hh from HH is

selected randomly for the dataset.

5. Perfect Hashing

o Description: Perfect hashing is used when a static set of keys is known in advance. It
ensures that there are no collisions by designing a specific hash function for the
given set of keys.

o Example: Creating a minimal perfect hash function that maps each key to a unique
index in a fixed-size hash table.

6. Double Hashing

o Description: Double hashing uses two hash functions to compute the hash value. If a
collision occurs, the second hash function is used to find the next available slot.

o Example: The primary hash function h1(key)=key%mh1(key) = key \% m and the

secondary hash function h2(key)=1+(key%(m−1))h2(key) = 1 + (key \% (m - 1)). The
final hash value is computed as (h1(key)+i⋅h2(key))%m(h1(key) + i \cdot h2(key)) \%
m, where ii is the collision count.

Summary

Hashing in data structures is a crucial technique for efficient data storage and retrieval. Various types
of hashing, such as direct hashing, modular hashing, multiplicative hashing, universal hashing,
perfect hashing, and double hashing, provide different methods to handle data and reduce
collisions. Each type of hashing has its specific use cases and advantages, making hashing a versatile
tool in computer science.

c) What is consensus? Explain consensus Mechanism in blockchain Technology? [8]

What is Consensus?

Consensus refers to the process of achieving agreement among a group of participants or nodes in a
distributed network about the state of the system. In the context of blockchain technology,
consensus mechanisms ensure that all nodes in the network agree on the validity and order of
transactions, thus maintaining the integrity and security of the blockchain.

Consensus Mechanism in Blockchain Technology

Consensus mechanisms are crucial for the functioning of blockchain networks. They enable
decentralized decision-making and ensure that the blockchain remains secure and tamper-proof.
Here are some of the most commonly used consensus mechanisms in blockchain technology:
1. Proof of Work (PoW)

o Description: PoW requires participants, known as miners, to solve complex

mathematical puzzles to validate transactions and create new blocks. The first miner
to solve the puzzle gets the right to add the block to the blockchain and is rewarded
with cryptocurrency.

o Example: Bitcoin and Ethereum (before Ethereum 2.0 transition).

o Pros: High security, resistance to attacks.

o Cons: Energy-intensive, slower transaction processing.

2. Proof of Stake (PoS)

o Description: PoS selects validators to create new blocks based on the amount of
cryptocurrency they hold and are willing to "stake" as collateral. Validators are
chosen randomly, and their chance of being selected increases with the amount they
stake.

o Example: Ethereum 2.0, Cardano.

o Pros: Energy-efficient, faster transaction processing.

o Cons: Can lead to centralization if a few entities control a large stake.

3. Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS)

o Description: DPoS allows token holders to vote for a small number of delegates who
will validate transactions and create new blocks on their behalf. This mechanism
aims to achieve faster consensus with fewer validators.

o Example: EOS, Tron.

o Pros: High scalability, fast transaction processing.

o Cons: Potential centralization, reliance on elected delegates.

4. Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT)

o Description: PBFT is designed to achieve consensus even in the presence of

malicious nodes. It relies on a pre-determined set of nodes (or replicas) that
communicate and agree on the validity of transactions through multiple rounds of
voting.

o Example: Hyperledger Fabric.

o Pros: High fault tolerance, fast finality.

o Cons: Requires a reliable set of validators, communication overhead.

5. Proof of Authority (PoA)

o Description: PoA relies on a small number of trusted nodes (authorities) to validate

transactions and create new blocks. These authorities are pre-approved and known
to the network.

o Example: VeChain, POA Network.

 o Pros: High throughput, low energy consumption.

o Cons: Centralization, reliance on trusted authorities.

Summary

Consensus mechanisms are essential for maintaining the integrity and security of blockchain
networks. They ensure that all nodes agree on the validity and order of transactions. Popular
consensus mechanisms include Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), Delegated Proof of Stake
(DPoS), Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT), and Proof of Authority (PoA). Each mechanism
has its own advantages and trade-offs, making it suitable for different types of blockchain networks.

b) How does Hashing in data structure works? Explain with example. [6]

How Hashing in Data Structures Works

Hashing is a technique used to efficiently store and retrieve data in a data structure by converting the
data (keys) into a fixed-size hash value using a hash function. This hash value is then used as an index
to store and retrieve the corresponding value in a hash table, allowing for fast access to data.

Steps of Hashing in Data Structures

1. Hash Function:

o A hash function takes the input (key) and produces a fixed-size string of characters
(hash value), usually an integer. This hash value serves as an index in the hash table.

o Example Hash Function: hash(key)=key%m\text{hash}(key) = key \% m, where mm is

the size of the hash table.

2. Index Calculation:

o The hash value is used to determine the index in the hash table where the value will
be stored.

o This index is calculated using the hash value: index=hash(key)\text{index} =

\text{hash}(key).

3. Insertion:

o The data (value) is stored at the calculated index in the hash table.

o If two keys produce the same hash value (collision), a collision resolution strategy is
used to handle it.

4. Retrieval:

o To retrieve the value, the key is hashed again, and the hash value is used to find the
index in the hash table.

o The value is retrieved from the calculated index.

Example of Hashing in Data Structures

Let's consider a simple example of storing and retrieving student IDs using hashing:

1. Hash Function:

o Suppose we have a hash table of size 10 and a simple hash function:

hash(key)=key%10\text{hash}(key) = key \% 10.

2. Insertion:

o We need to store the following student IDs: 123, 456, 789.

o For Student ID 123:

▪ Hash Value: 123%10=3123 \% 10 = 3

▪ Store the ID at index 3 in the hash table.

o For Student ID 456:

▪ Hash Value: 456%10=6456 \% 10 = 6

▪ Store the ID at index 6 in the hash table.

o For Student ID 789:

▪ Hash Value: 789%10=9789 \% 10 = 9

▪ Store the ID at index 9 in the hash table.

3. Hash Table:

o After insertion, the hash table looks like this:

o Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

o [ ] [ ] [ ] [123] [ ] [ ] [456] [ ] [ ] [789]

4. Retrieval:

o To retrieve Student ID 456:

▪ Compute the hash value: 456%10=6456 \% 10 = 6.

▪ Access the value at index 6 in the hash table.

▪ Retrieved Value: 456.

Summary

Hashing in data structures involves using a hash function to convert keys into hash values, which are
used as indices to store and retrieve data in a hash table. This process allows for efficient data access
and minimizes search time. In the example provided, student IDs are stored and retrieved using a
simple hash function and a hash table.
d) List out the ethereum development tools. Explain any two

Ethereum Development Tools

Here are some popular Ethereum development tools:

1. Remix

2. Truffle

3. MetaMask

4. Ganache

5. Hardhat

6. Ethers.js

7. Web3.js

8. Solc

9. DappSys

10. MythX

Explanation of Two Tools

1. Remix

Remix is an open-source integrated development environment (IDE) for Ethereum smart contracts.
It allows developers to write, compile, and deploy smart contracts directly in the browser. Remix
provides a user-friendly interface with features like syntax highlighting, auto-completion, and error
checking, making it accessible for both beginners and experienced developers1.

Key Features:

• Write, compile, and deploy smart contracts: Remix supports Solidity and Vyper, allowing
developers to write and deploy smart contracts without needing to set up a local
development environment.

• Plugin system: Remix supports various plugins, including the LearnEth plugin for tutorials
and the Ethernauts plugin for security challenges.

• Interactive tutorials: Remix offers interactive tutorials to help developers learn how to build
and deploy smart contracts.

2. Truffle

Truffle is a development framework for Ethereum that provides a suite of tools for building, testing,
and deploying smart contracts and decentralized applications (DApps). Truffle includes a built-in
development blockchain, smart contract compilation, testing frameworks, and deployment tools2.

Key Features:

• Smart contract compilation: Truffle compiles Solidity smart contracts into bytecode that can
be deployed to the Ethereum network.
 • Testing: Truffle supports automated testing using JavaScript-based testing frameworks like
Mocha and Chai. This allows developers to write unit tests and integration tests for their
smart contracts2.

• Deployment: Truffle provides tools for deploying smart contracts to various Ethereum
networks, including local testnets and public networks.

• Interactive console: Truffle includes an interactive console for interacting with deployed
smart contracts and testing their functionality

These tools are essential for Ethereum developers as they streamline the development process and
provide robust testing and deployment capabilities. If you have any further questions or need more
details, feel free to ask!

state and explain etherium nodes and types of etherium nodes

Ethereum Nodes

Ethereum nodes are computers that run Ethereum software and participate in the Ethereum
network by verifying and broadcasting transactions and blocks. Each node maintains a copy of the
Ethereum blockchain and ensures the network's integrity and security2.

Types of Ethereum Nodes

There are three main types of Ethereum nodes:

1. Full Nodes

o Description: Full nodes store a complete copy of the Ethereum blockchain and
validate all transactions and smart contracts. They play a crucial role in maintaining
the network's security and decentralization.

o Function: Full nodes verify transactions, execute smart contracts, and ensure that
the blockchain remains consistent across the network.

2. Light Nodes

o Description: Light nodes store only the most recent state of the blockchain and rely
on full nodes for transaction verification. They require less storage and
computational power compared to full nodes.

o Function: Light nodes download only the block headers and request necessary data
from full nodes when needed. This makes them suitable for devices with limited
resources, such as mobile phones.

3. Archive Nodes

o Description: Archive nodes store the entire history of the Ethereum blockchain,
including all past states. They are used for detailed analysis and historical data
retrieval.
 o Function: Archive nodes provide access to the complete transaction history and can
be used for data analysis, auditing, and research purposes.

Summary

Ethereum nodes are essential components of the Ethereum network, ensuring its security and
decentralization. The three main types of nodes—full nodes, light nodes, and archive nodes—serve
different purposes and offer varying levels of data storage and computational requirements3.