BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING :-

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including
public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines,
structural components of buildings, and railways.
Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. Civil engineering is
the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and
its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics
throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several
specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials
science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project
management, and other fields.

DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING-

The various disciplines of civil engineering are-
1. ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING

An art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town creating buildings and
environments to meet the various needs such as social, cultural, economic and recreational
etc. and to provide healthy conditions for both rich and poor to live, to work, and to playor
relax, thus bringing about the social and economic well-being for the majority of mankind is
known as town planning.
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OBJECTIVES OF TOWN PLANNING-

 To create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the people.
 To make right use of the land for the right purpose by zoning
 To ensure orderly development
 To avoid encroachment of one zone over the other.

2. BUILDING MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

All the building structures are composed of various types of materials. These materials are
either referred to as building materials or materials of construction.

A builder, perhaps an architect or engineer, or a contractor needs to become familiar totally

with these building materials.These are some of the most commonly used building materials -

1. Stones
2. Bricks
3. Cement
4. Sand
5. Mortar
6. Concrete
7. Timber
8. Metals
9. Glass
10. Ceramics
11. Miscellaneous Building Materials
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3. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

It focuses on the knowledge and skills required for the planning, coordination and
successful implementation of large Projects such as design and construction of structures
and buildings, ship structures, aircraft, dams, roads, and bridges etc. It is a fusion of
engineering and management.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:-

 This field is concerned with the study of the necessary methods and techniques of environment
protection as well as the availability of the basic life elements such as water and air with a
specific level of quality to protect the mankind health and environment.
 This includes design and construction of water distribution networks, wastewater and storm
water collection systems, water treatment plants and wastewater treatment for reuse in
industrial and agricultural fields.
 Environmental engineering involves also the study of the different techniques of controlling
air, water and soil pollution as well as the proper disposal or recycle of solid and
hazardous wastes.

5. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:-

 This field is concerned with the study of the soil properties of the construction site and its
bearing capacity.
 Geotechnical engineering is concerned also with the suitable solutions for any problemin the
soil as well as the choice of the best and secured methods of design and construction of the
foundation of engineering structures.

6. HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING-

 This field covers the basic concepts of water science and its related theorems and applications.
This includes the methods of transporting water from sources to distribution sites through
channels and pipelines, water sources and storage system, types of dams and their design
methods.
 It involves also the study of seawater movements and shore protection.
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 Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water flowing inan
isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean).

7. REMOTE SENSING ENGINEERING-

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of
an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from
satellite or aircraft).
Some specific uses of remotely sensed images of the Earth include:
 Large forest fires can be mapped from space, allowing rangers to see a much largerarea
than from the ground.
 Tracking clouds to help predict the weather or watching erupting volcanoes, and help
watching for dust storms.
 Tracking the growth of a city and changes in farmland or forests over severalyears
or decades.
 Discovery and mapping of the rugged topography of the ocean floor (e.g., huge
mountain ranges, deep canyons, and the “magnetic striping” on the ocean floor).

8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:-

 This discipline deals with the analysis and design of concrete and steel structures, such
as multi-story buildings, bridges, towers....etc. It deals also with the study of the durability
and resistibility of such structures for live loads, wind and earthquake.
 The study involves also the study of the properties of building materials according to the
international specifications.

9. SURVEYING:-

Surveying typically involves measurements of horizontal and vertical distances between

points. It also includes descriptions of the exact characteristics of the land structure and
surface.
A surveying engineer also works to:
 provide the proper design and development of infrastructure
 protect the surrounding natural environment
 maximize the efficiency of the proposed structures
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10. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:-

Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the planning,
design, operation, and maintenance of transportation systems to help build smart, safe,
and liveable communities.
Any system that moves people and goods from one place to another falls under the scope of
transportation engineering, which includes:
 Highways and roadways
 Railways
 Oil pipelines
 Public transport systems
 Traffic control systems
 Automated transport systems
 Space transport systems

Importance of Civil Engineering in Infrastructure Development of the Country:-

Civil Engineers play a major role in the infrastructure development of a country.
Allstructures constructed in the past exhibit the path of civilization and current
infrastructures
development express the practices followed by civil engineers.
Infrastructure can be defined as activities that provide society with services necessary to
conduct daily life and to engage in productive activity and development in a country’s
economy.
In a country like India, the major infrastructural. Factors that are most significant in
accelerating the pace of economic development are energy, transport, irrigation, finance,
communications, education, and health.
The knowledge of basic areas of civil engineering can be of great use in providing the
infrastructural facilities where constructional aspects are involved for development of
regions.
 Good surface communication links such as tar or concrete rods.
 Provision of water supply distribution system i.e., construction of water storagereservation
or sumps, laying of underground pipes etc.
 Provision of a drainage system which may include construction of surface drainsas
subsurface drains for the disposal of wastewater.
 Supply of electrical power for which construction of transmission line towers, construction
of electrical substations.
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 Providing inland communications lines, i.e., telephone lines etc.

 Construction of recreational places e.g., gardens, parks etc.
TYPES OF BUILDING AS PER NBC (NATIONAL BUILDING CODE):-

Any structure made for whatsoever purpose with any material, used for human habitation or
not which included foundation, plinth, walls, floor, roofs, chimney, plumbing, and building
services, Verandah, Balcony, and cornice, etc. is called a building. Buildings are classified
based on occupance and type of construction:

A. RESIDENTIAL
B. EDUCATIONAL
C. INSTITUTIONAL
D. ASSEMBLY
E. BUSINESS
F. MERCANTILE (included retail and wholeshale store)
G. INDUSTRIAL (low, moderate and high fire hazards)
H. STORAGE
I. HAZARDOUS
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1. Residential Buildings-

Any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential

purposes with or without cooking/dining. These are further classified as:
Group A-Residential
A1: Lodging or rooming houses.
A2: One or two-family private dwellingsA3: Dormitories
A4: Apartment houses
A5: Hotels (upto 4 star category)
A6: Hotels (Starred- five star and above)

(i) Lodging and rooming houses- These are buildings in which separate sleeping
accommodation with or without a dining facility but without a cooking facility is
provided. For instance, Inns, Clubs, Motels, and Guesthouses.
(ii) One or two-family private dwelling- A private dwelling which is occupied by members of
one or two-family. Maximum sleeping accommodation is provided for 20 persons.
(iii) Dormitories- Any building in which group sleeping accommodation is provided with or
without dining facilities. e.g., School and College Dormitories, Hostels, and Military
Barracks.
(iv) Apartment Houses- Buildings in which living quarters are provided for three or more
families having independent cooking facilities and living independently of each other. e.g.,
apartments, Mansions, and Chowls.
(v) Hotels -Buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided with or without dining
facilities for up to four-star categories (hotels).
(vi) Hotels (Starred) Normally five star and above by local authority.

2. Educational Buildings

Any building used for school, college, and other training institutions having a minimum of
20 students.
(i) Schools up to Senior Secondary level Minimum students should be 20.
(ii) All others/training institute Minimum students should be 100.
3. Institutional Buildings-

Buildings that are used for medical or other treatment, care of persons suffering from
physical and mental illness, care of infants, for inmates etc are called institutional buildings
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(i) Hospital and Sanatoria -Any building which is used for the treatment of patients e.g.,
hospitals, sanatoria, infirmaries, and nursing homes.
(ii) Custodial Institutions Any building used for custody and care of a person for instance
children, old age homes, orphanages, etc
(iii) Penal and mental institutions Any building which is used for housing persons whose liberty is
restricted e.g., jails, prisons, mental hospitals, etc.

4. Assembly Buildings

Any building in which a minimum of 50 persons gathers for recreational, amusement, social,
religious, patriotic purposes e.g., theatres, assembly halls, exhibition halls, museums,
estaurants, places of worship, etc.
These are classified into 7 types:
(i) The building having theatrical or motion pictures or any other stage having fixed seats for
over 1000 persons.
(ii) The building having theatrical or motion pictures or any other stage having fixed seats for
up to 1000 persons.
(iii) Buildings without a permanent stage having an accommodation for 300 or
morepersons but no permanent seating arrangements.
(iv) All other structures including temporary structures designed for assembly
ofpeoples.
(v) Buildings having mixed occupancies of assembly and mercantile
(vi) Underground and elevated mass rapid transit system.

5. Business Buildings

Any buildings used for the transaction of business, professional establishments, service
facilities, etc. are termed as business buildings.
These are further divided into 5 types –
(i) Offices, banks, professional establishments etc.
(ii) Laboratories, clinics, research establishments and libraries etc.
(iii) IT parks, call centers etc.
(iv) Telephone exchange
(v) Broadcasting stations, TV stations and air traffic control towers.
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6. Mercantile Buildings
Any building which is used as a shop, store, market, etc. is known as mercantile buildings.
These are further classified as:
(i) Shops, stores, departmental stores, markets (covered area up to 500 sq. m ).
(ii) Shops, stores, departmental stores, markets (covered area more than 500 sq. m).
(iii) Underground shopping centres, storage and service facilities

7. Industrial Buildings

Any building in which products or materials are fabricated, assembled, manufactured, or

processed. For instance, assembly plants, industrial laboratories, power plants, pumping
stations, etc.
 Buildings for low hazard industry –

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured that have lowcombustibility.

 Buildings for moderate hazard industry-

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured which will burn withmoderate rapidity.

 Buildings for high hazard industry-

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured which will burn withextreme rapidity and
results in hazardous situations.

8. STORAGE BUILDINGS
 Any building which is used for storage of goods, ware or merchandise, vehicles or
animals. e.g., warehouse, cold storage, garages, stables, etc.

9. HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS

 Buildings which are used for storage, handling, manufacture, or processing of highly
combustible or explosive material. For instance, manufacture of explosives and fireworks,
storage of highly flammable liquids, storage of LPG, rocket propellants, etc.
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SELECTION OF SITE FOR BUILDINGS :-

1. The soil of site should have good bearing capacity. Hard strata should be availableat
reasonable depth, around 1.2m to1.5m depth from ground level.
2. The site should be on elevated ground. It should have slope towards front street to afford good
facility of drainage.
3. Sites nearer to ponds ,pools of water, water logged areas must be avoided as theyremain in
damp condition .
4. Sites near to high voltage power transmission lines are avoided.
5. Sites very nearer to big shopping complexes , markets, railway station ,airport areavoided
6. The surrounding of site should be pleasing and calm.
7. The orientation of site should be such that it receives natural light and air inplenty.
8. The location of site is such that the common facilities like school, transportation, medical
facilities etc are within reasonable range.
9. Sites in developed colonies should be preferred.
10. The layout of the colony should be approved by local authorities. This will help in getting
essential facilities like water , drainage ,electricity, telephone connection etc easily.
COMPONENTS OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

Building component means any subsystem, subassembly, or other system designed for use in,
or as part of, a structure, which may include structural, electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and
fire protection systems and other systems affecting health and safety.
The basic function of a building is to provide structurally sound and environmentally
controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and contents.A building is combination of
various components. A Civil Engineer should have good knowledge of execution of each and
every component with respect to design layouts given by Architect.
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The following are the basic component parts of a residential building:-

1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Walls and columns
4. Sills, lintels and chejjas
5. Doors and windows
6. Floors
7. Roofs
8. Steps, stairs and lifts
9. Finishing work
10. Building services.
11. Parapet

The functions of these elements and the main requirement of them are discussed below-
1. Foundation:
Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts
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with digging the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the
building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and
requirements are:
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

2. Plinth:
 The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level
is called plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is
cast to support wall above floor level. At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is provided. It
is usually 75 mm thick plain concrete course.
 The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of
dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at least 150
mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage system can be made.
3.Walls and Columns:-
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure vertically
downwards to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this wall performs the following functions
also:
(a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
(b) It provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

4. Sills, Lintels and Chejjas:-

 A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is placed over 50 mm to
75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course is called as sill.
 Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to
transfer the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed
unduly. The width of lintels is equal to the width of wall while thickness to be provided
depends upon the opening size.
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 Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from the rain.
They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are provided as chejjas.
The projection of chejja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. Sometimes drops are also provided
to chejjas to improve aesthetic look and also to get additional protection from sun and rain.
5. Doors and Windows:-
 The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and to deny the
access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of the
door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely
to use the door.
 Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located at a
height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area
should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used to determine the size
and the number of windows is for every 30 sq. m of inside volume there should be 1 sq. m
window opening.
6. Floors:-
 Floors are the important component of a building. They give working/useful area for the
occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick bats, waste stones, graveland well
compacted with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top. A lean concreteof 1 : 4 : 8, 100
mm thick is laid. On this a damp proof course may be provided. Thenfloor finishing is done
as per the requirement of the owner.
 Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course finished
with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is mosaic or marble finishing. Other floors are
usually of R.C.C. finished as per the requirements of the owner.
7. Roof:-
 Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building. It should
be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof cover easily. But they do
not give provision for the construction of additional floor. Tiled roof gives good thermal
protection. Flat roofs give provision for additional floors. Terrace adds to the comfort of
occupants. Water tanks can be easily placed over the flat roofs.
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8. Step, Stairs and Lifts:-

 Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are required at
doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is ideal size for steps. In no
case the size of two consecutive steps be different. Number of steps required depends upon
the difference in the levels of the ground and the floor.
 Stairs give access from floor to floor. They should consist of steps of uniform sizes. In all
public buildings lifts are to be provided for the conveniences of old anddisabled persons.
 In hostels G + 3 floors can be without lifts. Lift is to be located near the entrance. Size of
the lift is decided by the number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available with capacity 4 to
20 persons.
10. Finishing:-
 Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing
with plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles. The
function of finishing work is:
o Give protective cover
o Improve aesthetic view
o Rectify defective workmanship
o Finishing work for plinth consists in pointing while for floor it consists inpolishing.
 Building Services:-
 Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and construction of
cupboards and show cases constitute major building services.
 For storing water from municipal supply or from tanker a sump is built in the house property
near street. From the sump water is pumped to overhead tanks placed on or above roof level
so as to get water all the 24 hours. Plumbing work is made so as to get water in kitchen,
bathrooms, water closets, sinks and garden taps. For draining rain water from roofs, down
take pipes of at least 100 mm diameters should be used. Proper slopes should be given to roof
towards down take pipe. These pipes should be fixed at 10 to 15 mm below the roof surface
so that rain water is directed to the down take pipe easily.
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 The sanitary fittings are to be connected to stone ware pipes with suitable traps and
chambers. Stone ware pipes are then connected to underground drainage of municipal lines or
to the septic tank.
 Many carpentry works are required for building service. They are in the form of showcases,
cupboards, racks etc.
 Electric supply is essential part of building services. The building should be provided with
sufficient points for supply of lights, fans and other electric gadgets.

11. Parapet:-
 The parapet is a minor wall around the edge of a roof, balcony, terrace, or stairway, usually
covering the roof’s perimeter. It protects the top and pre-built structures from corrosion and
degradation.
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INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL BUILDING AND TYPES-

 Any building structure used by the industry to store raw materials or for manufacturing
products of the industry is known as an industrial building.

 Industrial buildings are generally used for steel plants, automobile industries, utility and
process industries, thermal power stations, warehouse, assembly plants, storage, garages, etc.

Factors Considered while Selecting Site For Industrial Building:-

 Site should be located on an arterial road.

 Local availability of raw material.
 Facilities like water supply, electricity
 Topography of an area
 Soil conditions with respect to foundation design
 Waste disposal facilities
 Transportation facilities
 Sufficient space for storage of raw materials

Types of Industrial Building

1. Warehouses
2. Cold Storage Buildings
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3. Telecom Centres or Data Hosting Centres

4. Flex Buildings
5. Light Manufacturing Buildings
6. Research And Development Set up

1. Warehouse
 There are buildings that are used for storing goods on behalf of other companies. These are
called warehouses. Although warehouses can be of different sizes, they are usually large and
are located outside city limits. They can have more than one storey and can have loading
docks, huge parking lots of big trucks. They can also have a small office set up inside the
premises.
 These typical single-story warehouses range in size from 5,000 to hundreds of thousands of
square feet and are used for the storage and transport of goods. Ceilings are generally at least
60 feet high because of the necessary racking and storage systems concealed beneath its roof.
Loading docks, big truck doors, and parking areas for semi-trailers used for distribution are
among the other important elements of an industrial building.
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2. Cold Storage Buildings-

 Refrigeration and cold storage facilities are distribution centres dedicated to food items like
meat, produce, and dairy. These buildings provide rooms for cooling and freezing in order to
maintain goods at the right temperatures before they are sent out. Other key features include
docks with special seals to keep products cool, as well as insulated overhead doors that keep
them frozen.
 These are especially built to store large amounts of food products and keep them under
refrigerated conditions for long periods. These buildings are located mostly along state and
national highways and in places where there is good supply of electricity.

3. Telecom/Data Hosting Centers (Switching Centers, Cyber Centers, Web Hosting

Facilities, Telecom Centers )

 These highly specialized industrial buildings are located close to major communications
trunk lines to allow for access to an extremely large and redundant power supply capable of
powering extensive computer servers and telecom switching equipment.

4. FLEX BUILDING:-

 This is the newest addition to the category of industrial segment of industrial real estate and
is a result of the evolving needs of modern times. These flex building have more than one
usage and can accommodate a Rand D facility, an office set up, light manufacturing and
even showroom spaces. They are flexible in nature and some of the uses can be changed by
making simple modifications.
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 FLEX Building Systems is committed to providing flexible, superior building systems for a
variety of applications. Flex buildings often incorporate different areas or spaces in a design,
optimised for different purposes and needs. This can be either an uninsulated or insulated
warehouse, workshop, garage or even a showroom, often in combination with one or more
offices. The buildings often have to balance complex solutions for production, cold storage
and heating. Flex space buildings are mainly of three types - Research and Development
buildings, Data centre buildings, and Show rooms.

5. LIGHT MANUFACTURING BUILDING:-

These buildings can be used in processing food items or assembly of light machinery like
fans, water pumps, gadgets, etc. These are generally small in size as compared to heavy
industrial buildings and do not have blast furnace, high capacity exhaust systems etc. These
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buildings can sometimes find alternative uses like a unit making water pumps can be
converted in to assembly unit for gadget by making changes in the some of the installed
machinery.

6. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT BUILDING:-

Research and Development (R&D) forms an integral part of many businesses and they like to
set up their own R&D centres which cater to their specific requirements. A lot of life sciences
companies have their R&D centres which are usually owned by them. These centres are
generally not in the centre of the city. Companies can house their scientists and other staff in
these centres and hence there are residential elements in this kind of a set up. There can also
be elements of office buildings in a R&D centre. Sometimes these centres run on rented
buildings also but the lease period is usually long.

7. SHOWROOM BUILDINGS:-

A showroom, also referred to as a gallery, is a large space used to display products or show
entertainment. A showroom is a large space used to display products for sale, such as
automobiles, furniture, appliances, carpet or apparel. It is a retail store of a company in which
products are on sale in a space created by their brand or company. There are many types of
showroom buildings like jewellery shops, malls, large vehicle showroom, furniture
showrooms etc.
 Basic Infrastructure Service

(A) Air Conditioning and Purpose

 Air-conditioning is the process of treating air to maintain its temperature, humidity, purity,
and distribution simultaneously in order to fulfil the requirements of the conditioned area,
such as human comfort and health, industrial process needs, and the efficient operation
of commercial premises.
 An air conditioner provides cold air inside your home or enclosed space by actually
removing heat and humidity from the indoor air. It returns the cooled air to the indoor space,
and transfers the unwanted heat and humidity outside.

 Purpose of Air Conditioning

Below are the major functions of an air conditioning system in modern houses:

1. The primary purpose of air conditioning is to create a room climate comfortable for
humans.
2. Some special type of conditioning system is used to cool the temperature of electric
devices.

3. It controls the humidity of a room as 30 to 65% is permitted while the temperature

should be between 20 and 26 degrees Celsius.

4. Air conditioning system affects the room air to comfort people and their productivity
is not impeded.
5. The condition of the air is characterized by temperature, pressure and humidity.The air
pressure is not changed.
6. Air conditioning system can be for heating, dehumidifying, cooling, and humidifying.
 Types Of Air Conditioning

1. Ducted Air Conditioning.

2. Split System Air Conditioning.

3. Multi Split Air Conditioning.
4. Controls.

 Major Components of Air Conditioners

1. Compressor
2. Condenser coil
3. Thermostat
4. Evaporator
5. Air Handling and Machine unit
6. Valves
(B) Fire Protection and Materials

 Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of
potentially destructive fires.
 It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and
investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and development,
production, testing and application of mitigating systems.
 Fire protection within a structure is a system that relies on all of its components. The
building is designed in compliance with the local building code and fire code by the architect
and other consultants.

 Modes of Fire Protection

Fire protection in land-based buildings, offshore construction or on board ships is typically

achieved via all of the following:

1. Passive fire protection - The installation of firewalls and fire rated floor assembliesto form
fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire, high temperatures, and smoke.
2. Active fire protection - Manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires, such as
fire sprinkler systems and (fire alarm) systems.
3. Education - The provision of information regarding passive and active fire protection systems
to building owners, operators, occupants, and emergency personnel so that theyhave a working
understanding of the intent of these systems and how they perform in the fire safety plan.

 Basic Requirements of Buildings for Fire safety:

Regarding achieving resistance to fire, the basic requirements laid down in the codes are:

 The structure should not ignite easily.

 Building orientation should be such that spread of fire is slow.
 In case of fire, there should be means of easy access to vacate building quick.
  The following points should be given due consideration for protecting the openings:

 (i) Solid timber doors having a minimum thickness of 4 cm should be used where some

degree of fire resistance is desired.

 (ii) All those openings which are used for communication, should have double fire- proof

doors and other openings may have single fire-proof doors. (Fire-proof doors are considered

to be of superior type when made of steel plate with a minimum thickness of 6 mm and of

inferior type when made of composite material, i.e., 4 cm thick timber panel sandwiched by

iron sheets of 3 mm on either side.

 (iii) Any window exposed to the roof of the structure should be protected by fire-proof

shutters.

 (iv) If any structure has a separation less than 6 metres from the adjoining structure,then all

doors, windows or exposed sides should be made of fire-proof construction.

 (v) All escape doors should be such as to provide free circulation to the persons in passages,

lobbies, corridors, stairs, entrances, etc. and be made of fire-proof materials.

 (vi) Windows, if carried down the floor, should have suitable barrier, like projecting slab

beyond the outer face of the building.

 Materials for fire protection

 Wall and columns;

 2. Floor and roofs;
 3. Wall openings; and
 4. Building fire escape elements, e.g., stair, stair cases, corridors, entrances, etc.
Brick and MortarStone
Timber Steel ConcreteGlass Cast iron
(C) Ventilation
<Ventilation, necessity and functional requirements>

Ventilation is defined as a process of removing or supplying air by natural or mechanical

means to and from an air source or any space.

 Building ventilation has three basic elements/ Functional requirements:

1. Ventilation rate — The amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and thequality
of the outdoor air.

2. Airflow direction — The overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from
clean zones to dirty zones; and

3. Air distribution or airflow pattern — The external air should be delivered to each part of the
space in an efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part of the space
should also be removed in an efficient manner.

 Necessity of Ventilation
1. To prevent an undue concentration of body odours, fumes, dust, and other industrial
products
2. To prevent an undue concentration of bacteria carrying particles
3. To remove products of combustion, and to remove body heat and the heat liberated
by the operation of electrical and mechanical equipment.
4. To create air movement, to remove the circulated air and its replacement by the fresh air.
5. To create healthy living conditions by preventing the undue accumulation of carbon
dioxide and moisture, and depletion of the oxygen content of the air. For comfortable
working conditions, the content of carbon dioxide should be limited to about 0.6% volume
(in air).
(D) Lifts, and EscalatorsLIFTS

 An elevator or lift is a machine that vertically transports people or freight between levels.
 They are typically powered by electric motors that drive traction cables and counterweight
systems such as a hoist, although some pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like
a jack.
 Elevators are used in buildings having more than three storeys. They are either electric
traction elevators or hydraulic elevators.
 Electrical traction elevators are used exclusively in tall buildings.
 Hydraulic elevators are generally used for low-rise freight service till six storeys.

 Various Design Parameters for Manufacturing of Lifts/Elevators

1. Population (The total building population & its future projections are required)
2. Quantity of service (Handling capacity- It is the measure passenger handling capacity)
3. Quality of service (or interval – time interval a passenger has to wait).
 Types of Lifts
1. Passenger lift
2. Hospital lift
3. Goods lift
4. Service lift
5. Fireman’s lift.

 Working Principle of an Elevator/Lift

 Basically, an elevator is a metal box in different shapes which is connected to a very tough
metal rope.
 The tough metal rope passes through a sheave on the elevator in the engineroom.
 The working principle of an elevator or lift is similar to the pulley system.
 Here a sheave is like a wheel in pulley system for clutching the metal ropestrongly. This
system can be operated by a motor.
 When the switch is turned ON, the motor can be activated when the elevator goes up and
down or stops.

 ESCALATORS 
 An escalator is a moving staircase which carries people between floors of a building or
structure. It consists of a motor-driven chain of individually linked steps on a track which
cycle on a pair of tracks which keep the step treadhorizontal.

 Escalators are often used around the world in places where lifts would be impractical, or
they can be used in conjunction with them.
 Principal areas of usage include department stores, shopping malls, airports, transit systems
(railway/railroad stations), convention centers, hotels, arenas, stadiums and public buildings.

 Types of Escalator
1. Parallel
2. Crisscross
3. Multiple Parallel
4. Curved

 Working Principle of Escalators

 An escalator is made up of a set of interlocking steps, powered by an electric motor.
 A pair of chains looped around two pairs of gears rotate to move the steps along while a
larger metal structure called a truss encases the entire mechanismto connect the floors.
 The steps then move about like a conveyer belt, entering into a special guide system at the
top and bottom of the truss to create a level platform for passengersto board or exit.
 They are generally operated at a speed of 0.5 to 0.75 m/s. Slope of stairs is standardized at
300.
 For a given speed, the width of steps decides the capacity of the powered stairs. Normally a
design capacity of 3200 to 6400 person per hour is adopted depending upon the width of
the escalator.

SURVEYING
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions on, beneath, or above the surface
of the ground or earth by the direct or indirect way of measurements of distance, direction,
and elevation.

Surveying principle:-

Two basic principles of surveying are:

• Always work from whole to the part

• To locate a new station by at least two measurements (Linear or angular) from a

fixed reference points. The area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. Control stations) and
main survey lines.

Objectives of Surveying

Surveying is the means of determining the relative position of points and the relative
distances. It is very important in the field of Civil Engineering. We can find uses of
surveying in all civil engineering projects. The objectives of surveying may very depending
onthe type of project. The main objectives of surveying are discussed below.

 To determine the relative position of any objects or points of the earth.

 To determine the distance and angle between different objects.
 To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plan.
 To develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the technology anduse
them in the field.
 To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.
 Station: A definite point on the Earth whose location has been determined by surveying
methods. Usually, but not always, marked on the ground using a monument of special
construction, or by a natural or-artificial structure. The station's origin or purpose is usually
described in its name.
Datum: An assumed surface used as a reference for the measurement of heights and
depths. A line to which dimensions are referred on engineering drawings, and from which
measurements are calculated Horizontal datums measure positions (latitude and longitude)
on the surface of the Earth, while vertical datums are used to measure land elevations and
water depths.

Bench mark: A post or other permanent mark established at a known elevation that is
usedas the basis for measuring the elevation of other topographical points.

Reduce level: Reduced level refers to equating elevations of survey points with
reference to a commonly assumed datum. It is a vertical distance above or below the datum
plane. The most common datum used is Mean Sea Level. This reduced level is the term used
in levelling.

Surveying Instruments
Surveying instruments are used to assist in measuring land, including vertical distance,
horizontal distance, and volume of excavated material. A land surveyor uses surveying
instruments to make precise measurements of the earth's surface. Instruments used in
surveying include:

HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS
A. DIRECT LINEAR SURVEYING
B. SETTING OUT RIGHT ANGLES
C. SETTING OUT DIRECTIONS
D. SETTING OUT ANGLES
A. Instruments for DIRECT LINEAR SURVEYING
1. MEASURING TAPES

Measuring Tape

It is made up of cotton, coated linen, or any other synthetic material. Centimeters or

decimeters are marked on the tape.
They are available in lengths of 20, 30, or 50 meters.

Metallic tape: Available in lengths 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters. Except for 2 and 5-meter
tapes, other tapes have a small ring fastened at the ends which is of the same width as that of
the tape for protection and are supplied in a leather or metal case with a winding device.

Steel tape: Available in lengths 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters. Except for 1 and 2-meter
tapes, other tapes have a small brass ring fastened at the ends. These tapes are supplied in a
corrosion-resistant metal case or a leather case with a winding device.

Invar tape: Available in lengths of 20, 30, and 100 meters. Made up of an alloy of nickel and
steel with a low thermal coefficient of expansion.

Used for linear measurements that require high precision. It should be kept on reels of high
diameter as they can be easily bent and damaged.
 2. SURVEYING CHAINS

Surveying Chains

Use

 The chain is used to measure the distance on the ground. It gives much more accurate
measurements as compared to tape.
 A chain is a surveying instrument that is made up of connecting links of galvanized mild
steel. The mild steel wire is bent into a ring and joined to each other with three small circular
or oval rings. Each connecting link measures 20 cm.
 A tally marker or a special joint is also installed sometimes to mark the distance of 5 meters.
 The total length of the chain is 20 meters or 30 meters, which also includes a brass handle
on each end. The handles are provided with swivel joints so they can be easily turned during
surveying without being twisted.
3. ARROW:-

Arrows
 Use

 Arrows are used for marking and are made up of hardened, and tempered steel wire of
good quality.

 10 arrows are usually sold with a chain. Its length is about 25-50 cm. One of its ends is
sharpened while the other end is bent into a circular loop.

 To mark the chain length on the ground, an arrow is inserted at the end of the chain.

4. PEG

 Pegs are mostly made of timber. They are also used to mark out the locations on the
ground at terminal points or the end of the survey line.
 They are 2.5-3 square centimeters and are of 15cm length with a tapered end. A
hammer is used to drive the peg into the ground.

5. RANGING RODS

Ranging Rods
 Ranging rods are 2-3 meters in length and are painted with alternate bands of two colors
like white and black, red and white in succession. Each band is kept at a length of 20
centimeters.
 Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned timber. Their cross-section is kept either circular or
octagonal with a 3 cm nominal diameter.
 They are used to range an intermediate point on a survey line.

6. OFFSET RODS

 It is similar to a ranging rod but is of a 3 m length. They are also wooden rods, circular in
cross-section. Its one end is pointed with an iron shoe and at the other, a notch or hook is
provided.
 It is used to take rough offsets in the nearby regions. Also, the right angles can be set out
with its help as it has two narrow slots at its center.

7. PLUMB BOB

 It is used to transfer the points to the ground on a slope while chaining. It is also used
to make the ranging poles vertical.

 In theodolites, compasses, plane tables, and other surveying instruments, it is used

for
centering purposes.

Plumb Bob
B. Instruments for SETTING OUT RIGHT ANGLES

1. CROSS STAFF

It is the simplest instrument for setting out right angles on a survey line. It has a frame
containing two pairs of opposite slits mounted on a pole. The pole can be used to fix the
instrument on the ground.
Types of cross staff:
 Open cross-staff: Two pairs of vertical slits are present which gives two lines of sight at
right angles.
 French cross-staff: It has a hollow octagonal box set up on a pole. On each face, vertical
slits are cut in the middle for sighting. The lines of sight are at an angle of 45° to one another.
 Adjustable cross-staff: It has two cylinders of equal diameter with sighting slits placed on
each other. The upper box can be rotated and is provided with a vernier to take
measurements. The lower box has graduations of degrees and subdivisions. Any angle can be
set out with the help of this instrument.

2. OPTICAL SQUARE

Optical Square
 It is more accurate than a cross-staff. Also, it is convenient to use for setting out right
angles. It has a circular box with three slits.
 The instrument is set on the line whose perpendicular is to be set out. Two slits point
towards the ranging rod at the end of the survey line.
 Then another ranging rod is to be set at such a point that the two images coincide witheach
other. This point is perpendicular to the initial line.

3. PRISM SQUARE

 The principle of the prism square is similar to that of the optical square. However, it is
more precise as compared to the optical square.
 It can be used in a similar manner as an optical square. Unlike the optical square, adjustment
is not required, as the angle between the reflecting surfaces does not vary.

Prism Square

C. Instruments for SETTING OUT DIRECTIONS:

1. PRISMATIC COMPASS
It comprises a magnetic needle attached to a graduated circular ring made up of aluminum.
The needle orients itself to the magnetic meridian if it is on the pivot. Object vane and eye slit
are attached to the compass box and help in locating the line of sight.
It is a magnetic compass that measures the magnetic meridian (circle of constant longitude
passing through a given place on the earth's surface and the terrestrial poles). It is portable
and hence convenient too. It can be either used in the palm or fixed on a tripod.
 Prismatic Compass
The south end corresponds to 0° while the west end corresponds to 90° and so on. Thus, the
north end is at 180° while the east end is at 270°.

2. SURVEYOR’S COMPASS

The graduated ring is directly attached to the box instead of the needle in the surveyor’s
compass. The needle is allowed to float freely over the pivot, but it does not orient itself to
the magnetic meridian as in the case of a prismatic compass.

Surveyor’s Compass

 The object vane and eye vane are similar to that of the prismatic compass, however, no prism
is provided. The instrument is to be fixed on a tripod.
 The readings through this compass are taken against the north end of the needle by looking
through the top glass vertically. When the line of sight coincides magnetic meridian, the
north and south ends are at 0°. While the east and west end correspondsto 90°.
D. Instruments for SETTING OUT ANGLES

1. THEODOLITE
 It is the most precise instrument for the measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles. It is popular in various surveying applications.
 There are two types of theodolite- transit, and non-transit. non-transit theodoliteshave
become obsolete these days.
 Transit theodolite is such theodolite in which the telescope can be revolved by 180° inthe
vertical plane.

2. TOTAL STATION
 It is an electronic transit theodolite with an electronic distance meter (EDM).
 The crosshairs on the reflector of TS are aligned to the ranging rod and the vertical and
horizontal angles are measured along with slope distances simultaneously.

Total Station
 Total Station is used to take the measurement of-
1. Horizontal angles: The rotation of the optical axis of TS from the instrument north in
ahorizontal plane gives the horizontal angle.
2. Vertical angle: The inclination of the optical axis of TS from the local vertical gives a
verticalangle.
3. Slope distance: The distance between TS and the target gives the slope distance.
TS can store data too as some have inbuilt internal electronic data storage, which can be
uploaded to the computer, and the data analysis can be done with the help of various
applications.

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Horizontal distance means the distance between two points measured at a zero percent
slope.Horizontal distance means the distance between two points measured at a 0% slope.
Method of horizontal distance measurementsDirect: using chain (chaining) or tape
(taping) Low precision work: chaining
High precision work: taping or bars
Engineer’s chain: 100 ft long, 100 links each 1 ft, at every 10 links brass tags are fastened.
Notches on the tag indicates the number of 10 link segment between th tag and the end of the
chain.
Gunter’s chain: 66 ft long, 100 links, each ft. distances are recorded in chains and links.
Indirect: the distances are not measured directly on the field but are computed indirectly
using observed quantities.
EDM: electromagnetic distance measuring instrument.
The principal methods of measuring distance are the
 pacing.
 odometer.
 chain (chaining) or tape (taping)
 stadia(Tacheometer)
 optical range finder.
 TAPING
Taping is the linear measurement of the horizontal distance between two points using a
surveyor's tape. Observation of horizontal distances by taping consists of. applying the
known length of a graduated tape directly to line a. number of times.
CURRENT TAPING EQUIPMENT
Surveyor's and Engineer's Steel Tapes

Standard lengths 100, 200, 300, and 500 ft

30, 60, 100, and 150 m

Other Tapes

 Builder's Tapes -- common construction tape measures, usually marked in feet and inches
 Cloth Tapes -- inexpensive linen with fine copper wires for strength, not for precise work
 Fiberglass Tapes -- inexpensive flexible tapes wound on a reel, used like steel tapes
 Invar Tapes -- made of 35% nickel/65% steel and do not expand as much as steel with
heat, but are 10X more expensive than steel tapes

TAPING ACCESSORIES
 Chaining/Taping Pins -- used to mark tape lengths, especially when it is requiredto
"break tape" or when measuring over 100 feet, usually painted red and white
 Hand Level -- helps to keep tape level over sloping or uneven ground
 Tension Handles -- helps you to hold on to tape when pulling it taut
 Pocket Thermometer -- helps you figure expansion and contraction of tape due to
temperature
 Range Poles -- long poles used to mark points over long distances to help keep tape
aligned properly
 Plumb Bobs -- help you locate tape directly over point being measured

SURVEYING
Surveying is a scientific method that determines the three-dimensional positions and angles
of relative points on the surface of the earth. Different types of surveying methods and their
classification are used in construction which is described below.
TYPES OF SURVEYING:
Surveying may be divided into two general categories.
1. Geodetic Surveying and
2. Plane Surveying.
 1. Geodetic Surveying:
Geodetic surveying is a particular type of surveying where the curvature of the earth is
taken into account. Since the earth has a spherical shape, the line connecting any two points
on the earth’s surface is curved or is an arc.

Hence it involves spherical trigonometry. In geodetic surveying, large distances and areas are
measured and its degree of accuracy is comparatively high.
2. Plane Surveying:
Plane surveying is a specific type of surveying where the surface of the earth is considered
as a plane and the curvature of the earth is not taken into account. The line connecting any
two points is a straight line and the angles of polygons are plane angles.
This type of surveying is suitable for small and flat areas, and its degree of accuracy is
comparatively low. The limit for treating a surface as a plane is about 250 km2.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING:

A. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE NATURE OF THE FIELD:

1. Land Surveying.
2. Marine Surveying.
3. Astronomical Surveying.
1. Land surveying can be sub-divided into the following categories:
 Topographical Surveys.
 Cadastral Surveys.
 City Surveys.
 Engineering Surveys.
 Topographic Surveying-It determining the relative locations of points (places) on the earth's
surface by measuring horizontal distances, differences in elevation and directions.
 A cadastral survey is a classification of land surveying conducted to determine the
boundary of a location for a purpose. It specialize in the establishment and re-establishment
of real property boundaries. Hence, cadastral survey is necessary for legal creation of
properties.
 The engineering survey is the process used to determine the exact position of objects on the
Earth's surface (whether natural or artificial) by collecting, evaluating and recording various
data on the ground
 NOTE-Land surveying mainly deals with the natural and artificial features of a country such
as hills, rivers, buildings, towns, villages, etc.
2. Marine Surveying: Marine or hydrographic survey deals with bodies of water for purpose of
navigation, water supply, harbor works or for determination of mean sea level. The work
consists in measurement of discharge of streams, making topographic survey of shores and
banks, taking and locating soundings to determine the depth of water and observing the
fluctuations of the ocean tide.
3. Astronomical Surveying: The astronomical survey offers the surveyor means of
determining the absolute location of any point or the absolute location of and direction of any
line on the surface of the earth. This consists in observations to the heavenly bodies such as
the sun or any fixed star.

B. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE OBJECT OF THE SURVEY:

1. Archaeological survey.
2. Geological Survey.
3. Mine Survey.
4. Military Survey.
C. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE INSTRUMENTS:
1. Chain Surveying:
Chain surveying is the simplest method of surveying in which linear measurements are
directly taken in the field and angular measurements are not taken. This type of surveying is
used over small and leveled areas.
2. Plane Table Surveying:
In plane table surveying, the fieldwork and plotting are done using a graphical method. It is
mostly adapted for small and medium scale mapping where great accuracy is not required.
3. Compass Surveying:
In this type of surveying, a compass is used to determine the direction of survey lines, and the
length of survey lines is measured by a chain or tape, or laser range finder. The compass is
generally used to run a traverse line. There are three types of compass used in surveying:
 Prismatic compass
 Surveyor’s compass
 Level compass
4. Tacheometric Surveying:
Tacheometric surveying is a method of surveying in which the horizontal and vertical
distances of relative points are determined without using any sophisticated instruments such
aschains, tape, etc.
5. Theodolite Surveying:
The theodolite is an instrument that is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It
allows surveyors to “triangulate” the position of objects in a specific area. Theodolite is two
types i.e transit theodolite and non-transit theodolite. Theodolite surveying is commonly used
for
i) Prolongation of survey lines,
ii) Finding the difference in elevation, and
iii) Setting out engineering works that require higher precision, i.e., ranging
highway andrailway curves, aligning tunnels, etc.
6. Photographic and Aerial Surveying:
These types of surveying are done by taking photographs from elevated ground stations. It
deals with the production of maps such as topographic or planimetric maps by compiling
number of photographs taken in that area.
D. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHODS OF SURVEY:
1. Triangulation Surveying
Triangulation is a method of surveying that measures the angles in a triangle formed by three
survey control points. Using the trigonometry formula and the measured one side’s length,
the other distances in the triangle are calculated respectively.
2. Traverse Surveying
It is also a well-known method of surveying. A traverse is a series of connected lines whose
lengths and directions are measured with the help of an angle measuring instrument and
tapeor chain, respectively.
 RANGING IN SURVEYING

<<Ranging (direct ranging only), Instruments used for ranging>>

The process of establishing an intermediate point on a straight line between two

endpoints is known as ranging.
It is used when a survey line is longer than a chain length. It is necessary to align
intermediate points on the chain line so that the measurements are along the line.
Ranging is the process of establishing many intermediate points to measure the survey lines
in linear measurement. This can be done by ranging rods, offset rods, and ranging poles. The
first step in any construction work is Surveying. Ranging is one of the important aspects of
Surveying.
When the length of the surveying line is longer than the length of the measuring chain, the
linecan be measured by using intermediate points along with it by ranging.
Types of Ranging
Ranging can be of two types
1. Direct ranging: If two survey stations are inter-visible

2. Reciprocal or Indirect ranging: If two If two survey stations are not inter-visible

Direct ranging
Direct ranging is adopted when the two survey stations are inter-visible i.e. the two
endpoints of the survey line are visible. It can be further of two types
 Ranging by eye: It is done with the help of the eyes. For example, A and B are the two inter-
visible points at the survey end line. Surveyor stands at point A concerning point B. Then,
another person takes the ranging rod and fixes or establishes an intermediate point C
between the line AB. The surveyor at point A then signals another person at the
intermediate points so that the ranging rod is in perfect line with the endpoints A and B.
Hence, the intermediate points are determined.
 Ranging by line ranger: Here intermediate points are fixed directly utilizing an instrument
known as line ranger. The major advantage of this method over the eye judgment method is
that this method can be conducted easily by one person. The accuracy achieved by this
method is also higher.
 Direct ranging and its types

INSTRUMENTS USED FOR RANGING

Ranging can be done by using the following instruments:
 Ranging rods

 Offset rods

 Chain or Tapes

 Line Ranger
 RANGING ROD
 Ranging rods are vertical rods used to mark survey intermediate points on the survey line
having 2-3 m height. it is painted with bands of red and white 20 cm each.
 The process of establishing an intermediate point on a straight line between two endpoints
is known as ranging. It is used when a survey line is longer than a chain length. It is
necessary to align intermediate points on the chain line so that the measurements are along
the line.

RANGING BY LINE RANGER

Ranging by Line Ranger is the type of direct ranging method in which the
intermediatepoints are fixed directly utilizing an instrument known as line ranger.
The line ranger is an instrument that has either two plane mirror arrangements or
twoisosceles prisms that are placed one over the other
 OFFSET ROD:
Offset rod in surveying is a tool used to make measurements at an angle or distance from
a reference point. It is usually composed of a pole or rod with a measuring stick attached
at a right angle. The offset rod is used to help surveyors measure accurate distances between
points or features on the ground.
Offset rod is similar to ranging rod except instead of flag, a hook is provided at the top for
pushing and pulling the chain or the tape. It is used too for measuring small offsets.

SURVEYING CHAINS TYPES

Following are the various types of chain in common use in surveying:

1. Metric chains (20m/65ft or 30 m/100ft)

2. Gunter's chain or surveyors chain (66ft)
3. Engineers chain (100ft)
4. Revenue chain (33ft)
1. Metric Chain:
 Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length
and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are attached.
 2. Gunter’s Chain
 Length = 66’ (22 yards), No of links = 100, Each link = .66’
 Used for measuring distances in miles or furlongs (220 yards), acres (Area).
3. Engineer’s Chain
 Length = 100’, No of links = 100, Each link = 1’
 Used in all Engineering Surveys.
4. Revenue Chain
 Length = 33’, No of links = 16
 Commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral Survey i.e. Survey relating toland
boundaries.

Components of a chain
 LEVELLING

n, Principles, Instruments, Preparation of level book, problems on levelling>>

The technique of determining the relative altitude of a point on the earth's surface or
belowthe earth's surface is called LEVELLING.

Levelling or leveling is a branch of surveying, the objective of which is to establish or

verify
or measure the height of specified points relative to a datum.

It is widely used in cartography (the science or practice of drawing maps) to measure

geodetic height (height of a point on the physical surface of the earth above or below the
ellipsoid, measured along a line that passed through the point on the earth and is normal to
the surface) and in construction to measure height differences of construction artifacts
(object made by a human being, typically one of cultural or historical interest).

PRINCIPLE OF LEVELLING
The principle of levelling is to obtain a horizontal line of sight at which the vertical
distance of a point above or below this line of sight is found.
THE PURPOSE OF LEVELLING
The main purpose of balancing in the survey is:
 Find the heights of the given points in relation to the given data.
 Establishing points at given heights or at different heights in relation to given orconsidered
data.
 Instruments used in levelling in surveying

1. Levels
A level is basically a telescope attached to an accurate leveling device, set upon a tripod so
that it can rotate horizontally through 360°. The following figure shows the level and its
components.

2. Tripod
The tripod consists of three legs and a head where the level instrument is mounted. The
tripod could be of aluminum or wood material. When leveling the level instrument,
thetripod head must be set approximately level beforehand by adjusting the tripod legs.
3. Leveling staff
The one of the main instrument used in levelling is levelling staff. The leveling staff is a box
section of aluminum or wood, which will extend to 3 or 5 m in height by telescoping, hinging
or addition of sections. One face has a graduated scale attached for reading with the cross-
hairs of the level telescope.

4. Staff bubbles
These are generally a small circular bubble on an angle plate which is held against one
corner of the staff to ensure that the staff is held in a vertical position. If the staff is not held
vertical, the reading will be too large and may be significantly in error.

Terms used in Levelling

1. DATUM:
Data plane refers to the arbitrary position of a level surface or other line or surface that
calculates any size.
 2. REDUCED LEVEL (RL):
The height or depth of a point above or below the considered data is called the
reduced level.
3. BENCH MARK (BM):
B.M. is the fixed reference point of known height. It can be of the following types.
 GTS Benchmark (Geodetic Triangulation Survey): This benchmark is set by state
agencies such as the Survey of India. They are set to the highest precision. The location and
altitude above the MSL are listed in a special catalogue called GTS Maps (100 km apart).
 Permanent Benchmark: This is a fixed reference point set by referring to the
GTS benchmark (10 km intervals).
 Arbitrary Benchmark: This is the reference point where the altitude is assumed to be
random. For most engineering projects, the elevation difference is more significant than the
reduced level with respect to the MSL provided in a special catalogue known as GTS Maps
(100 Km. Interval).
4. Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.):
Mean sea level is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's bodies of water
from which heights such as elevation may be measured.
5. Line of Collimation:
Line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs to the optical centre of the objective and
its continuation. It is also known as Line of sight.
6. Line of sight: is defined as the intersection of the crosshairs and the optical centre of the
objective lens.
6. Height of Instrument (HI):
The height of the line of sight with the considered data is called the HI.
7. Back sight (BS):
The first sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of known elevation. BS enables the
surveyor to obtain HI or sight i.e. Height of Instrument or line of sight. BS = HI –
RL / BM
8. Fore Sight (F.S.):
It is the last staff reading taken from a setting of the level. It is also termed as minus sight.
Foresight is the sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of unknown elevation to
ascertain the amount by which the point is above or below the line of sight. This is also called
minus sight as the foresight reading is always subtracted from the height of the Instrument.
FS / IS = HI - RL
9. Change Point (C.P.):
 The point at which both foresight and rear view are taken during the levelling process is
called the change or shift point.
10. Intermediate Sight (IS):
The foresight taken on a levelling staff held at a point between two turning points, to
determine the elevation of that point, is known as intermediate sight.

PREPARATION OF LEVEL BOOK

Field Book or Level Book Calculations are carried out on the readings noted during a Survey
Operation called Levelling. We will first understand the Levelling process in detail and then
will look at how to calculate a reduced level in the Field book.
Field Book
All observations and measurements taken during chain surveying are to be recorded in a
standard field book. It is an oblong book of size 200 mm × 120 mm, which can be carried in
the pocket. There are two forms of the book

 single line
 double line.

The pages of a single line field book are having a red line along the length of the paper in
the middle of the width. It indicates the chain line. All chainages are written across it. The
space on either side of the line is used for sketching the object and for noting offset
distances.

In the double line book, there are two blue lines with a space of 15 to 20 mm in the middle
of each book. The space between the two lines is utilized for noting the chainages. Figure
shows typical pages of field books.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING

1. Simple Levelling
2. Differential Levelling

SIMPLE LEVELLING

Simple levelling can be defined as the operation of levelling used to determine the difference
in elevation between two points, if not too great apart and which are visible from a single
position of level.

Procedure of Simple Levelling:

Objective: Suppose points A and C are two points whose difference in elevation is
requiredwith a level set up at B.

1. Instrument is correctly levelled at B.

2. Telescope is directed towards staff held at first point say A. It is properly focused toobtain
clear graduations.
3. Ensuring that bubble is central, reading is taken by observing where central horizontalhair of
diaphragm cuts the staff. (Back sight reading)
4. Staff is shifted to the other point, say C and focus the telescope on staff held at C.
5. Check if the bubble is central, if not it is adjusted by using foot screw nearest to the
telescope and micrometer screw in case of a tilting level.
 Question 1 (simple levelling):

1. Two points A and C are visible from a single point on earth ‘B’. Keeping the instrument at
B, it is observed that staff readings on A and C are 2.855 and 0.525 respectively. If R.L of A
is 500m what is the R.L. of B? Also find the difference of elevation between the two points.

Solution
Difference in elevation between two points = 2.855- 0.525 = 2.330 m
R.L. of point A = 500 m
R.L. of line of sight = 500+2.855 = 502.855 m So, R.L. of point B = 502.855-0.525 =
502.330 m

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

 This method of levelling is used for determining the difference in elevation between two
points that too far apart, i.e. not visible from a single point on earth or obstructed by
intervening grounds.

 It is the process of measuring the vertical distances from a known elevation point (bench
mark) to find the elevation of unknown points.
 Here, the leveling instrument is set up at different points and the difference in elevation
between successive points is measured.
 This method of levelling is also known as fly, compound or continuouslevelling.
 Procedure of Differential Levelling:
Objective: Let two point A and B are too far apart and the difference in their elevations is
to be determined through differential levelling.
1. Set up the instrument at O1. Ensuring that it intersects with staff at A, take Back sight
reading at A. Let it be X1.
2. Shift the staff to C (equidistant from O1), such that A-O1 = O1-C ensuring that the
instrument is correctly levelled, take foresight reading at C. Let it be Y1.
3. Now, keeping the staff constant at C, the instrument is shifted to O2, and back sight
reading of C is taken. Let it be X2.
4. Staff is shifted to point D such that C-O2 = O2-D and take Foresight reading at D. Let it be Y2.
5. The above procedure is repeated till final foresight reading at point B is observed.
6. Difference in elevation between points A and B can be given by,
Ʃ B.S readings – Ʃ F.S readings
= (X1 + X2 +. ....................... Xn) - (Y1 + Y2 +….Yn)

 Note:
 The points where two readings are taken at successive points C, D, E etc. arecalled
change points.
 Staff from a change point must not be removed till back sight reading is obtained from
next instrument station.
 Level must be set up on firm ground otherwise it may sink

There are two widely used methods for differential leveling: HI method, Rise and
Fallmethod
1. Rise and Fall method (RF method)
2. Height of Instrument method/ Height of collimation method (HI method)
1. RISE AND FALL METHOD
 In this method the difference of level between two consecutive points for each settingof the
instrument is obtained by comparing their staff readings.
 The difference between staff readings indicates a Rise if Back-sight reading is morethan
Fore sight reading.
 The difference between staff readings indicates a Fall if Back-sight reading is less thanFore
sight reading.
 The rise and fall worked out for all points give the vertical distance of each point
relative to the preceding one.
 If R.L. of back staff point is known, then R.L. of following point may be obtained by
adding its rise or subtracting its fall from R.L. of preceding point.

 Arithmetic Checks
The difference between sum of back sights and sum of foresights should be equal to
difference of sum of rises and sum of falls. This must also be equal to the difference between
Last R.L. and First R.L.

ƩBS - ƩFS = Ʃ Rises – Ʃ Fall = Last R.L – First R.L.

 Note:
 BS > IS/FS = Rise
 IS/FS > BS = FallQuestions 2: (Rise and fall method)

The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level:

0.795, 1.655, 2.890, 3.015, 0.655, 0.625, 0.955, 0.255, 1.635, 0.860, 2.375

The instrument was shifted after the fourth and eighth readings. Rule out a page of level field
book and enter the following readings. Calculate the R.L. of stations by Rise and Fall
method if the first reading was taken on a B.M. whose R.L. is 550.605 meters. Also apply
Arithmetic checks.

Solution

First reading must be a back sight reading.

As instrument was shifted, Fourth and Eighth reading must be fore-sight readings. So, Fifth

and Ninth reading must be back sight readings.

 Last reading must be a foresight reading.

SL.NO. B.S. I.S F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

1 0.795 550.605 B.M.
2 1.655 0.860 549.745
3 2.890 1.235 548.510
4 0.655 3.015 0.125 548.385 C.P.
5 0.625 0.03 548.415
6 0.955 0.33 548.085
7 1.635 0.255 0.7 548.785 C.P
8 0.86 0.775 549.560
9 2.375 1.515 548.045
TOTALS 3.085 5.645 1.505 4.065

ARITHMETIC CHECKS:

1. ƩBS – ƩFS = 3.085 – 5.465 = -2.560

2. Ʃ Rises – Ʃ Fall = 1.505 - 4.065 = -2.560
3. Last R.L – First R.L. = 548.065 – 550.605 = -2.560
So, ƩBS - ƩFS = Ʃ Rises – Ʃ Fall = Last R.L – First R.L. Hence, O.K.
2. HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
 In this method, height of instrument (H.I.) is obtained for each setting of the
instrument by adding the back sight to the elevation of Bench mark (B.M)
 The reduced level of first station is obtained by subtracting its foresight from
instrument height (H.I.).
 For the second setting of the instrument, height of instrument is obtained by
adding back sight taken on the first station to its R.L.
 The reduced level of last point is obtained by subtracting the fore sight of last point from
H.I. at the last setting.
 If an intermediate sight is observed to an intermediate station, its R.L. is obtainedby
subtracting its FS from H.I. for that setting.

 Arithmetic Checks
The difference between sum of back sights and sum of foresights should be equal to
difference of the difference between R.L. of last station and R.L. of first station.
In this method there is no check on intermediate sights.

ƩBS - ƩFS = Last R.L – First R.L.

HI = RL / BM + BS
RL = HI – FS / IS

Question 3: (Height of Instrument method)

The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level and 4 m long levelling
staff on a continuously sloping ground.
0.755, 1.545, 2.335, 3.545, 3.655, 0.525, 1.275, 2.650, 2.895, 3.565, 0.345, 1.525,
1.850,
2.675, 3.775.
The first reading was taken on a bench mark whose R.L. is 200 meters. Rule out a page of
level field book and enter the following readings. Calculate the R.L. of stations by Height of
Instrument method. Also apply arithmetic checks.
Solution

As the ground is continuously sloping and maximum staff height is 4 m, So, the readings
3.655, 3.565, 3.775 must all be foresight readings.
The first reading must be a back sight reading.
SL.NO. B.S I.S. F.S Height of R.L. Remarks
Instrument
1 0.755 200.755 200 B.M.
2 1.545 . 199.210
3 2.335 . 198.420
4 3.545 . 197.210
5 0.525 3.655 197.625 197.100 C.P.
6 1.275 .. 196.350
7 2.650 .. 194.975
8 2.895 .. 194.730
9 0.345 3.565 194.405 194.060 C.P.
10 1.525 ... 192.880
11 1.850 ... 192.555
12 2.675 ... 191.730
13 3.775 ... 190.630
TOTALS 1.625 10.995
 ARITHMETIC CHECKS:

1. ƩBS – ƩFS = 1.625 – 10.995 = -9.370

2. Last R.L – First R.L. = 190.630 – 200 = -9.370
So, ƩBS - ƩFS = Last R.L – First R.L. Hence, O.K.

 Comparison between Rise and Fall method and Height of Instrument method

HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD RISE AND FALL METHOD

1. It is rapid and saves considerableamount of1. It is laborious as staff reading of
time and labour. each station is obtained to get a riseor fall

2. It is well adopted for reduction of levels2. forIt is well adopted for determining the
constructional works sucj as longitudinal or
difference of levels where precision is required
cross sectional
levelling.
3. There is no check on reduction oflevels on
3. There is complete check on
intermediate stations. reduction of levels on intermediatestations.

4. There are two arithmetic checks. 4. There are three arithmetic checks.
5. Errors if any at intermediate sightsare not 5. Errors if any at intermediate sights
detected. are detected as they are used to findrise or fall.
 MODERN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

<<Modern surveying instruments: EDM, Total station, GPS (Brief discussion)>>

Following are the modern surveying instruments which are used for surveying:

 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments

 Total Station
 Global Positioning System (GPS)

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM) INSTRUMENTS

EDM is a method of determining the length between two points using electromagnetic
waves. EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments called theodolites. EDM
instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and can be
used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometers.
 An Electronic Distance Measurer (EDM) can be used to place objects or points in three
dimensions in relation to the unit. The EDM emits a beam of infrared light that is controled
at a controlled rate.

 Direct measurement of distances and their directions can be obtained by using electronic
instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and reception of either light waves or
radio waves. They may be broadly classified into three types: a. Infrared wave instruments
b. Light wave instruments c. Microwave instruments
a) Infrared Wave Instruments
 These instruments measure distances by using amplitude modulated infrared waves.
They include thermocouples, Bolometers, thermisters Golay cells, as well as pyroelectric
detectors. At the end of the line, prisms mounted on target are used to reflect the waves.
These instruments are light and economical and can be mounted on theodolites for angular
measurements. The range of such an instrument will be 3 km. It is a very small, compact
EDM, particularly useful in building construction and other Civil Engineering works, where
distance measurements are less than 500 m. It is an EDM that makes the measuring tape
redundant. To measure the distance, one has to simply point the instrument to the reflector,
touch a key and read the result.

b. Visible Light Wave Instruments

Uses modulated light waves to measure up to a specific range.
 These are the instruments which measures distances based on propagation of modulated
light waves. The accuracy of such an instrument varies from 0.5 to 5 mm/ km distance and
has range of nearly 3 km. Eg: Geodimeter.
 Geodimeter is an instrument which works based on the propagation of modulated light waves.
The instrument is more suitable for night time observations and requires a prism system at the
end of the line for reflecting the waves. It can be used both during day and might. Eg.
Tellurometer

c. Microwave Instruments
A microwave radiometer (MWR) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at one
millimeter-to-metre wavelengths (frequencies of 0.3–300 GHz) known as microwaves.
Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermally-emitted
electromagnetic radiation. The Microwave Instruments also called tellurometers, these
instruments use microwaves.
Tellurometer It is an EDM which uses high frequency radio waves (micro-waves) for
measuring distances. It is a highly portable instrument and can be worked with 12 to 24-volt
battery. For measuring distance, two Tellurometers are required, one to be stationed at each
end of the line, with two highly skilled persons, to take observations. One instrument is
used as a master unit and the other as a remote unit. Just by pressing a button a master can be
converted into remote unit and vice-versa. A speech facility (communication facility) is
provided to each operator to interact during measurement.

TOTAL STATION (TS)

A total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying.

It is a combination of an electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic distance measuring

device (EDM) and software running on an external computer, such as a laptop or data
collector.

A total station (TS) or total station theodolite (TST) is an electronic/optical instrument

used for surveying and building construction. It is an electronic transit theodolite
integrated with electronic distance measurement (EDM) to measure both vertical and
horizontal angles and the slope distance from the instrument to a particular point, and an on-
board computer to collect data and perform triangulation calculations. Total Station can
perform the following functions:

 Distance measurement
 Angular measurement
 Data processing
 Digital display of point details
 Storing data is an electronic field book
 The important features of total station are,

1. Keyboard-control - all the functions are controlled by operating key board.

2. Digital panel - the panel displays the values of distance, angle, height and the coordinates of
the observed point, where the reflector (target) is kept.

3. Remote height object - the heights of some inaccessible objects such as towers can be read
directly. The microprocessor provided in the instrument applies the correction for earth’s
curvature and mean refraction, automatically.

4. Traversing program - the coordinates of the reflector and the angle or bearing on the reflector
can be stored and can be recalled for next set up of instrument.

5. Setting out for distance direction and height -whenever a particular direction and horizontal
distance is to be entered for the purpose of locating the point on the ground using a target,
then the instrument displays the angle through which the theodolite has to be turned and the
distance by which the reflector should move.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based

radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United
States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that
provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It does not require
the user to transmit any data, and operates independently of any telephonic or Internet
reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning
information. It provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and
commercial
users around the world. Although the United States government created, controls and
maintains the GPS system, it is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

Global Positioning System (GPS) is developed by U.S. Defense department and is called
Navigational System with Time and Ranging Global Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS)
or simply GPS. For this purpose U.S. Air Force has stationed 24 satellites at an altitude of
20200 km above the earth’s surface. The satellites have been positioned in such a way, at
least four satellites will be visible from any point on earth.

The user needs a GPS receiver to locate the position of any point on ground. The receive
processes the signals received from the satellite and compute the position (latitude and
longitude) and elevation of a point with reference to datum.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S.-owned utility that provides users with
positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services. This system consists of three
segments: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) has changed the way the world operates. This is
especially true for marine operations, including search and rescue. GPS provides the fastest
and most accurate method for mariners to navigate, measure speed, and determine location