MUHAMMAD WASEEM SABRI

Communication and Internet

technologies

Protocols

Protocols are essential for successful transmission of data over a network. Each protocol

defines a set of rules that must be agreed between sender and receiver. At the simplest level, a

protocol could define that a positive voltage represents a bit with value 1. At the other

extreme, a protocol could define the format of the first 40 bytes in a packet. The complexity of

networking requires a very large number of protocols, a protocol suite is a collection of related

protocols. TCP/IP is the dominant protocol suite for internet usage.

 Protocol: A set of rules governing communication between computers.

 Ensures the computers that communicate understand each other.

 MAC address: A unique number assigned to each device’s networking hardware across the

world.

 IP address: A unique number assigned to each node/networking device in a network.

 Port number: A software-generated number that specifies an application or a process

communication endpoint attached to an IP address.

 IP: Internet Protocol – The function of the network layer, and the IP, is to ensure correct routing

over the internet. To do so, it takes the packet received from the transport layer and adds a

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further header containing the IP addresses of both the sender and receiver. To find the IP

address of the receiver, the DNS system can be used to find the address corresponding to the

URL supplied in the user data. The IP packet(datagram) is sent to the data link layer and

therefore to a different protocol suite. The data link layer assembles datagrams into frames.

Transmission now begins. Once the IP packet has been sent to the data link layer, IP has no

further duty. IP is a connectionless service so if it receives a packet which contains an

acknowledgement of a previously sent packet, it will simply pass the packet on to TCP with no

awareness of the content.

 TCP: Transfer Control Protocol. If an application is running on an end system where a message

is to be sent to a different end system the application will be controlled by an application layer

protocol. The protocol will transmit the user data to the transport layer, the TCP operating in

the transport layer now has to take responsibility for ensuring the safe delivery of the message

to the receiver. To do this it creates sufficient packets to hold all of the data. Each packet

consists of a header plus the user data. TCP needs to ensure safe delivery and that any response

is directed back to the application protocol. The header has a port number which identifies the

application layer protocol at the sending and receiving end system (however the TCP isn't

concerned with the receiving end system). If the packet is one of a sequence, a sequence

number is included to ensure eventual correct reassembly of the user data. The TCP is

connection oriented, initially just one packet of a sequence is sent to the network layer. Once

the connection has been established, TCP sends the other packets and receives response

packets containing acknowledgements. This allows missing packets to be identified and resent.

 TCP/IP Suite: A common protocol used to send data over a network.

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 Protocols are split into separate layers, which are arranged as a stack.

 They service each other thus maintaining the flow of the data.

 Layer: A division of the TCP/IP suite.

 Stack: A collection of elements/protocols/layers.

Layer Purpose

Application Encodes the data being sent

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Layer Purpose

Network/Internet Adds IP addresses stating where the data is from and where it is going

Adds MAC address information to specify which hardware device the

Link message came from and which hardware device the message is going
to

Physical Enables the successful transmission of data between devices

 When a message is sent from one host to another:

 Sender side: Application Layer

 Encodes the data in an appropriate format.

 Sender side: Transport Layer

 The data to be sent is broken down into smaller chunks known as packets

 Sender side: Network Layer

 IP addresses (sender and receiver) and a checksum are added to the header

 Sender side: Link Layer

 Formats the packets into a frame. These protocols attach a third header and a footer to

“frame” the packet. The frame header includes a field that checks for errors as the frame

travels over the network media.

 Sender side: Physical Layer

 Receives the frames and converts the IP addresses into the hardware addresses appropriate to

the network media. The physical network layer then sends the frame out over the network

media.

 Server/ Service Provider

 Re-Routes the packets according to the IP address

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 Receiver side: Physical Layer

 Receives the packet in its frame form. It computes the checksum of the packet, and then sends

the frame to the data link layer.

 Receiver side: Link Layer

 Verifies that the checksum for the frame is correct and strips off the frame header and

checksum. Finally, the data link protocol sends the frame to the Internet layer.

 Receiver side: Network Layer

 Reads information in the header to identify the transmission and determine if it is a fragment. If

the transmission was fragmented, IP reassembles the fragments into the original datagram. It

then strips off the IP header and passes it on to transport layer protocols.

 Receiver side: Transport Layer

 Reads the header to determine which application layer protocol must receive the data. Then

TCP o strips off its related header and sends the message or stream up to the receiving

application.

 Receiver side: Application Layer

 Receives the message and performs the operation requested by the sender

 Bit Torrent protocol: A protocol that allows fast sharing of files via peer-to-peer networks.

 Torrent file: A file that contains details regarding the tracker

 Tracker: A server that keeps track of the peers

 Peers: A user who is at the time downloading the same file as the

 Swarm: A network of peers that are sharing the torrent – simultaneously downloading and

uploading the file.

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 Seeding: The act of uploading a part of the file or the file itself as a whole after/while

downloading

 Leeching: The act of simply downloading a part of the file or the file itself on a whole and not

seeding it during or after the download.

 Seeders: Users who are currently seeding the file.

 Leechers/Free-raiders: Peers who are currently leeching the file.

OTHER PROTOCOLS:

Acronym Protocol Purpose

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HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Handles transmission of data to and from a
website
FTP File Transfer Protocol Handles transmission of files across a network
POP3 Post Office Protocol 3 Handles the receiving of emails
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Handles the sending of emails
Protocol
SMTP is a push protocol. POP3 is a pull protocol, the recent alternative to POP3 is

IMAP(internet message access protocol) and it offers facilities of POP3 and more. This approach

has been largely superseded by the use of web based mail. A browser is used to access the

email application, so HTTP is now the protocol used(direct and automatic emails from a

website). However SMTP remains in use for transfer between the mail servers.

Peer to Peer File Sharing

P2P file sharing generates a lot of network traffic in internet usage. It is an architecture that has

no structure and no controlling mechanism. Peers act as both client and servers and each peer

is just one end system. The BitTorrent protocol is the most used protocol because it allows fast

sharing of files. There are three basic problems to solve if end systems are to be confident in

using BitTorrent:

1. How does a peer find others that have the wanted content? The answer by BitTorrent here is to

get every content provider to provide a content description - torrent, which is a file that

contains the name of the tracker(a server that leads peers to the content) and a list of the

chunks that make up the content. The torrent file is at least 3 orders of magnitude smaller than

the content to so can be transferred quickly. The tracker is a server that maintains a list of all

the other peers/the swarm actively downloading and uploading the content.

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2. How do peers replicate content to provide high speed downloads for everyone? This answer

involves peers simultaneously downloading and uploading chunks but peers have to exchange

lists of chunks and aim to download rare chunks for preference. Each time a rare chunk is

downloaded it automatically becomes less rare.

3. How do peers encourage other peers to provide content rather just using the protocol to

download for themselves? This answer requires dealing with the free riders/leachers who only

download. The solution is for a peer to initially randomly try other peers but then to continue

to upload to those peers that provide regular downloads. If a peer is not downloading or

downloading slowly, it will eventually be isolated/choked.

Circuit switching, packet switching and routers

 Circuit switching: A method of data transfer in which the message is sent over a dedicated

communication channel.

Eg: - Landline Phone

 Packet switching: A method of data transfer in which the intended message is broken down

into parts and is sent over whichever route is optimum in order to reach its destination.

 Each packet travels through several other networks – “switching” between them in order to

reach its destination.

Eg: - Internet

 Router: A device that connects two or more computer networks.

 Directs the incoming packets to their receiver according to the data traffic in the network.

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Transport Layer Security (TLS)

TLS(transport layer security) protocol: Purpose of TLS is to provide for secure communication

over a network, maintain data integrity and add an additional layer of security. TLS provides

improved security over SSL(secure sockets layer). TLS is composed of two layers: record

protocol and handshake protocol. TLS protects this information by using encryption. It also

allows for authentication of servers and clients. A handshake process has to take place before

any exchange of data using the TLS protocol. The handshake process establishes details about

how the exchange of data will occur. Digital certificates and keys are used. The handshake

process starts with:

1. The client sending some communication data to the server.

2. The client asking the server to identify itself.

3. The server sending its digital certificate including the public key.

4. The client validates (the server’s) TLS Certificate.

5. The client sends its digital certificate (to the server if requested).

6. Client sends an encrypted message to the server using the server’s public key.

7. The server can use its private key to decrypt the message and get data needed for generating

symmetric key .

8. Both server and client compute symmetric key (to be used for encrypting messages) // session

key established.

9. The client sends back a digitally signed acknowledgement to start an encrypted session.

10. The server sends back a digitally signed acknowledgement to start an encrypted session.

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Eg for online banking.

Local Area Networks (LAN)

 Network topology: A specific arrangement of networking devices to form a network.

 Bus topology: A network topology in which each workstation is connected to a main cable

(backbone) through which the network is established.

 The Backbone acts as the common medium, any signals sent or received go through the

backbone in order to reach the recipient.

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 Star topology: A network topology in which each workstation is connected to a central

node/connection point through which the network is established.

 The central node (hub) re-directs and directs the packets according to the data traffic and their

recipient.

 Wireless networks: A computer network that uses wireless data connections between its

network components.

 Bluetooth: A type of short-range wireless communication that uses

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 Wi-Fi OR IEEE 802.11x.– A type of wireless communication that allows the users to

communicate within a particular area/ access internet.

Component Purpose in a LAN

Switch Allows different networks to connect
Router Directs the incoming packets into
Servers Provides a medium for the storage, sharing of usage of files and
applications for its users
Network Interface Cards Consists of the electronic circuitry required to communicate with
(NICs) other networks/devices.
 Ethernet: an array of networking technologies and systems used in local area networks (LAN),

where computers are connected within a primary physical space.

 CSMA/CD:

Standard ethernet was implemented on a LAN configured as a bus or a star topology with a hub

as the central device where the transmission was broadcast in a connectionless service.

Because of the broadcast transmission, there was a need for the access to the shared medium

by end systems to be controlled. If there wasn’t any control, two messages sent at the same

time would collide and each message would be corrupted. The method adopted was

CSMA/CD(carrier sense multiple access with collision detection). If a frame was being

transmitted there was a voltage level on the ethernet cable which could be detected by an end

system. If this was the case, the protocol defined at a time that the end system had to wait

before it tried again. However because two end systems could have waited then both decided

to transmit at the same time collisions could still happen thus there was also a need to

incorporate a means for an end system to detect a collision and to discontinue transmission if a

collision occurred. Before transmitting a device checks if the channel is busy. If it is busy the

device waits, if channel free data is sent. When transmission begins the device listens for other

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devices also beginning transmission. If there is a collision, transmission is aborted/ transmitting

a jam signal. Both devices wait a (different) random time, then try again. The modern

implementation of ethernet is switched. The star configuration has a switch as the central

device which controls transmission to specific end systems. Each end system is connected to

the switch by a full duplex link so no collision is possible along the link and therefore CSMA/CD

is no longer needed as collisions are impossible. Ethernet is the most likely protocol to be

operating in the data link layer when the IP in the network layer sends a datagram to the data

link layer. When the data link layer uses ethernet, the protocol defines 2 sub layers. The upper

one is the logical link layer which handles flow control, error control and part of the framing

process. The lower is the media access control(MAC) sublayer which completes the framing

process and defines the access method. The MAC layer transmits the frames that contain the

physical address for the sender and receiver and is the reason they are called the MAC

addresses.

HARDWARE CONNECTION DEVICE

 An end system on an ethernet LAN needs a network interface card(NIC). Each NIC has a unique

physical address, MAC address. The end system itself has no identification on the network. If

the NIC is removed and inserted into a different end system, it takes the address with it.

 The simplest device used for the center of the star topology LAN is the hub which ensures that

any incoming communication is broadcast to all connected end systems. However, the use of a

hub is not restricted to supporting an isolated network, it can have a hierarchical configuration

with one hub connected to other hubs, which support individual LANs. A hub can also have a

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built in broadband modem which allows all of the end user systems on the LAN to have an

internet connection when this modem is connected to a telephone line.

 A switch can function as a hub but it's more intelligent and can keep track of the addresses of

connected devices, this allows a switch to send an incoming transmission to a specific end

system as a unicast. This reduces the amount of network traffic compared to the hubs.

 A router is the most intelligent of the connecting devices. It can function as a switch and make

decisions about which device it will transmit a received transmission to. The main use of routers

is in the backbone fabric of the internet. Nearer to the end systems, a router may function as a

gateway, as a network address translation box or be combined with a firewall.

WIreless networks

The dominant technology is no longer using cables now, it's wireless. The following are

discussed in order of increasing scale of operation.

 Bluetooth: this has been standardized as IEEE802.15. Communication is by short range radio

transmission in a confined area. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network thus no defined

infrastructure and network connections are created spontaneously. eg Wireless keyboard

 Wi-Fi: aka WLAN and is a wireless ethernet known as IEEE802.11. This is a wireless LAN protocol

which uses radio frequency transmission. Mostly a Wi-Fi LAN is centered on a wireless access

point in an infrastructure network and not an ad hoc network. The wireless access point

communicates wirelessly with any end systems that have connected to the device. It also has a

wired connection to the internet. •WiMAX(worldwide interoperability for microwave access):

an IEEE802.16 is a protocol for a MAN or WAN. It's designed for use by PSTNs to provide

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broadband access to the internet without having to lay underground cables. Local subscribers

connect to the antenna of a local base station using a microwave signal.

 Cellular networks: used in mobile/cell phones. Each cell has at its center a base station. The

system works because each cell has a defined frequency for transmission which is different

from the frequencies used in adjacent cells. The technology available in cell phones has vastly

progressed:

1. 1G was designed for voice communication using analogue technology

2. 2G went digital

3. 3G introduced multimedia and serious internet connection capability

4. 4G introduced smartphones with high bandwidth broadband connectivity.

**Wireless access points: • Allowing devices to connect to the LAN via radio communication

instead of using a cable • Easy to move a device to as different location.

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