Fundamentals of Database Systems

Chapter 1: Introduction
Outlines
 Introduction to Database
 Data management approach
 Components of DBMS
 Functions of DBMS
 Database Development Lifecycle
 Roles in Database Design environment
 Database Architecture
 Database Language
 Data models

2
 Database
 Database is a shared collection of logically related
data, and a description of this data, designed to
meet the information needs of an organization.
• Shared collection: database is integrated with minimum
amount of or no duplication.
• Logically related: data comprises entities, attributes,
relationships, and business rules of an organization's
information.
• Description of Data: database also contains a description
of the data which called as “Metadata” or “Data
Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or “Data about
Data”.
3
 Database system
 It is a system which has the following components
 Database
 Database management system
 DBMS is a software that enables users to define, create,
maintain and control access to the database.
 Hardware
 People having roles to play in the database environment and
 Some application programs

4
 Database system: Overview
 Assuming INJIBARA UNIVERSITY uses a Database
system to handle student records how do:
 Students register for courses?
 Instructors enter grades?
 Students get information on their academic performance?
 Queries are processed?

5
 Cont’d
 Database and Database systems have become an essential
component of everyday life in modern society.
 Databases play a critical role in almost all areas where
computers are used.
 Some examples
 Depositing or withdrawing money from a bank
 Making airline reservation
 Accessing a computerized library catalog to search for books
 Purchasing an item from a supermarket
 Booking a holiday at the travel agent
 Purchasing using your credit card
 Using the Internet
 All these may involve accessing databases
6
 Database Applications
 Banking: all transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, Inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human Resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives

7
 Data Management Approach
 Data management passes through the different levels of
development.
 These levels could best be described by categorizing the
levels into three levels of development:
 Manual Approach
 Traditional File Based Approach
 Database Approach

8
 Cont’d
Manual Approach:
 Cards and Paper are used for the purpose of
data storage and retrieval.
 Each files containing various kinds of
information is labelled and stored in one or
more cabinets.
 Insertion and retrieval is done by searching
first for the right cabinet then for the right the
file then the information.

9
 Cont’d
Limitation of Manual Approach:
 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
 You have the data but it is difficult to compile
the information
 Limited to small size information
 Cross referencing is difficult

10
 Cont’d

Traditional File Based Approach:

 File based systems were an early attempt to computerize

manual systems.
 This approach is a decentralized computerized data
handling method - it develops a program or a number of
programs for each different application.
 Since every application defines and manages its own
data, the system is subjected to serious data duplication
problem
11
Cont’d
Example: Three file processing systems at Company A
Duplicate Data

12
Cont’d
Limitations of File-Based systems
 Data Redundancy (Duplication of data)
 Same data is held by different programs
 Wasted space (Uncontrolled duplication of data)

 Separation and isolation of data

 Each program maintains its own set of data. Users of one
program may be unaware of potentially useful data held by
other programs.
 Limited data sharing

13
Cont’d

 Data Inconsistency and confusion

 There are potentially different values and/or different formats
for the same item
 Program - Data dependence
 File structure is defined in the program code and is
dependent on the application programming language.

 Each application program must have its own processing

routines for reading, inserting, updating and deleting
data

14
Cont’d

 Incompatible file formats (Lack of Data Sharing

and Availability)
 Programs are written in different languages, and so cannot easily
access each others files.
E.g. personnel writes in C++
finance writes in COBOL
 Poor Security and administration

15
Cont’d
Update Anomalies

 Modification Anomalies: A problem experienced when one or

more data value is modified on one application program but not
on others containing the same data set.
 Deletion Anomalies: A problem encountered where one record
set is deleted from one application but remain untouched in other
application programs
 Insertion Anomalies: A problem experienced whenever there is
a new data item to be recorded, and the recording is not made in
all the applications

16
Cont’d
File based approaches

17
 Cont’d
Database approach:
 The database approach was taken to overcome the
limitations of file based systems.
 In this approach
 A database is maintained.
 A DBMS provides all the required services.
 Note: A DBMS is a software system that enables users to define,
create, maintain, and control access to the database. More on this
in the next chapter.

18
Cont’d
Example: Database Management System

19
Cont’d
Benefits of Database systems
 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and
use same data instead of storing data in redundant manner
for each user
 Improved data accessibility: By using structured query
languages, the users can easily access data without
programming experience.
 Redundancy can be reduced: Isolated data is integrated
in database to decrease the redundant data stored at
different applications.

20
 Cont’d
 Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity
constraints in the database approach will maintain the quality
leading to better decision making.

 Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data

redundancy will avoid inconsistency of the data in the
database.

 Integrity can be maintained: Data at different

applications will be integrated together with additional
constraints to facilitate shared data resource

21
Cont’d
 Security measures can be enforced: the shared data
can be secured by having different levels of clearance and
other data security mechanisms.

 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of

using and dealing with data by different units of the
organization can be balanced and standardized by using
database approach.

 Less Labour: Unlike the other data handling methods,

data maintenance will not demand much resource

22
Cont’d

 Centralized information control: Since relevant data

in the organization will be stored at one repository, it can
be controlled and managed at the central level.

 Data Independence - Applications insulated from how

data is structured and stored

23
Cont’d

Limitations of database approach:

 Introduction of new professional and specialized
personnel
 High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the
system
 Complex backup and recovery services from the
users perspective
 High impact on the system when failure occurs to the
central system

24
 Components of DBMS
 DBMS is a software system that enables users to define,
create, and maintain the database and that provides
controlled access to this database.

25
Cont’d
 Hardware
 Can range from a PC to a network of computers.
 Software
 DBMS, operating system, network software (if necessary) and also
the application programs.
 Data
 Used by the organization and a description of this data called the
schema.
 Procedures
 Instructions and rules that should be applied to the design
and use of the database and DBMS.
 People
 Includes database designers, DBAs, application
programmers, and end-users.

26
Cont’d
 Query processor
 A major DBMS component that transforms queries into a series
of low-level instructions directed to the database manager.
 Database manager
 The DM interfaces with user-submitted application programs
and queries.
 Accepts queries and examines the external and conceptual
schemas to determine what conceptual records are required to
satisfy the request. The DM then places a call to the file
manager to perform the request
 File manager
 The file manager manipulates the underlying storage files and
manages the allocation of storage space on disk.
27
Cont’d
 DML pre-processor:
 this module converts DML statements embedded in an
application program into standard function calls in the host
language.
 The DML pre-processor must interact with the query
processor to generate the appropriate code.
 DDL compiler
 The DDL compiler converts DDL statements into a set of
tables containing meta-data.
 Catalog manager
 Manages access to and maintains the system catalog.

28
 Functions of DBMS
 Define a database: in terms of data types, structures
and constraints
 Manipulate the database: querying, generating reports,
insertions, deletions and modifications to its content
 Enforce Security measures : to prevent unauthorized
access
 Provide Data Independence-Applications insulated
from how data is structured and stored

29
Cont’d
 Enable the user to access database catalog
 e.g.
 names, types, and sizes of data items
 names of relationships
 Provide backup and recovery services
 Enforce integrity constraints on the database
 Changes on data of DB should follow certain rules
 Provide other utility services
 e.g. import and export facilities
 Indexing
 Provide transaction support
30
Database development Lifecycle
 Planning: identifying information gap in an organization and
propose a database solution to solve the problem
 Analysis: fact finding about the problem or the opportunity.
Feasibility analysis, requirement determination and structuring,
and selection of best design method
 Design:
 Conceptual Design: concise description of the data, data
type, relationship between data and constraints on the data.
 There is no implementation or physical detail consideration.
 Used to elicit and structure all information requirements

31
Cont’d
 Logical Design: a higher level conceptual abstraction with
selected specific data model to implement the data structure.
 Physical Design: physical implementation of the upper level
design of the database
 Implementation: the testing and deployment of
the designed database for use.
 Operation and Support: administering and
maintaining the operation of the database system and
providing support to users.

32
Roles of people in a Database Environment
 Data administrator
 Responsible for
 Management of data resources
 Database planning
 Development of standards
 Policies and procedures
 Consulting users

 Database administrator (more technical)

 Responsible for
 The physical design and implementation of databases
 Security and integrity control
 Maintenance
 Satisfactory performance

33
Cont’d
 Database Designers
 Logical Designers
 Concerned with identifying the data, entities and
attributes, relationships and constraints
 Need a complete knowledge of the organization's data
and business rules
 Physical Designers
 Decide how the logical database designer is to be
physically realized
 Map the logical database design into a set of tables
 Select specific storage structures and access methods
 Design security measures
34
Cont’d
 Application Developers
 Application programs provide the required functionality for
the end user.
 Work based on the requirement specified by the system
analyst.
 Each program contains statements that request the DBMS
to perform some operation on the database – retrieving,
inserting, updating and deleting data.
 End Users
 End users require access to the database for querying,
updating, and generating reports; the database primarily
exists for their use.
 They are differentiated by the way they expect to
interact with the system.
35
Cont’d
 Naive Users
 Unaware of the DBMS and the DB
 Depend on the simplicity of the GUI
 (E.g.. Bank tellers, clerical staff)
 Sophisticated Users
 Familiar with the structure of the database and the
facilities of the DBMS
 May use high-level query languages (SQL) to perform the
required operation
 May even write application program for their own use

36
 Database Architecture
 The American National Standards Institute/
Standards Planning and Requirements Committee
(ANSI-SPARC) introduced the three level architecture
of the database based on their degree of abstraction.

37
 Cont’d
Levels of Abstraction - (Three level ANSI_SPARC architecture )

 We have three distinct levels of data abstraction at which

data items can be described.
 The levels form a three level architecture comprising an
external, a conceptual and an internal level.
 The objective of the three-level architecture is to
separate each users' view of the database from the way
it is physically represented.

38
Cont’d
External Level:
 Users' view of the database.
 Describes that part of database that is relevant to a particular user.
 Different users have their own customized view of the database
independent of other users.
Conceptual level :
 the community view of the database.
 This level describes what data is stored in the database and the
relationships among the data.
 Conceptual level is the middle level.
 It is a complete view of the data requirements of the organization.
 Any data available to a user must be contained in, or derivable from
conceptual level

39
Cont’d
Internal level :
 the physical representation of the database on the
computer.
 This level describes how the data is stored in the
database.
 The internal level is concerned with such things as:
 Storage space allocation for data
 Record description for storage
 Record placement
 The way the DBMS and OS perceive the data is the
internal level.

40
41
 Database languages
Data definition language (DDL)
 Allow users to specify the data types and structures, and
the constraints on the data to be stored in the database
 In other words, it is used to define the database schema
 E.g. SQL DDL
Data manipulation language (DML)
 DML is used for querying, inserting, deleting, and
updating database instances
 E.g. SQL DML
Data Control Language(DCL)
 DCL allow to control access to data within the database.

42
 Data models
 Definition
 Integrated concept for describing data, relationship and
constraints
 Types
 Object-based data models
 Record-based data models
 Physical data models (internal structure, ordering, & paths)

43
Cont’d
 Object-Based Data Models
 Entity-relationship
 Entity, attribute, relationship

 Object-oriented
 Object, class, subclass, inheritance, state (attributes),
behaviour (methods or actions), encapsulation, message,
polymorphism

44
Cont’d
 Record-Based Data Models
 Relational data model
 Network model
 Hierarchical Model
 Physical Data Models
 Describe how data is stored in the computer representing
information such as
 Record structures
 Record orderings and
 Access paths
 Most common physical data models are
 Unifying model
Reading Assignment
 Frame memory
45
 Questions?

46