electronics

Article
Designing 1D Chaotic Maps for Fast Chaotic Image Encryption
Mustafa Kamil Khairullah 1 , Ammar Ahmed Alkahtani 1, * , Mohd Zafri Bin Baharuddin 2
and Ammar Mohammed Al-Jubari 3

1 Institute of Sustainable Energy (ISE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Selangor 43000, Malaysia;
[email protected]
2 College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Selangor 43000, Malaysia; [email protected]
3 NewTouch Smart Technology Solutions, Sana’a 96701, Yemen; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Chaotic maps that can provide highly secure key sequences and ease of structure implemen-
tation are predominant requirements in image encryption systems. One Dimensional (1D) chaotic
maps have the advantage of a simple structure and can be easily implemented by software and hard-
ware. However, key sequences produced by 1D chaotic maps are not adequately secure. Therefore,
to improve the 1D chaotic maps sequence security, we propose two chaotic maps: 1D Improved
Logistic Map (1D-ILM) and 1D Improved Quadratic Map (1D-IQM). The proposed maps have shown
higher efficiency than existing maps in terms of Lyapunov exponent, complexity, wider chaotic range,
and higher sensitivity. Additionally, we present an efficient and fast encryption method based on
1D-ILM and 1D-IQM to enhance image encryption system performance. This paper also introduces
a key expansion method to reduce the number of chaotic map iteration needs, thereby decreasing
encryption time. The security analyses and experimental results are confirmed that 2D Correlation





 Coefficient (CC) Information Entropy (IE), Number of Pixels Change Rate (NPCR), Unified Average
Citation: Khairullah, M.K.;
Changing Intensity (UACI), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and decryption quality are able to meet the
Alkahtani, A.A.; Bin Baharuddin, encryption security demands (CC = −0.00139, IE = 7.9990, NPCR = 99.6114%, UACI = 33.46952%
M.Z.; Al-Jubari, A.M. Designing 1D and MAE = 85.3473). Furthermore, the proposed keyspace reaches 10240 , and the encryption time
Chaotic Maps for Fast Chaotic Image is 0.025s for an image with a size of 256 × 256. The proposed system can yield efficacious security
Encryption. Electronics 2021, 10, 2116. results compared to obtained results from other encryption systems.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics10172116 Keywords: chaotic maps; cryptography; image encryption; logistic map; quadratic map

Academic Editors: Ayman Alfalou,

Saad Rehman and Marwa Elbouz

1. Introduction
Received: 30 July 2021
Accepted: 25 August 2021
Due to the massive multimedia technology progression, transmitting digital images
Published: 31 August 2021
through the Internet and mobile communications networks have gained increasing popu-
larity. At the same time, digital image processing technology and the security of images
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
transmitted through public networks have also gained much attention. Image encryption
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
is an effective technique to prohibit unauthorised access of images from public networks.
published maps and institutional affil- Due to the inherent characteristics of the digital images, such as the bulk data capacity,
iations. high redundancy, and robust correlation, conventional methods of the image encryption
such as the International Data Encryption Algorithm, Data Encryption Standard (DES), and
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), could not meet the demands of acceptable digital
image encryption [1]. To overcome this problem, the researchers suggested numerous
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
cipher methods from several perspectives, in providing sufficient security for the multi-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
media information, for example, the substitution box (S-box)-based encryption [2], DNA
This article is an open access article
coding-based encryption [3], wave function-based encryption [4], compressive sensing-
distributed under the terms and based encryption [5], Latin square [6], and chaos [7–9]. Among the technologies, the Chaos
conditions of the Creative Commons method of image encryption is an excellent and effective one. This is so because chaotic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// maps have a significant level of sensitivity to the control parameters and initial values, and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ are characterised by non-convergence, chaotic, and ergodicity. For these reasons, a consid-
4.0/). erable number of algorithms of chaotic image encryption were developed by the direct

Electronics 2021, 10, 2116. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10172116 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 2 of 30

utilisation of the available chaotic maps to their processes of encryption [10]. Generally,
an algorithm of chaos-based image encryption includes two essential parts: a chaotic map
and an image encryption system. The chaotic maps in algorithms of image encryption
can be categorised into two classes: high dimensional (HD) and one dimensional (1D).
HD chaotic maps have an increased image security applications [11] due to the fact that
they have multiple parameters and highly complicated structures. In spite of the fact that
the HD chaotic maps have highly complicated structures, their execution time is slow,
and their hardware/software implementations are difficult [12]. On the other hand, 1D
chaotic maps have problems with their chaotic behaviour and chaotic range. Nevertheless,
due to their simple structure and ease of implementation [13], the 1D chaotic maps have
been widely utilised. It has been found that the main problems of 1D chaotic maps are:
(a) the chaotic range is relatively limited; (b) there is non-uniform distribution of data of
the output chaotic sequences; (c) the proposed key is not sufficiently secure; (d) the attacks
on random sequences are fast with a rather low computational cost. Consequently, some
researchers have suggested an improved version of existing 1D chaotic maps in order to
overcome 1D chaotic maps problems [14–18], while other researchers have suggested some
novel 1D chaotic maps [19,20].
In the image encryption system that is based on chaotic maps, the encryption system
includes a pair of linear (i.e., permutation) -non-linear (i.e., diffusion) conversions. Some of
the encryption systems are repeating this procedure to raise the encryption strength [21–25].
However, in those algorithms, a large number of iterations of chaotic maps is required to
produce large sequences to be utilised in permutation and diffusion steps. Consequently, a
high number of iterations can lead to high encryption time. For chaotic cryptosystems, the
chaotic maps have a significant impact in developing excellent chaotic image encryption
systems. Nonetheless, we must pay more attention to the steps of confusion and diffusion
to make the encryption system valid against differential encryption attacks.
This research addresses the defects of the Logistic map and Quadratic map. Hence, an
improved version of these maps (1D-ILM and 1D-IQM) is proposed in order to overcome
the defects. In addition, an encryption system for images is proposed in this paper, which
utilises the 1D-ILM and 1D-IQM to satisfy the security and protection needs of a digital
image before being transmitted in a public network. The proposed image scheme is
designed to meet the requirements of security to defeat several encryption-attack types.
The implementation of encryption and decryption’s scheme is simple and fast.
The key contributions of this paper are summarised as follows:
• A new method to improve 1D chaotic maps is designed to overcome the problems of
1D chaotic maps.
• A new key generation scheme is designed to update the initial keys according to
information of plaintext image, and a new key expansion method is used to reduce
the number of chaotic map iterations.
• In the diffusion phase, not only is the value of pixel modified but it is also shifted
based on the location value of pixels and chaotic sequences.
• The proposed system not only provides a high degree of security but also ensures a
low encryption time and a simple computational process.
This article is organised as follows. Section 2 presents related work. Section 3 reviews
the performance of existing chaotic maps. Section 4 introduces the new chaotic map and
demonstrate its accuracy. Section 5 includes the proposed encryption method. Section 6
provides experimental results and analysis, and Section 7 concludes the paper.

2. Related Work
Over the previous decade, many researchers have attention to present developed and
improved image encryption algorithms.
In [26], Herbadji et al. presented an enhanced Quadratic map with enhanced chaotic
range to be utilised in colour image cryptosystem. The encryption system includes two
rounds of the permutation-diffusion process. The diffusion step is applied in which the
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 3 of 30

three image components are simultaneously encrypted. The security analysis demonstrates
the efficiency of the proposed cryptosystem in colour images, although it is not able to
encrypt grey-scale images.
In [27], Pak et al. proposed an improved 1D chaotic map made with output sequences
of two of the same classical 1-D chaotic maps. The proposed map applications are suc-
cessfully employed in colour and grey images cryptosystem consisting of permutation,
diffusion, and linear transformation steps. In the case of colour image encryption, the
chaotic sequence generated in this algorithm needs a high number of iterations to fit all
image pixels, thus, taking up a high execution time.
In [28], Ge et al. proposed a symmetric encryption algorithm based on a new chaotic
map. The proposed map is used in an encryption system, consisting of two phases: bit-pair
level process and pixel-level diffusion. The proposed chaotic map has multiple parameters
which can provide good security. On the other hand, the proposed map is relatively
complex and needs a high execution time. This is because the map consists of complex
trigonometric functions and many conditions determined in each iteration.
In [29], Huang et al. introduced a tweak-cube cryptosystem based on a new 1D chaotic
map and a 4D hyper-chaotic map. The suggested map is associated with a 4D map to
generate key streams utilised in diffusion and scramble steps. The proposed 1D map
behaviour becomes chaotic only in specific regions. Tiny perturbation to the chaotic map
parameter can make the parameter enter a nonchaotic part, thereby making the encryption
key not secure.
In [30], Pak and Huang suggested enhanced 1D chaotic maps. The enhanced chaotic
maps have been generated by combining two classical 1D chaotic maps. Based on those
enhanced maps, a cryptosystem with steps of linear-nonlinear-linear conversion is intro-
duced to improve the security of image encryption. The enhanced chaotic maps show
superior chaotic properties compared with the classical maps. The proposed encryption
system shows adequate security results, but the number of chaotic map iteration needs is
considerably high, making the encryption system relatively slow.
In [31], Yavuz et al. suggested encryption based on two chaotic functions, where the
encryption system consists of confusion and diffusion principles. In order to provide high
resistance against differential attacks, additional operations of circular rotation and XOR
are applied on the encrypted image. The algorithm has a good security analysis, but the
process of encryption/decryption is complicated and hard to implement, thus making the
encryption system not applicable. Furthermore, ideal encryption needs more than three
encryption rounds.
Wang et al. [32] have suggested a fast algorithm for encrypting images based on
logistic maps that simultaneously performed the operations of diffusion and permutation.
Therefore, the number of iterations is decreased to reduce the computational time. The
suggested algorithm is capable of resisting the chosen plain text attacks. However, its
keyspace is not adequately large in order to endure the statistical attacks, and the effect of
the scrambling step is not optimal.
In [33], Liu et al. introduced a fast scheme that simultaneously performs the diffusion
and permutation. This cryptosystem has good capability for withstanding the chosen
plaintext attacks and low execution time. Nonetheless, it was unsuccessful in resisting the
data loss and noise attacks.
In [34], a grey image encryption scheme is presented using a 6D chaotic map combined
with Fibonacci Q-matrix. The 6D chaotic map is used to scramble the positions of image
pixels, where the Fibonacci Q-matrix is used to diffuse the pixels. The 6D chaotic map
provides sufficient keyspace that is able to challenge the differential attacks.
In [35], Liu et al. have introduced a fast method for image encryption in which the
processes of permutation and diffusion are simultaneously performed. The row and the
column techniques are performed in this method to reduce the processing time. This
proposed method showed efficient security and good speed performance.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 4 of 30

In [36], Ding and Ding combine 2D chaotic map and 4D Chaotic map with 2D Discrete
Wavelet Transform (DWT) to produce a new image encryption system. The authors prove
that the encrypted image has high keyspace and security. However, the utilisation of HD
chaotic map with DWT increases the complexity in hardware/software implementation.
In [37], a fast encryption method based on chaos, DNA encryption technique, and
parallel compressive sensing is introduced. The parallel compressive sensing technique is
employed to speed up the encryption system by minimizing the size of the image.

3. D Chaotic Map
The chaotic map has been produced with a non-linear dynamic system. A specific
range of its control parameters can have a strong sensitivity to its initial values. In this
section, we will discuss the Logistic map and Quadratic map in brief.

3.1. Logistic Map

The Logistic map is an efficient and simple 1D chaotic map that has a complicated,
chaotic behaviour, and it can be represented by the equation below:

xn+1 = LM(m, x n ) = m × x n × (1 − x n ) (1)

m represents a control parameter with ranges of (0, 4], and xn represents the chaotic
output sequence with range [0, 1]. The Logistic map can be chaotic only when m is in the
range of [3.57, 4.0], and if the control parameter m is higher than the range, the logistic map
cannot be having chaotic behaviours [30]. The bifurcation diagram of the map is capable
of the objective reflection of the state and the region of a map’s chaotic behaviour. The
Logistic map’s bifurcation diagram is depicted in Figure 1a. The 1D chaotic map includes
a single largest Lyapunov exponent (LE), used to measure whether a map is chaotic. If
the value of the LE is bigger than 0, the map can be considered chaotic and the other way
around. With the increase of the value of the LE, the complexity of the map is increased
(i.e., it becomes less predictable). The LE for the 1D maps is defined in Equation (2), and
Figure 2a shows the LE diagram of the Logistic chaotic map.

n −1
1
LE = lim
n→∞ n
∑ ln f 0 ( xi ) , (2)
i =0

where f 0 ( x ) indicates the derivative function of function f (x), while f (x) indicates a 1D
chaotic map. n is the number of chaotic map iterations.
For the Logistic map output sequence, there are two main drawbacks that are illus-
trated as follows:
• The sequence of the Logistic map can be chaotic only when parameter m in the range
of [3.57, 4.0], which has been verified by the negative values in the curve of LE diagram
that is shown in Figure 2a.
• Even in the range of m ∈ [3.57, 4.0], there are values that result in no chaotic behaviours
in the Logistic map. This has been verified by the blank area in the diagram of the
bifurcation that is shown in Figure 1a.
The encryption system must have a close relation to the encryption key, so it is essential
to use a sufficient and secure encryption key. The encryption key produced by the Logistic
map is relatively small. Only parameter m and initial state x0 are utilised as initial keys
for the Logistic chaotic sequence causing the Logistic map applications to be narrowed
down. As a result, it is essential to select a high complexity chaotic map to design the
encryption algorithm.
Electronics 2021, 10, 21162021, 10, 0
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Figure 1. Bifurcation
Figurediagrams: (a) diagrams:
1. Bifurcation Logistic map bifurcation
(a) Logistic diagram ofdiagram
map bifurcation parameter m; (b) Quadratic
of parameter map bifurcation
m; (b) Quadratic map
diagram of parameter c; (c) diagram
bifurcation 1D−ILMofbifurcation
parameterdiagram
c; (c) 1D− ofILM
parameter m for
bifurcation K = 12 of
diagram and R = 1; (d)m1D
parameter ILM
for−K = 12bifurcation
and
diagram of parameter K for
R = 1; (d) 1Dm = 4 and
−ILM R = 1; (e)
bifurcation 1D−ILM
diagram bifurcation
of parameter K diagram
for m = 4of parameter
and R = 1; (e)R1D
for m = bifurcation
−ILM 4 and K = 12; (f)
1D−IQM bifurcation diagram
diagram of parameter
of parameter R forc m
for=K4=and12 and
K =R12; = 1;
(f)(g)
1D1D −IQM
−IQM bifurcation
bifurcation diagram
diagram ofof parameter
parameter K for c =
c for
4 and R = 1; (h) 1D − IQM bifurcation diagram of parameter R for c = 4 and K = 12.
K = 12 and R = 1; (g) 1D−IQM bifurcation diagram of parameter K for c = 4 and R = 1; (h) 1D−IQM
bifurcation diagram of parameter R for c = 4 and K = 12.

3.2. Quadratic Map

The conventional Quadratic map can be defined as the famed chaotic map that has
high complexity dynamic behaviour. This map is commonly utilised in the applications of
cryptography. The Quadratic map equation can be seen below:

vn+1 = QM (c, vn ) = c − (v n )2 (3)

Here, c represents the controlling parameter that has the range [0, 2], vn ∈ [−2, 2]
represents the produced chaotic sequence. In the case of parameter c ∈ [1.4, 2.0], the
Quadratic map has a chaotic behaviour [26]. Even when c ∈ [1.4, 2.0], there are some values
that make the quadratic map has no chaotic sequence. Similar to the logistic map, the
Quadratic map has the same problems. The bifurcation and LE diagrams are illustrated in
Figures 1b and 2b.
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Figure
Figure2. 2. Lyapunov
Lyapunov exponent
exponentdiagrams:
diagrams: (a)(a) Logistic
Logistic map
map Lyapunov
Lyapunovexponent
exponentdiagram
diagramof of parameter
parameterm;m; (b)
(b) Quadratic
Quadratic mapmap
Lyapunov exponent
Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter c; (c) 1D−ILM Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter m for K = 12 and
parameter c; (c) 1D−ILM Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter m for K = 12 and R=
1; (d) 1D−ILM Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter K for m = 4 and R = 1; (e) 1D−ILM Lyapunov
R = 1; (d) 1D−ILM Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter K for m = 4 and R = 1; (e) 1D−ILM Lyapunov exponent exponent diagram
of parameter
diagram R for m =R 4for
of parameter andmK= 4= and
12; (f)
K 1D−IQM
= 12; (f) 1DLyapunov exponentexponent
−IQM Lyapunov diagram of parameter
diagram c for K = c12for
of parameter andK= R 12
= 1;and
(g)
1D−IQM Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter K for c = 4 and R = 1; (h) 1D−IQM Lyapunov exponent of parameter
R = 1; (g) 1D−IQM Lyapunov exponent diagram of parameter K for c = 4 and R = 1; (h) 1D−IQM Lyapunov exponent of
R for c = 4 and K = 12.
parameter R for c = 4 and K = 12.

4. New
ForChaotic Mapsmap output sequence, there are two main drawbacks that are illus-
the Logistic
trated as follows:
This section includes the proposed new chaotic map. To verify its precision, the
•
abovementioned
The sequence 1Dofchaotic mapsmap
the Logistic havecan
been utilised.only when parameter 𝑚 in the range
be chaotic
of [3.57, 4.0], which has been verified by the negative values in the curve of LE dia-
gram that is shown in Figure 2a.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 7 of 30

4.1. System Designing

The new chaotic map has been characterised using the equation below,

xn+1 = F (m, x n , K, R) = ((( F chaos ( m, x n )) × 2K )/sin ( x n ) R ) mod 1 (4)

where F (m, x n , K, R) represents a new chaotic map. Fchaos (m, xn ) is an existing 1D chaotic
map (one of the abovementioned). m, K and R represent control parameters with a wide
range. The mod represents module operation, which is utilised to make sure that the
produced chaotic sequence is confined in the [0, 1] range. F (m, x n , K, R) has a chaotic
characteristic in an expanded range that is larger than the existing range of 1D chaotic
maps. In the case of the parameters K and R in the range of [2, 26] and [1, 3], respectively,
the new suggested chaotic map has a high complex chaotic behaviour. The m, K and R
range has been experimentally confirmed by bifurcation and LE in the following subsection.
The new suggested chaotic system structure is simple, and it can be easily implemented by
hardware as well as software.

4.2. System Verified

To verify the suggested chaotic system’s efficiency, the abovementioned 1D chaotic
maps have been utilised as follows.

4.2.1. 1D-ILM
In this subsection, the improved version of the Logistic map (1D-ILM) is presented
using Equation (4). The presented chaotic map can overcome the problems mentioned in
Section 3, making it more appropriate for designing cryptosystems. The improved Logistic
map (1D-ILM) can be represented in Equation (5),

xn+1 = F L (m, x n ) = (((m × x n × (1 − x n )) × 2K )/sin ( xn ) R ) mod 1 (5)

where the parameter m ∈ (0, 10]. Parameters K and R in the range of [2, 26] and [1, 3], xn
represents the initial value of the sequence, where xn 6= 0. n represents the number of
iterations. The bifurcation diagram of 1D-ILM is shown in Figure 1c–e. The 1D-ILM se-
quence can exhibit uniform distributions in the range within [0, 1]. Additionally, according
to the LE curve that is shown in Figure 2c–e, the results of LE are positive at all values
of m ∈ (0.1, 10] K ∈ [2, 26] and R ∈ [1, 3]. As a result, the chaotic range and the chaotic
characteristics of 1D-ILM are efficient, and 1D-ILM is appropriate to be employed in the
encryption algorithm.

4.2.2. 1D-IQM
For the purpose of generating a chaotic sequence that has an adequate chaotic effi-
ciency, the Quadratic map is modified with the use of Equation (4). The map is referred to
as the 1D-Improved Quadratic Map (1D-IQM). The modified equation is as follows:

vn+1 = F Q (c, vn ) = (((c − (v n )2 ) × 2K )/sin(v n ) R ) mod 1 (6)

c, K, and R represent the control parameters, and vn represents the initial map’s value
within (0, 1]. K ∈ [2, 26] and R ∈ [1, 3]. According to the observations that have been
provided in Figure 2f–h, the proposed 1D-IQM exhibits positive LE values (its chaotic
conduct) when c ∈ [0, 10], K ∈ [2, 26] and R ∈ [1, 3]. The chaotic sequences that are
generated using 1D-IQM are uniformly distributed in the range of [0, 1], as illustrated in
Figure 1f–h.

4.2.3. Application to Other Maps

Numerous 1D chaotic maps are able to be improved with the use of the suggested
system designing (Equation (4)).
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 8 of 30

4.3. Performance Evaluation

The new chaotic maps will be evaluated using phase diagram (Attractor), approximate
entropy, sensitivity, and uniformity. For simplicity, the value of K and R of 1D-ILM and
1D-IQM are set to 12 and 1 respectively.

4.3.1. Phase Diagram of Chaotic Map

Chaotic systems have outputs of higher randomness in the case where its chaos phase
diagram is capable of occupying a bigger phase space. As observed in Figure 3c,d, the
output sequence of 1D-ILM and 1D-IQM maps fill a bigger region than the regular Logistic
and Quadratic maps sequences in the 2D phase diagram. This means that the 1D-ILM and
1D-IQM sequences have better randomness and ergodicity and are more convenient to be
used in image encryption systems. From Figure 4, the Logistic and Quadratic maps have
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closed trajectory and significant structure in 3D phase space. On the contrary, the 1D-ILM
and 1D-IQM show no closed trajectory, indicating better randomness.

Figure 3. 2D phase space diagrams: (a) 2D phase space diagram of Logistic map for m = 3.99; (b) 2D phase space diagram
Figure 3.
3. 2D
2D phase
phasespace
space diagrams:(a) (a)2D
2Dphase
phasespace
spacediagram
diagramofof Logistic map for m = 3.99;
(b)(b)
2D2D phase space diagram
Figure
of Quadratic map for c diagrams:
= 1.99; (c) 2D phase space diagram Logistic
of 1D−ILM formap
m = for m(d)
3.99; = 3.99;
2D phase phase
space space
diagramdiagram of
of 1D−IQM
of Quadratic
Quadratic map map
for for
c =c1.99;
= 1.99;
(c) (c)
2D 2D phase
phase space
space diagram
diagram of of
1D 1D−ILM
− ILM formm= =3.99;
for 3.99;(d)
(d)2D
2Dphase
phasespace
spacediagram
diagramofof1D
1D−IQM
− IQM
for c = 1.99.
for c = 1.99.
for c = 1.99.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4. 3D phase space diagrams: (a) 3D phase space diagramLogistic
of Logistic map for= m = 3.99; (b)phase
3D phase space diagram
Figure
Figure 4. 4. 3D
3D phase
phasespace
spacediagrams:
diagrams:(a)(a)3D
3Dphase
phasespace
spacediagram
diagramofof map
Logistic map forfor
m m 3.99; (b)(b)
= 3.99; 3D space
3D phase diagram
space of
diagram
of Quadratic
Quadratic map map
forforfor c =
c =c1.99; 1.99; (c)
(c)(c)
3D3D 3D
phasephase space
space diagram
diagram of ofof 1D−ILM
1D1D−ILM
−ILM for for m = 3.99; (d) 3D phase space diagram of 1D−IQM
of Quadratic map = 1.99; phase space diagram formm= =3.99;
3.99;(d)
(d)3D3Dphase
phasespace
spacediagram
diagramofof1D −IQM
1D−IQM
for c = 1.99.
for
for cc == 1.99.
1.99.

4.3.2.
4.3.2.Approximate
Approximate Entropy
Entropy (Complexity)
(Complexity)
4.3.2. Approximate Entropy (Complexity)
The fundamental
The fundamental concept
conceptofof
the
theApproximate
Approximate Entropy
Entropy (ApEn)
(ApEn)algorithm
algorithm is is
using a a
using
The fundamental concept of the Approximate Entropy (ApEn) algorithm is using a
non-negative
non-negative value to to
value quantify thethe
quantify time series
time irregularity,
series unpredictability,
irregularity, andand
unpredictability, complexity.
complex-
non-negative value to quantify the time series irregularity, unpredictability, and complex-
Moreover, the larger
ity. Moreover, the computed
the larger value of
the computed the ApEn,
value of the the more
ApEn, complex
the is the sequence
more complex is the se-
ity. Moreover, the larger the computed value of the ApEn, the more complex is the se-
produced by a chaotic
quence produced bymap [38]. The
a chaotic mapspecific details
[38]. The of the
specific ApEnofcalculation
details can be found
the ApEn calculation can
quence produced by a chaotic map [38]. The specific details of the ApEn calculation can
inbe
[39]. Besides
found the proposed
in [39]. chaotic
Besides the maps,chaotic
proposed three chaotic
maps,maps
three (1DSP
chaotic[20],
mapsLFHCM
(1DSP[29],
[20],
be found in [39]. Besides the proposed chaotic maps, three chaotic maps (1DSP [20],
LFHCM [29], EQM3 [26]) are compared with the proposed maps. The ApEn diagrams are
LFHCM [29], EQM3 [26]) are compared with the proposed maps. The ApEn diagrams are
shown in Figure 5. From Figure 5, the suggested chaotic maps have better ApEn, proving
shown in Figure 5. From Figure 5, the suggested chaotic maps have better ApEn, proving
that they can produce sequences with higher unpredictability and complexity.
that they can produce sequences with higher unpredictability and complexity.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 9 of 30

EQM3 [26]) are compared with the proposed maps. The ApEn diagrams are shown
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in
10 of 32
Figure 5. From Figure 5, the suggested chaotic maps have better ApEn, proving that they
can produce sequences with higher unpredictability and complexity.

Figure 5. Approximate
Figure 5. Approximate Entropy
Entropy (ApEn)
(ApEn) of
of (a)
(a)1D −ILM and
1D−ILM and Logistic
Logistic map;
map; (b)
(b) 1D −IQM and
1D−IQM and Quadratic
Quadratic map;
map; (c)
(c) LFHCM,
LFHCM,
1DSP
1DSP and
and EQM3.
EQM3.

4.3.3. Map
4.3.3. Map Sensitivity
Sensitivity
The chaotic
The chaotic maps
mapsused
usedininthe
thecryptosystem
cryptosystem should be be
should sensitive to the
sensitive to initial valuevalue
the initial and
the control parameters [28]. In order to test the sensitivity level of the proposed chaotic
and the control parameters [28]. In order to test the sensitivity level of the proposed cha-
maps,
otic the following
maps, procedures
the following procedureswill will
be followed:
be followed:
•• The
The chaotic
chaotic map
map isis iterated
iterated 100
100 times
times toto form
form the
the first
first chaotic
chaotic sequence.
sequence.
•• The
The chaotic
chaotic map
map isis re-iterated
re-iterated after
after tiny
tiny changes
changes toto one
one of
of its
its parameters
parameters to to form
form the
the
second sequence.
second sequence.
•• The
The trajectories
trajectories of
of the
the two
two generated
generated sequences
sequences areare compared.
compared.
Figure 6 shows the map sensitivity results. The difference
Figure 6 shows the map sensitivity results. The difference between
betweenthethe
two trajectories
two trajecto-
of 1D-ILM
ries andand
of 1D-ILM 1D-IQM
1D-IQM cancan
be be
visually
visuallydistinguishable
distinguishableafterafternearly
nearlyfive
fiveiterations,
iterations, as
as
shown in
shown Figure 6c,d.
in Figure In regard
6c,d. In regard to
to the
the Logistic
Logistic map
map and
and Quadratic
Quadratic map map in
in Figure
Figure 6a,b,
6a,b, the
the
difference is
difference is distinguishable
distinguishable after
after nearly
nearly 5050 iterations. From this
iterations. From this result,
result, the
the 1D-ILM
1D-ILM and and
1D-IQM have better sensitivity to their parameters.
1D-IQM have better sensitivity to their parameters.

4.3.4. Sequence Uniformity

The uniform distribution of the sequences is an indication of the fact that the sequence
is robustly random and it has preferable secure performance [40]. On the other hand, in
the case of the non-uniform distribution of the sequences, the sequences are not secure,
and the statistical attacks have sufficient attack effects. The uneven distribution is an
indication that the output sequence randomness is insufficient. The sequence uniformity
analysis for chaotic maps can be shown in Figure 7, where the distribution of the Logistic
map and Quadratic map is uneven. Consequently, their randomness is relatively poor,
and their safety performance, weak. On the other hand, the proposed maps 1D-ILM and
1D-IQM are uniformly distributed, thereby proving significant randomness and preferable
security performance.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 10 of 30
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 32

Electronics 2021, 10, 0 13 of 36

Figure 6. Map sensitivity test: (a) Logistic map; (b) Quadratic map; (c) 1D−ILM; (d) 1D−IQM.
Figure 6. Map sensitivity test: (a) Logistic map; (b) Quadratic map; (c) 1D−ILM; (d) 1D−IQM.
4.3.4. Sequence Uniformity
The uniform distribution of the sequences is an indication of the fact that the se-
quence is robustly random and it has preferable secure performance [40]. On the other
hand, in the case of the non-uniform distribution of the sequences, the sequences are not
secure, and the statistical attacks have sufficient attack effects. The uneven distribution is
an indication that the output sequence randomness is insufficient. The sequence uni-
formity analysis for chaotic maps can be shown in Figure 7, where the distribution of the
Logistic map and Quadratic map is uneven. Consequently, their randomness is relatively
poor, and their safety performance, weak. On the other hand, the proposed maps 1D-ILM
and 1D-IQM are uniformly distributed, thereby proving significant randomness and pref-
erable security performance.

Figure 7. Sequences
Figure uniformity uniformity
7. Sequences diagrams: (a) Sequences
diagrams: uniformity diagram of uniformity
(a) Sequences Logistic map for m = 3.99; of
diagram (b) Logistic
Sequences map
uniformity diagram of Quadratic map for c = 1.99; (c) Sequences uniformity diagram of 1D−ILM for m = 3.99; (d) Sequences
for m = 3.99; (b) Sequences uniformity diagram of Quadratic map for c = 1.99; (c) Sequences unifor-
uniformity diagram of 1D−IQM for c = 1.99.
mity diagram of 1D−ILM for m = 3.99; (d) Sequences uniformity diagram of 1D−IQM for c = 1.99.
5. Image Encryption System Based on 1D-ILM and 1D-IQM
The architecture for the proposed encryption system is shown in Figure 8, which
consists of two main phases: permutation phase and diffusion phase.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 11 of 30

5. Image Encryption System Based on 1D-ILM and 1D-IQM

Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW The architecture for the proposed encryption system is shown in Figure 8, which
13 of 32
consists of two main phases: permutation phase and diffusion phase.

Iterate 1D-ILM and 1D-

IQM to generate four
Plaintext image
chaotic sequence
(X1, X2, Y1, Y2)

Key expansion

Apply permutation phase

Permuted image

Permutation phase

Integer sequences
Apply column diffusion Diffusion matrix (D)
(IX1 , IY1 , IX2 , IY2)

Apply row diffusion

Encrypted image
Diffusion phase

Figure 8. Flowchart of encryption.

Figure 8. Flowchart of encryption.

5.1. Key Generation Scheme

Key generation scheme steps of the encryption scheme with the use of Message-Di-
gest Algorithm (MD5) are introduced in this subsection, where MD5 is a cryptographic
hash function that plays an essential role in image encryption. MD5 can generate a 128-bit
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 12 of 30

5.1. Key Generation Scheme

Key generation scheme steps of the encryption scheme with the use of Message-Digest
Algorithm (MD5) are introduced in this subsection, where MD5 is a cryptographic hash
function that plays an essential role in image encryption. MD5 can generate a 128-bit
hash value [41]. As MD5 is irreversible, it can resist different types of attacks, such as
known-plaintext attacks.
In the proposed encryption scheme, the initial values, and parameters of 1D-ILM and
1D-IQM are the secret keys. To make the secret key mainly dependent on image pixels and
image size, the following steps will be followed:
Step 1: Suppose the plaintext image P( M, N ), where M indicates the number of the
rows while N indicates the number of columns, we calculate sum P , where sum P represents
the sum of all pixel values of P.
Step 2: We calculate two vectors: sum R with the size of M and sumC with the size of
N, where sum R is the sum of each row of P and sumC is the sum of each column of P. Then,
the MD5 hash of sum R and sumC is calculated to generate Rhash and Chash with 128-bit hash
value. Divide Rhash and Chash into 8-bit (2-byte) blocks in decimal format as expressed in
the following equations.
Rhash = MD5 (sum R )

(7)
Rhash = {r1 , r2 , . . . r16 }
Chash = MD5 (sumC )

(8)
Chash = {c1 , c2 , . . . c16 }
Since the MD5 is very sensitive to any minor changes, one-bit change in P can lead to
a significant difference in the hash values (Rhash , C hash ). After that, we generate four values
based on hash values (Rhash , C hash ) using XOR operation (⊕) as in the following equations,

RKey1 = r1 ⊕ r2 ⊕ . . . ⊕ r8

(9)
RKey2 = r9 ⊕ r10 ⊕ . . . ⊕ r16

CKey1 = c1 ⊕ c2 ⊕ . . . ⊕ c8

(10)
CKey2 = c9 ⊕ c10 ⊕ . . . ⊕ c16
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Step 3: Suppose the initial keys x1 , x2 , v1 , v2 , m1 , m2 , c1 and c2 are randomly selected.
Then, the initial keys are updated according to the plain image pixel value as follows:
..
x1 = ( x1 mod RKey1 )/256

..

x2 = ( x2 mod RKey2 )/256


.. (11)
v = (v1 mod C Key1 )/256
 1 ..


v2 = (v2 mod C Key2 )/256
..

m1 sum p mod m1
× (sum P /M)
mod 9 + 1


=
..

m2 sum p mod m2
× (sum P /M
) mod 9 + 1

=

.. (12)
c = sum p mod c1
× (sum P /N )
mod 9 + 1
 1 ..


c2 = sum p mod c2 × (sum P /N ) mod 9 + 1
Step 4: 1D-ILM is firstly iterated (M + 100 times) using x1 and m1 and secondly
iterated using x2 and m2 to form two chaotic sequences X1 and X2, respectively. After that,
the 1D-IQM is firstly iterated (N + 100 times) using v1 and c1 and secondly iterated using
v2 and c2 to form two chaotic sequences Y1 and Y2, respectively. The First 100 elements of
sequences X1, X2, Y1 and Y2 are discarded in order to improve the sensitivity of initial
values and parameters of the map (to avert transient effect).
Step 5: After the chaotic sequences X1( M, 1), X2( M, 1), Y1(1, N ) and Y2(1, N ) are
generated by 1D-ILM and 1D-IQM, we propose a key expansion method to reduce the
number of iteration as well as the encryption time especially in large-sized images. By
using a multiply operation between X1( M, 1) and Y1(1, N ) and between X2( M, 1) and
Y2(1, N ), we obtain two chaotic matrices S1 ( M, N ) and S2 ( M, N ) respectively. Then, they
Electronics 10,2116
2021,10,
Electronics2021, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13
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32

Y2(1,
are N), we obtain
manipulated two chaotic
together to form matrices S1 (M, S(M,
a chaotic matrix N) and S2expressed
N) as (M, N) respectively.
in EquationThen,
(13),
they are manipulated together to form a
which has the same size as the input image.chaotic matrix 𝑆(𝑀, 𝑁) as expressed in Equation
(13), which has the same size as the input image.
S = ((S1 +S2 ) ×) 1000) mod Ekey (13)
S = ((S1 + S2 × 1000) mod Ekey (13)
where
where EEkey is a secret key. For each value of E Ekey
key is a secret key. For each value of key
, we
, wehave
haveaaunique
uniquechaotic
chaoticsequence
sequenceof of
S. Numerical
S. Numerical example
example of of the
the key
key expansion
expansion method
method isisdepicted
depictedin inFigure
Figure9.9.The Thechaoticchaotic
sequences
sequencesofofthe theproposed
proposedencryption
encryptionsystem
systemareare
directly related
directly to the
related plaintext
to the plaintext image. image. In
the case of minor changes in pixel value or size of plaintext image that
In the case of minor changes in pixel value or size of plaintext image that occurs, the valueoccurs, the value
of 𝑠𝑢𝑚P , ,sum
of sum 𝑠𝑢𝑚 R and andsum 𝑠𝑢𝑚C will change.
will change.Consequentially,
Consequentially,the theinitial
initialvalue
value(x(x1 ,1 ,xx22,, vv11,, vv22),),
parameters
parameters (m (m , m , c , c ) and chaotic sequences (X1, X2, Y1, Y2) will significantly
1 , 2m ,1 c 2, c ) and chaotic sequences (𝑋1, 𝑋2, Y1, Y2) will significantly change.
1 2 1 2
This is because the proposed chaotic maps and the proposed
change. This is because the proposed chaotic maps and the proposed key generationkey generation scheme are
extremely sensitive to any minor changes.
scheme are extremely sensitive to any minor changes.

0.1500 0.0240 0.0076 0.0513 0.1087 0.6000 0.1241 0.1361 0.7710

0.0711 0.0114 0.0036 0.0243 0.0515 0.6607 0.5696 0.0253 0.3177

0.4211 S1 = X1 × Y1 0.0674 0.0213 0.1440 0.3050 0.7759 0.4365 0.7704 0.3843

0.6290 0.1600 0.0505 0.3421 0.7245 0.1006 0.0318 0.2151 0.4557 0.8184 0.6959 0.3136 0.5766

X1 Y1 S = ((S1 + S2) × 1000) mod Ekey

(Ekey = 1)

0.140 0.0168 0.0661 0.0911 0.0724 0.5670 0.9931 0.9551 0.6270

0.3736 0.0448 0.1763 0.2430 0.1932 0.5717 0.2176 0.5403 0.9327

0.8407 S2 = X2 × Y2 0.1009 0.3967 0.5469 0.4347 0.5749 0.6445 0.6784 0.5163

0.2201 0.1200 0.4719 0.6505 0.5170 0.0264 0.1038 0.1432 0.1138 0.7664 0.4889 0.0276 0.3496

X2 Y2 S = ((S1 + S2) × 1000) mod Ekey

(Ekey = 1.001)

Figure9.9.AAnumerical
Figure numericalexample
exampleof
ofthe
thekey
keyexpansion
expansionmethod.
method.

5.2.
5.2. Permutation
Permutation Phase
Phase
There
There isisaanatural
naturalhigh
highcorrelation
correlationbetween
betweenthe theneighbouring
neighbouringpixels
pixelsin
inthe
therelevant
relevant
plaintext
plaintextimage.
image.AAgood goodencryption
encryptionmethod
method has to to
has be be
capable of decreasing
capable thatthat
of decreasing correlation
correla-
and
tionobscuring
and obscuring the positions of the
the positions ofpixels and and
the pixels making the original
making image
the original to meaningless
image to meaning-
chaotic imageimage
less chaotic so thatsothe pixel
that thepositions are arranged
pixel positions in a random
are arranged and unorderly
in a random manner.
and unorderly
In the proposed permutation phase, a new permutation scheme using chaotic matrix S
manner.
to alter
Inthethelocation
proposed of all pixels of plaintext
permutation phase, aimage chaotically isscheme
new permutation proposed. Thechaotic
using permutation
matrix
phase is illustrated
𝑆 to alter the locationin the following
of all pixels ofsteps:
plaintext image chaotically is proposed. The permu-
Step
tation 1: Sort
phase the S in ascending
is illustrated order bysteps:
in the following performing Equation (14)
Step 1: Sort the 𝑆 in ascending order by performing Equation (14)
[Ssorted , Sindex ] = sort(S), (14)
Ssorted , Sindex = sort(S), (14)
where Ssorted represents the sorted sequence of S, and Sindex represents the index value
where S represents the sorted sequence of S, and Sindex represents the index value
of Ssorted . sorted
of Ssorted .
Step 2: The pixels positions of P are re-arranged according to the index matrix
Step 2: The pixels positions of P are re-arranged according to the index matrix (Sindex ).
(Sindex ). After all the pixels of P are moved to their new positions, the permuted image PP
After all the pixels of P are moved to their new positions, the permuted image PP is gen-
is generated.
erated.
5.3. Diffusion Phase
5.3. Diffusion Phase
Chosen plaintext attacks have been designed for breaking the encryption system by
examining
Chosen how a minor
plaintext change
attacks havein been
plaintext images
designed forcan affect the
breaking the encryption
system’s encryption
system by
results. An efficient diffusion phase is able to make an image encryption system withstand
examining how a minor change in plaintext images can affect the system’s encryption re-
sults. An efficient diffusion phase is able to make an image encryption system withstand
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 14 of 30

those types of attacks. In the proposed diffusion phase, the column diffusion and row
diffusion techniques are used in which the pixels of an image are diffused by columns and
then by rows. The diffusion steps are illustrated in the following steps:
Step 1: Convert the chaotic sequences X1, X2, Y1 and Y2 into integer sequences by
using the following equations,

IX1 = d X1 × R Key1 × L1e mod M,

IY1 = dY1 × C Key1 × L2e mod N,
(15)
IX2 = d X2 × R Key2 × L3e mod M,
IY2 = dY2 × C Key2 × L4e mod N,

where d.e represents floor function, L1, L2, L3, and L4 are integer values ∈ (1000, 4000).
Step 2: Chaotic matrix S is converted into integer form to produce diffusion matrix D
as in Equation (16).

D = bS × ( R Key1 +C Key1 ) × L5c mod 256, (16)

where b.c represents ceil function, L5 ∈ (1000, 4000).

Step 3: Apply Column Diffusion. The image pixels can be chaotically encrypted by
using the value of two previous encrypted pixels to encrypt the current one. For column
diffusion, Equation (17) is applied.
 C
 E (., 1) =  PP (., 1) + CKey1 × IY1 (1)
mod256 ⊕
D (., IY1 (1))



C C
E (., 2) =  PP (., 2) + E (., 1) + CKey1 × IY1 (
2) mod256 ⊕ D (., IY1 (2))
(17)
 C
E (., j) = PP (., j) + EC (., j − 1) × IY1 ( j − 1) + EC (., j − 2) × IY1 ( j − 2) + CKey2 × IY1 ( j) mod256 ⊕ D (., IY1 ( j))




where j from 3 to N. And then chaotic column shift is applied to shuffle the columns as in
the following expression,
Es (i, j) = EC (i, j + I Y2 (i ))
 C
j + IY2 (i ) ≤ N
C C (18)
Es (i, j) = E (i, j + I Y2 (i ) − N ) j + IY2 (i ) > N
where i from 1 to M, j from 1 to N.
Step 4: Apply row Diffusion. Encrypt the image rows according to Equation (19).
 R
 E (1, .) =  EsC (1, .) + RKey1 × IX1 (1)
mod256 ⊕
D ( IX1 (1), .)



R C R
E (2, .) =  Es (2, .) + E (1, .) + RKey1 × IX1
(2) mod256 ⊕ D ( IX1 (2), .)
(19)
 R
E (i, .) = EsC (i, .) + E R (i − 1, .) × IX1 (i − 1) + E R (i − 2, .) × IX1 (i − 2) + RKey2 × IX1 (i ) mod256 ⊕ D ( IX1 (i ), .)




where i from 3 to M. After that, shift the rows of image as in Equation (20),

EsR (i, j) = E R (i + I X2 ( j), j) i + I X2 ( j) ≤ M


(20)
EsR (i, j) = E R (i + I X2 ( j) − M, j) i + I X2 ( j) > M

where i from 1 to M, j from 1 to N.

The chaotic row and column shift is used to increase the security and is also used
to increase the encryption system sensitivity. After the diffusion phase is completed, the
encrypted image is generated. It is evident that the decryption process is similar to the
encryption process but in a reverse way. The encrypted images can be shown in Figure 10.

5.4. Extended to Colour Images

In the case of a colour image, it is encrypted by splitting the image components, Red
(R), Green (G) and Blue (B). We then treat each component as a grey image. In consequence,
the encryption of each component is exactly similar to the proposed encryption steps.
Following that, we combine the result of the encryption process of each component to
obtain the encrypted image. The encrypted colour images are shown in Figure 11.
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 32
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 15 of 30

Figure
Figure 10. simulation results
10. The simulation resultsof
ofthe
theproposed
proposedimage
imageencryption
encryptionalgorithm
algorithm with
with grey
grey images:
images: (a) (a) Plaintext
Plaintext images;
images; (b)
permuted
(b) permutedimages; (c) (c)
images; encrypted images;
encrypted (d)(d)
images; decrypted Images.
decrypted Images.

5.4. Extended to Colour Images

In the case of a colour image, it is encrypted by splitting the image components, Red
(R), Green (G) and Blue (B). We then treat each component as a grey image. In conse-
quence, the encryption of each component is exactly similar to the proposed encryption
steps. Following that, we combine the result of the encryption process of each component
to obtain the encrypted image. The encrypted colour images are shown in Figure 11.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116
2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16
18 of 30
32

Figure 11. The

Figure 11. The simulation
simulation results
results of
of the
the proposed
proposed image
image encryption
encryption algorithm
algorithm with
with colour
colour images: (a) Plaintext
images: (a) Plaintext images;
images;
(b)
(b) permuted
permuted images;
images; (c)
(c) encrypted
encrypted images;
images; (d)
(d) decrypted
decrypted Images.
Images.

6. Performance
6. Performance Analysis
Analysis
The test
The test images
images consist
consist of
of standard
standard Lena
Lena image
image ofof size
size 512
512 × 512, and
× 512, and 99 grey
grey images
images
have been chosen from the USC-SIPI Image Database. The secret keys in the encryption
have been chosen from the USC-SIPI Image Database. The secret keys in the encryption
algorithm are selected as follows:
algorithm
.. are selected
.. as follows: .. .. .. .. .. ..
x = 1000.567, x = 1344.455, v = 2000.345, v = 1235.345, m = 4, m = 3, c = 2, c = 3,
x11 = 1000.567, x22 = 1344.455, v11 = 2000.345, v22 = 1235.345, 1m1 = 4, 2m2 = 3,1 c1 = 2,2 c2 =
L1 = 2600, L2 = 3500 , L3 = 3000 and L4 = L5 = 1000. K and R for 1D-ILM and IQM are
3, L1 = 2600, L2 = 3500 , L3 = 3000 and L4 = L5 = 1000. K and R for 1D-ILM and
set to 12 and 1, respectively. MATLAB R2015a with Intel Core i7-4600 CPU @2.7GHz and
IQM are set to 12 and 1, respectively. MATLAB R2015a with Intel Core i7-4600 CPU
8GB RAM on Windows 10 operating system.
@2.7GHz and 8GB RAM on Windows 10 operating system.
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 32
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 17 of 30

6.1. Statistical Analysis

6.1. Statistical Analysis
In this work, three indicators used to evaluate the capability of the proposed image
In this system
encryption work, three
towardsindicators used
resisting to evaluate
statistical theare
attacks capability
histogram of the proposed
analysis, image
correlation
encryption
analysis, andsystem towards resisting statistical attacks are histogram analysis, correlation
entropy.
analysis, and entropy.
6.1.1. Histogram Analysis
6.1.1. Histogram Analysis
The histogram exhibits the pixel intensity value distribution for a grey image. Figure
The histogram
12a illustrates plainexhibits the pixel intensity
image histograms. Figurevalue distribution
12b shows for encrypted
that the a grey image. Figure
image 12a
results
illustrates
of plain image
even distribution at ahistograms. Figure
[0, 255] interval. 12b shows
It entirely that from
differs the encrypted image
the histogram ofresults of
the plain
even distribution at a [0, 255] interval. It entirely differs from the histogram
image. Based on Figure 12c, the decrypted image results completely preserve the plain of the plain
image.information.
image Based on Figure 12c, the decrypted
In consequence, it becomes image
hardresults
for thecompletely
attackers topreserve
predict the
plainplain
im-
image information. In consequence,
ages using statistical analyses. it becomes hard for the attackers to predict plain
images using statistical analyses.

Figure Histogram:
12. Histogram:
Figure 12. (a) Histogram
(a) Histogram of plaintext
of plaintext image;image; (b) histogram
(b) histogram of encrypted
of encrypted image;
image; (c) (c) histogram
histogram of
of decrypted
decrypted
image. image.

To further
To further
prove
provethe thehistogram
histogram uniformity
uniformity of the proposed
of the proposed encryption
encryption system, the Chi-
system, the
square test test 2
x (x is utilised, wherewhere the Chi-square 2
test (xtest
) indicates a statistical measure of
Chi-square 2
) is utilised, the Chi-square 2
(x ) indicates a statistical meas-
the distribution
ure of pixels.
of the distribution ofThe formula
pixels. of the Chi-square
The formula test (x2 ) can
of the Chi-square testbe(xjustified
2
) can bebelow [42].
justified
below [42]. 2
256 ( P − 256)
x2 = ∑i 256 (Pi − 256)2 , (21)
i 256
x2 = , (21)
i 256
where i represents the levels number of the grey-scale and Pi ∈ (0–255) represents the
where
observed 𝑖 represents the levels number
frequency occurrences of the greyof the grey-scale
levels. The value andofPthei ∈ Chi-square test (x2 ) the
(0–255) represents for
observed frequency
the encrypted images occurrences
should be close of theorgrey
belowlevels. The value of
the theoretical the Chi-square
value 293.24783 [35]. (x2 )
test The
for the of
results encrypted
Chi-squareimages
test (x 2 ) are be
should close orinbelow
tabulated Table the theoretical
1, where test (x2[35].
value 293.24783
the Chi-square ) of
The results of Chi-square test (x 2
)
encrypted images are close to the theoretical one.
are tabulated in Table 1, where the Chi-square test (x 2
)
of encrypted images are close to the theoretical one.
6.1.2. Adjacent Pixels Correlation
TableThe
1. Chi-square test. correlation (C ) can be defined as one of the common ways for the
adjacent pixel xy
evaluation of the image encryption algorithm’s
Image Plainperformance,
Image and an efficient cryptosystem
Encrypted Image
must eliminate such intrinsic relation for the purpose of improving the resistance against
Lena 114,486.457 233.779
the statistical analyses [43]. Equation (22) is used to calculate the correlation of adjacent
Boat 383,969.687 239.060
pixels (Cxy ).
Couple 298,865.244 261.164
E( x ) = N1 ∑iN=1 xi
Tank 957,952.570 2
259.609
Elaine ∑iN=1 ( xi − E( x ))
D ( x ) = N1 140,667.152 237.857
1 N
(22)
Stream and bridge cov ( x, y ) = ∑ ( x − E
N i =1,185,618.347
1 i ( x ))( y i − E ( y )) 245.048
Cxy = cov( x, y709,340.680
) / D ( x ) D ( y ),
p p
Man 293.547
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 18 of 30

where x and y represent the grey-scale values of two pixels that are adjacent in location. N
represents the entire number of the x and y obtained from an image. Table 2 lists the Corre-
lation (Cxy ) values for various plain images as well as their equivalent encrypted images.

Table 1. Chi-square test.

Image Plain Image Encrypted Image

Lena 114,486.457 233.779
Boat 383,969.687 239.060
Couple 298,865.244 261.164
Tank 957,952.570 259.609
Elaine 140,667.152 237.857
Stream and bridge 1,185,618.347 245.048
Man 709,340.680 293.547
Airport 1,974,776.136 278.427
Chemical plant 50,326.4453 246.375
Clock 282,061.562 255.359
Average 609,806.400 255.022

Table 2. Correlation analysis.

Plaintext Image Encrypted Image

Image 2D-CC
Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Horizontal Vertical Diagonal
Lena 0.97380 0.98564 0.96039 −0.000805 −0.000776 0.003297 0.001463
Boat 0.93812 0.97131 0.92216 0.001051 0.000723 0.000096 0.002264
Couple 0.93707 0.89264 0.85572 −0.00168 0.001695 −0.000275 0.001045
Tank 0.96566 0.93040 0.91676 0.000832 0.000673 −0.003580 −0.003580
Elaine 0.97565 0.97302 0.96925 0.000989 −0.001817 −0.001210 −0.000595
Stream and bridge 0.94041 0.92751 0.89749 0.000407 −0.003383 0.001103 −0.004226
Man 0.97745 0.98127 0.96715 0.001012 −0.000191 0.001548 −0.000125
Airport 0.90993 0.90337 0.85905 −0.001955 −0.000400 −0.000430 0.000143
Chemical plant 0.94662 0.89841 0.85291 0.0019064 −0.000793 −0.001858 −0.005777
Clock 0.95649 0.97408 0.93893 0.0080607 −0.001130 0.000842 −0.004517
Average 0.95212 0.943765 0.913981 0.000982 −0.00054 −0.000046 −0.00139

The correlation values of the ideal ciphering system have to approach the 0 value.
Table 2 shows that the correlation values of encrypted images are noticeably decreased (the
values are very close to the 0 value). Additionally, Table 3 lists the comparison with different
algorithms. In addition, the adjacent pixel distributions in three various directions are
illustrated in Figure 13. As can be seen, from Figure 13a,c,e, the plaintext image has a robust
correlation between the neighbouring pixels in the three directions; vertical, horizontal and
diagonal. From Figure 13b,d,f, the cipher image points are full of space and are chaotically
distributed. Evidently, the pixel value correlations between two neighbouring encrypted
image points are considerably decreased.

Table 3. Correlation comparison.

Algorithm Proposed Ref. [28] Ref. [44] Ref. [45] Ref. [46]
Horizontal −0.000805 0.0054 0.0019 −0.0056 −0.0022
Vertical −0.000776 0.0064 −0.0024 0.0006 0.0015
Diagonal 0.003297 0.0046 0.0011 0.0018 0.0025
 Table 3. Correlation comparison.

Algorithm Proposed Ref. [28] Ref. [44] Ref. [45] Ref. [46]
Horizontal −0.000805 0.0054 0.0019 −0.0056 −0.0022
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 19 of 30
Vertical −0.000776 0.0064 −0.0024 0.0006 0.0015
Diagonal 0.003297 0.0046 0.0011 0.0018 0.0025

Figure13.
Figure 13. Adjacent
Adjacent pixels
pixels correlation.
correlation.

6.1.3. Correlations between Original and Encrypted Image

The 2D Correlation Coefficient (CC) between different plain/cipher-image pairs have
been analysed through the calculation of the 2D Correlations Coefficient (CC) between the
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 20 of 30

plaintext image and its corresponding encrypted image [47]. The CC can be computed as
in the following equation:

∑iM N
=1 ∑ j=1 Xij − X Yij − Y



CC = r (23)

2  M
2 
∑iM N
=1 ∑ j=1 Xij − X ∑ i =1 ∑ N
j=1 Yij − Y

Xij denotes plaintext image and Yij denotes cipher-image. X and Y represent the average
values of Xij and Yij elements, respectively. M and N indicate the number of rows and
columns of the cipher and plaintext images, respectively. The values of the CC of various
plain images have been listed in Table 2. The values in Table 2 are very close to optimal
value. i.e., 0.

6.1.4. Information Entropy (IE)

Here, IE is utilised for the evaluation of image randomness, and an information source
entropy is:
N 1
IE(n) = ∑i=0 P(ni ) log2 (24)
P ( ni )
ni denotes a source of the image, N represents a total number of the symbols and P(ni )
denotes the symbol ni probability [48]. For the grey level images, the maximal IE equals
8. Results for various images are given in Table 4. In addition, the entropy comparison
of the encrypted Lena image is listed in Table 5. IE of the proposed algorithm remains
tightly close to 8 in Tables 4 and 5. Consequently, it is nearly impossible to obtain visual
information from encrypted images.

Table 4. Information entropy (IE).

Image IE
Lena 7.9994
Boat 7.9993
Couple 7.9993
Tank 7.9993
Elaine 7.9993
Stream and bridge 7.9993
Man 7.9998
Airport 7.9998
Chemical plant 7.9973
Clock 7.9972
Average 7.9990

Table 5. Information entropy (IE) comparison.

Method Proposed Ref. [28] Ref. [44] Ref. [45] Ref. [46]
IE 7.9994 7.9992 7.9993 7.9971 7.9991

6.2. Key Analysis

6.2.1. Key Space
A secure encryption system must have a massive keyspace that can resist attacks
adequately. The keyspace size is obligated to be bigger than 2100 to provide a high-security
level [49]. For proposed image encryption, the parameters and initial values of chaotic
maps are secret keys. The 1D-ILM has one initial value and three control parameters when
R and K are considered, and 1D-IQM also has one initial value and three control parameters
when R and K are considered. In the proposed scheme, each map is used twice to generate
the key sequence. As a consequence, we have twelve control parameters and four initial
values. In the case of precision of the initial values and parameter, it is set to 10−15 , the
 maps are secret keys. The 1D-ILM has one initial value and three control parameters when
R and K are considered, and 1D-IQM also has one initial value and three control parame-
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 21 of 30
ters when R and K are considered. In the proposed scheme, each map is used twice to
generate the key sequence. As a consequence, we have twelve control parameters and four
initial values. In the case of precision of the initial values and parameter, it is set to 10−15,
the keyspace 101510
equals ×16 = 10240 ≈≈22797 ,, which than 22100
15×16 = 10 240 797 is bigger
bigger than 100. As a result, the suggested
keyspace equals which is . As a result, the suggested
method
method hashas quite
quite aa sufficient
sufficient keyspace
keyspace to to resist various brute-force
resist various brute-force attack
attack types.
types. Table
Table 66
lists the keyspace comparison between different algorithms.
lists the keyspace comparison between different algorithms.

Table 6. Keyspace
Table 6. Keyspace comparison.
comparison.

Algorithm Algorithm
Keyspace Keyspace
Proposed 10240 ≈2797
Proposed 10240 ≈ 2797
Ref. [28] Ref. [28] 10210 ≈ 2697 10210 ≈ 2697
Ref. [44] Ref. [44] 2564 2564
Ref. [45] Ref. [45] 2124 2124
Ref. [46] Ref. [46] 2199 2199

Key Sensitivity
6.2.2. Key Sensitivity
An efficient method
method ofofencryption
encryptionmust
musthave
haveefficient
efficientsensitivity to to
sensitivity thethe
secret keys.
secret In
keys.
ourour
In method, sensitivity
method, is split
sensitivity into
is split thethe
into two points
two below:
points below:
1. Changing the
Changing thekey’s
key’svalue
valuethroughout
throughoutthe the encryption
encryption process
process causes
causes a significant
a significant al-
teration to the encrypted image. The 𝑚
alteration to the encrypted image. The m1 is tested in original secret
is tested in original secret keys. The results
of the
of the test following the slight change of m 𝑚1 by by10 15 are observed in Figure 14. The
10−−15
remaining secret
remaining secretkeyskeysarearethe
thesame
sameasas above.
above. Based
Based on on
thethe results,
results, the the encrypted
encrypted im-
image
age undergoes
undergoes a dramatic
a dramatic change
change ininthe
thecase
casewhere
wherethe theindividual
individual key key has been
changed 10−15
changed −15 . Fromsuch
. From suchresults,
results,the
theproposed
proposedmethod
methodhas has an
an efficient
efficient sensitivity of
the encryption
the encryption key.key.
2.
2. The slight
The slight change
change of of the
the key
key value
value throughout
throughout the the decryption
decryption process
process will
will have
have a a
considerabledifference
considerable differenceininthe thedecrypted
decryptedimage.
image. TheThetesttest results
results in the
in the casecase where
where the
the decryption −15 may be observed
decryption key key differs
differs fromfrom
thethe
keykey of the
of the encryption
encryption byby1010
−15 may be observed in
in Figure 15. Here, a considerable difference is seen between
Figure 15. Here, a considerable difference is seen between correctly and incorrectlycorrectly and incor-
decrypted images in the case where the decryption key differs from the keythe
rectly decrypted images in the case where the decryption key differs from of key
en-
of encryption by 10 −15 . The accurately decrypted image in Figure 15d restores the
cryption by 10 . The accurately decrypted image in Figure 15d restores the original
−15
originalsuccessfully,
image image successfully,
while the while the inaccurately
inaccurately decrypted
decrypted imageimage in Figure
in Figure 15c does
15c does not
not recognise any information compared to the original image.
recognise any information compared to the original image. From this result, the pro-From this result, the
proposed
posed scheme
scheme has has sufficient
sufficient keykey sensitivity.
sensitivity.

Key sensitivity
sensitivitytest:
test:(a)
(a)Original
Originalimage;
image;(b)
(b)encrypted
encryptedimage
image withmm ; (c) encrypted image with + −15 15 ;
10;−(d)
Figure 14. Key
Figure 14. with 1 ; 1(c) encrypted image with m1m+1 10
(d)
the the difference
difference between
between twotwo encrypted
encrypted images.
images.

6.3. Analysis of the Permutation Performance

According to the permutation performance evaluation method [44], a white image
with a small black square in the middle is permuted using the suggested permutation
phase. The permutation phase aims to prevent the attackers from recognition of image
information. If the permuted image has entirely failed in recognising the original image, it
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 22 of 30

Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 32

is an indication that the permutation phase is efficient. The permutation result is illustrated
in Figure 16, where the black block pixels are dispersed over the whole image.

Figure 15. Key sensitivity test of decryption: (a) Original image; (b) encrypted image; (c) decrypted image with wrong
key; (d) decrypted image with proposed key.

6.3. Analysis of the Permutation Performance

According to the permutation performance evaluation method [44], a white image
with a small black square in the middle is permuted using the suggested permutation
phase. The permutation phase aims to prevent the attackers from recognition of image
information. If the permuted image has entirely failed in recognising the original image,
it is an indication that the permutation phase is efficient. The permutation result is illus-
Figure 15. Key
Figure 15. Key sensitivity
sensitivitytest
testofofdecryption:
trated in (a)(a)Original
decryption:
Figure 16, Original
where image;
the (b)(b)
image;
black encrypted image;
encrypted
block pixels (c) decrypted
image;
are image
(c) decrypted
dispersed over with
image
the wrong
with
whole key;
wrong
image.
(d)
key;decrypted imageimage
(d) decrypted with with
proposed key. key.
proposed

6.3. Analysis of the Permutation Performance

According to the permutation performance evaluation method [44], a white image
with a small black square in the middle is permuted using the suggested permutation
phase. The permutation phase aims to prevent the attackers from recognition of image
information. If the permuted image has entirely failed in recognising the original image,
it is an indication that the permutation phase is efficient. The permutation result is illus-
trated in Figure 16, where the black block pixels are dispersed over the whole image.

Figure16.
Figure Permutationanalysis,
16.Permutation analysis,(a)—plaintext
(a)—plaintextimage,
image,(b)—permuted
(b)—permutedimage.
image.

6.4.Diffusion
6.4. DiffusionPerformance
PerformanceAnalysis
Analysis
The Differential attack, plaintextattack
The Differential attack, plaintext attackanalysis
analysisand
andavalanche
avalanchecriterion
criterionanalysis
analysisare
are
widelyutilised
widely utilisedfor
forthe
theassessment
assessmentofofthe
thediffusion
diffusionefficiency.
efficiency.

6.4.1. Differential Attack Analysis

6.4.1. Differential Attack Analysis
The Differential attack is considered to be a kind of plaintext attack [44]. The attackers
The Differential attack is considered to be a kind of plaintext attack [44]. The attackers
usually make small changes to plain images and utilise the suggested encryption algorithm
usually make
to encrypt thesmall
plainchanges
image oftoprior
plainand images
post and utilise
changes. Bythe suggested
comparing encryption algo-
Figure 16. Permutation analysis, (a)—plaintext image, (b)—permuted image.those two encrypted
rithm
images, they discover the correlations between the plaintext and cipherthose
to encrypt the plain image of prior and post changes. By comparing two This
images. en-
crypted ofimages,
typeDiffusion they discover
attackPerformance
is referred to as thethe correlations
differential between
attack. the Forplaintext
the purpose and cipher images.
of resisting the
6.4. Analysis
This type of attack is referred to as the differential attack. For the
differential attacks, a small plaintext image change must result in a massive alteration purpose of resisting thein
The Differential
differential attack,
attacks, aencrypted
small plaintext
plaintext attackchange
analysis andresult
avalanche criterionalteration
analysis in
are
the corresponding imageimage[50,51]. The number must of Pixelsin a massive
Change Rate (NPCR),
widely
the utilised
corresponding for the assessment
encryptedIntensity of the
image [50,51]. diffusion
Theand efficiency.
number
Unified Average Changing (UACI), Mean of Pixels Change
Absolute Rate (NPCR),
Error (MAE) are three
Unified
common measures that are often utilised. The NPCR and UACI can be measured are
Average Changing Intensity (UACI), and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) three
according
6.4.1. Differential Attack Analysis
to the following equation [52].
The Differential attack is considered to be a kind of plaintext attack [44]. The attackers
usually make small changes to plain images 1, E and1 (i, utilise
j) = E2the(i, jsuggested encryption algo-

)
DEimage
1 ,E2
(i, jof
)= prior0,andEpost
rithm to encrypt the plain 1 ( i, j ) 6 = E
changes.2 ( i,
Byj ) comparing those two(25)
en-
crypted images, they discoverNPCR the correlations DE1 ,E2between
(i,j) the plaintext and cipher images.
= ∑i,j M × N × 100%
This type of attack is referred to as the differential attack. For the purpose of resisting the
differential attacks, a small plaintext image change must result in a massive alteration in
the corresponding encrypted image [50,51]. The number of Pixels Change Rate (NPCR),
Unified Average Changing Intensity (UACI), and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) are three
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 23 of 30

1 | E1 (i, j) − E2 (i, j)|

UACI =
M × N ∑ 255
× 100% (26)
i,j

where E1 and E2 are equally sized images, which represent the cipher image prior and post-
modification. E1 represents the original ciphered image, while E2 represents ciphered image
after one pixel in the plaintext image is changed. The expected NPCR and UACI values for
the random grey images should be within 99.6094% and 33.4635%, respectively [53]. The
encrypted image results are given in Table 7, and the comparison of the encrypted Lena
image is listed in Table 8. The NPCR and UACI of the encrypted image in Table 7 are close
to the expected value (NPCR = 99.6094% and UACI = 33.4635). Therefore, the proposed
encryption method has a high capability to resist differential attacks.

Table 7. Differential attacks.

Image NPCR UACI MAE

Lena 99.6114% 33.5499% 85.5523
Boat 99.6151% 33.5107% 85.4523
Couple 99.5934% 33.4131% 85.2035
Tank 99.6063% 33.5461% 85.5426
Elaine 99.6155% 33.4066% 85.1868
Stream and bridge 99.6170% 33.4287% 85.2432
Man 99.6111% 33.4590% 85.3205
Airport 99.6066% 33.4751% 85.3615
Chemical plant 99.6124% 33.4435% 85.2808
Clock 99.6155% 33.4625% 85.3295
Average 99.6114% 33.46952% 85.3473

Table 8. Differential attacks of Lena image.

Algorithm Proposed Ref. [28] Ref. [44] Ref. [46]

NPCR 99.61% 99.62% 99.61% 99.62%
UACI 33.54% 33.51% 33.46% 33.51%

The Mean Absolute Error (MAE) test is another examination used to prove the valida-
tion of the encryption system in terms of differential attack [52]. MAE can be described as
in the following equation.

1
MAE =
M × N ∑|E1 (i, j) − E2 (i, j)| (27)
i,j

In order to reach better encryption security, large value of MAE is needed. Table 7
shows the values of MAE.

6.4.2. Plaintext Attacks Analysis

The conventional cryptanalysis attacks include known-plaintext attacks, ciphertext-
only attacks, chosen-ciphertext attacks, and chosen-plaintext attacks. In those four attacks,
the chosen-plaintext attacks can be considered the most powerful type of attacks [54].
For this reason, it is presumed that when an encryption system is capable of resisting
chosen plaintext attacks, it is capable of withstanding the other three as well [55]. Attackers
usually use white or black image to recover the original images. For this reason, they
are used to determine the resistance of the algorithm to the chosen plaintext attacks. The
results are shown in Figure 17 and Table 9. The encrypted white and black images are
not comprehensible, and their histograms are uniform, as can be seen in Figure 17. From
Table 9, it can be seen that the correlation in different directions is considerably decreased,
and the two image entropies are close to the ideal value. Moreover, their NPCR and UACI
 this reason, it is presumed that when an encryption system is capable of resisting chosen
plaintext attacks, it is capable of withstanding the other three as well [55]. Attackers usu-
ally use white or black image to recover the original images. For this reason, they are used
to determine the resistance of the algorithm to the chosen plaintext attacks. The results are
shown in Figure 17 and Table 9. The encrypted white and black images are not compre-
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 24 of 30
hensible, and their histograms are uniform, as can be seen in Figure 17. From Table 9, it
can be seen that the correlation in different directions is considerably decreased, and the
two image entropies are close to the ideal value. Moreover, their NPCR and UACI are
close to optimal
are close values.
to optimal AsAs
values. all all
tests areare
tests close
closetotothe
theoptimum
optimumvalue,
value,the
the chosen-plaintext
chosen-plaintext
attacks are efficiently resisted in the suggested algorithm of diffusion.
attacks are efficiently resisted in the suggested algorithm of diffusion.

Figure Plaintextattacks:
17. Plaintext
Figure 17. attacks:(a)
(a)Black
Blackimage;
image;(b)(b)encrypted
encrypted image
image of of
(a);(a);
(c)(c) white
white image;
image; (d) (d) encrypted
encrypted image
image of (c);
of (c); (e)
(e) histogram
histogram of (a);
of (a); (f) histogram
(f) histogram of (b);
of (b); (g) (g) histogram
histogram of (c);
of (c), (h)(h) histogram
histogram of (d).
of (d).

Table 9. Chosen-plaintext
Table 9. Chosen-plaintext attack
attack results.
results.

Correlation
Correlation Information
Information
Differential
DifferentialAttack
Attack
Image
Image
Horizontal
Horizontal Vertical
Vertical Diagonal
Diagonal Entropy
Entropy (IE)
(IE) NPCRNPCR UACI UACI MAE
MAE
White
White 0.003161
0.003161 −0.000333
−0.000333 −0.002679
−0.002679 7.9992
7.9992 99.6136
99.6136 33.4224
33.4224 85.2272
85.2272
Black 0.001546
Black 0.001546 0.001025
0.001025 −0.000541
−0.000541 7.9994
7.9994 99.6143 33.4613
99.6143 33.4613 85.3262
85.3262

Avalanche Criterion (AC)

6.4.3. Avalanche
Evidently, changing a single bit in a plaintext image must theoretically result in a
50% difference
50% difference in the bits of the cipher image [56]. The plain image will be encrypted in
cipher image
order to form cipher image E11,, and
and after
after that,
that, aa single
single bit of the original image is changed
the image is encrypted for forming 22 . Avalanche Criterion
and the image is encrypted for forming E . Avalanche Criterion (AC) is applied between
and EE22 based
EE1 and based ononEquation
Equation(28).
(28).The
The results
results areare depicted
depicted in Figure
in Figure 18. 18. As shown
As shown in
in Fig-
Figure
ure 18, 18, Avalanche
Avalanche Criterion
Criterion (AC)(AC) results
results of the
of the suggested
suggested model
model are are
quitequite
closeclose to
to the
the theoretical
theoretical value.
value.
Number of changed bit between E1 and E2
AC = × 100% (28)
Total number of bit

6.5. Noise and Data Loss Attacks Analysis

In this subsection, the noise attacks and the data loss attacks of the proposed encryp-
tion algorithm are analysed, which is highly important in encrypted image transmission.
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 32

Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 25 of 30

Number of changed bit between E1 and E2
AC = × 100% (28)
Total number of bit
Avalanche (%)

Figure 18.
Figure Avalanche criterion.
18. Avalanche criterion.

6.5.1.
6.5. Noise
Noise andAttack Analysis
Data Loss Attacks Analysis
In this subsection, thetesting
For the purpose of the robustness
noise attacks of the
and the data losssuggested
attacks of approach against
the proposed the
encryp-
noise attacks, the following process has been performed. The original
tion algorithm are analysed, which is highly important in encrypted image transmission. image O I has been
encrypted with the use of the suggested algorithm of encryption. After that, a different
density
6.5.1. noise
Noise has been
Attack added to the encrypted image. Then, the noisy encrypted image
Analysis
is decrypted to form D I . Results of the encrypted image with 1%, 5%, and 10% of noise
For are
density the shown
purpose inof testing
Figure 19.the robustness
The Mean Squareof theError
suggested
(MSE)approach
is widely against
used tothe noise
measure
attacks, the following process has been performed. The original image O
the average difference between O I and D I . The MSE is calculated using Equation (29).en- I has been
crypted with the use of the suggested algorithm of encryption. After that, a different den-
sity noise has been added to the 1encrypted M N image. Then, the noisy encrypted image is
j))2 and 10% of noise den-
M × N i=1 j∑∑
MSE = of the encrypted
decrypted to form DI . Results (O I (i, j )with
image − D1%,I (i, 5%, (29)
=1
sity are shown in Figure 19. The Mean Square Error (MSE) is widely used to measure the
average
M and Ndifference
denote thebetween OI andofDrows
entire number I . The MSE
and is calculated
columns, while using Equation (29). Ratio
Peak Signal-to-Noise
(PSNR) is a quantitative evaluation of similarity
M N between O I and2 D I . PSNR is calculated
1
as follows: MSE = OI i,j − DI i,j (29)
M×N 2
Imax
PSNR i== 110
j = 1log
10 MSE (30)
M and N2 denote the entire number of rows and columns, while Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio
where Imax
(PSNR) is a is the maximum
quantitative value ofof
evaluation pixels of MSE.
similarity Both Figure
between 19 and
OI and Table 10
DI . PSNR confirmed
is calculated
that the
as follows:encrypted images can be retrieved properly.

Table 10. Noise attack and data loss attack results. I2max
PSNR = 10 log10 (30)
MSE
Attack Noise Attack Data Lose Attack
where I2max is the maximum value of pixels of MSE. Both Figure 19 and Table 10 con-
1% Noise 5% Noise 10% Noise 1/16 Crop 1/4 Crop 1/2 Crop
firmed
MSE
that the encrypted
10.5007
images can be retrieved
43.0918 72.1406
properly.
17.2808 52.2921 59.7997
PSNR (dB) 19.8831 13.7393 11.4837 17.6868 12.8504 12.2726

6.5.2. Data Loss Attack Analysis

Data in a different size in the encrypted image have been eliminated (Cropped) by
substituting them with zeros. Following that, we try to recover the plaintext image from
the encrypted image with data loss. Results of encrypted images with 1/16 data crop,
1/4 data crop and 1/2 data crop are illustrated in Figure 20. Those recovered images are
also evaluated by calculating the respective MSE and PSNR. The larger calculated value of
PSNR means better resistance to attacks. The result of MSE and PSNR are listed in Table 10.
As can be seen from Figure 20 and Table 10, the suggested algorithm can resist various
attacks (i.e., data loss attacks) in the spatial domain.
Electronics 10, 2116
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Electronics 2021, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26
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of 30
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Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 32

Figure 19. Noise

Figure 19. Noise attack
attack analysis.
analysis.

Table 10. Noise attack and data loss attack results.

Attack Noise Attack Data Lose Attack

1% Noise 5% Noise 10% Noise 1/16 Crop 1/4 Crop 1/2 Crop
MSE 10.5007 43.0918 72.1406 17.2808 52.2921 59.7997
PSNR (dB) 19.8831 13.7393 11.4837 17.6868 12.8504 12.2726

6.5.2. Data Loss Attack Analysis

Data in a different size in the encrypted image have been eliminated (Cropped) by
substituting them with zeros. Following that, we try to recover the plaintext image from
the encrypted image with data loss. Results of encrypted images with 1/16 data crop, 1/4
data crop and 1/2 data crop are illustrated in Figure 20. Those recovered images are also
evaluated by calculating the respective MSE and PSNR. The larger calculated value of
PSNR means better resistance to attacks. The result of MSE and PSNR are listed in Table
10. As can be seen from Figure 20 and Table 10, the suggested algorithm can resist various
attacks (i.e., data loss attacks) in the spatial domain.

Figure 20. Data

Figure 20. Data loss
loss attack
attack analysis.
analysis.

6.6. The Quality of Decryption

Decryption quality was assessed through the calculation of the 2D Correlation Coef-
ficient (CC). For adequate decryption, CC has to be near or equal to 1. For the suggested
decryption, the CC of every decrypted image equals 1, and it is proven that each decryp-
tion process is highly accurate. In other words, the decrypted image is identical to its cor-
responding plaintext image. Therefore, good quality has been shown in the suggested de-
cryption.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 27 of 30

6.6. The Quality of Decryption

Decryption quality was assessed through the calculation of the 2D Correlation Coeffi-
cient (CC). For adequate decryption, CC has to be near or equal to 1. For the suggested
decryption, the CC of every decrypted image equals 1, and it is proven that each de-
cryption process is highly accurate. In other words, the decrypted image is identical
to its corresponding plaintext image. Therefore, good quality has been shown in the
suggested decryption.

6.7. Execution Time

Encryption speed is a necessary condition for evaluating the efficiency of cryptosys-
tems. The experimental environment was the MATLAB R2015a with Intel Core i7-4600 CPU
@2.7 GHz and 8 GB RAM on Windows 10 operating system. Taking the 256 × 256 image
as an example, the results are shown in Table 11. In our algorithm, the result proves
that the proposed encryption system has low encryption time as compared with the
referenced systems.

Table 11. Encryption speed.

Encryption
Algorithm Processor Speed Ram Platform
Time (s)
Proposed 0.0256 2.70 GHz 8 GB MATLAB R2015a
Ref. [28] 0.2219 2.60 GHz 8 GB MATLAB R2013a
Ref. [44] 1.1708 3.90 GHz 4 GB MATLAB R2014a
Ref. [45] 0.3820 3.30 GHz 4 GB MATLAB R2016b

7. Conclusions
Firstly, this paper improved two chaotic maps: 1D-ILM and 1D-ILM based on Logistic
and Quadratic maps. Their performance evaluation showed that the improved maps have
a large Lyapunov exponent, high complexity, wider chaotic range, and high sensitivity.
Thus, they proposed efficient chaotic performance to be used in an image encryption
system. Secondly, an image encryption system based on proposed maps is designed with
a high-security level. The proposed scheme is very sensitive to the secret keys in which
any changes can produce a completely different encrypted image. The NPCR and UACI
values are close to the expected values, and the black and white image test has proven
the capability of resisting the chosen-plaintext attacks. A high level of randomness of
the encrypted image is proven by entropy measure and is very close to the ideal entropy
value, i.e., eight. The histogram distribution is uniform for the encrypted image, and the
correlation coefficient is considerably decreased between the adjacent pixels.
Additionally, the proposed scheme can effectively withstand noise and data loss
attacks. Lastly, encryption schemes with a sufficient keyspace can be characterised by
a long execution time. Nonetheless, the suggested system has sufficient keyspace in
comparison with referenced schemes along with a shorter encryption time. This is because
the proposed key expansion method can reduce the number of chaotic map iteration needs
for the encryption/decryption process and thereby the execution time of the encryption
system is enhanced. The proposed encryption system has a large keyspace that reaches
10240 , and the encryption time for an image of the size of 256 × 256 is 0.025 s. In consequence,
it can be efficiently utilised to transmit digital images in public networks. In future work,
we will try to study three main points: (1) the effect of altering the chaotic maps on the
encryption system efficiency; (2) the effect of simultaneously performing permutation
and diffusion operations on processing time; (3) the effect of combining other encryption
technique such as DNA technique and S-box technique with the proposed technique on
encryption system robustness and security.
Electronics 2021, 10, 2116 28 of 30

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.A.A. and M.Z.B.B.; methodology, A.A.A. and M.K.K.;
software, M.K.K.; validation, A.A.-J., M.Z.B.B. and A.A.A.; formal analysis, M.K.K.; investigation,
M.K.K.; resources, M.K.K.; data curation, M.K.K.; writing—original draft preparation, M.K.K.;
writing—review and editing, A.A.A., M.Z.B.B. and A.A.-J.; visualization, M.K.K.; supervision, A.A.A.
and M.Z.B.B.; project administration, A.A.A.; funding acquisition, A.A.A. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data is available on request to any of the corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments: Authors acknowledge the publication support through J510050002—BOLDREFR
ESH2025—CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE from the iRMC of Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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