Allama Iqbal Open UnIversIty Islamabad

Semester: Spring 2024

CoUrse: (8604-1)

NAME MARIA ABBAS

ID 19PJG00674
PROGRAM B.ED

SEMESTER SPRING 2024

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Q. 1 Discuss scientific method as a tool of acquiring knowledge. Compare it
with various steps in the research process.

The scientific method is the process of objectively establishing facts

through testing and experimentation. The basic process involves making an
observation, forming a hypothesis, making a prediction, conducting an
experiment and finally analyzing the results. The principals of the scientific
method can be applied in many areas, including scientific research, business and
technology.

Steps of the scientific method

The scientific method uses a series of steps to establish facts or create knowledge.
The overall process is well established, but the specifics of each step may change
depending on what is being examined and who is performing it. The scientific
method can only answer questions that can be proven or disproven through
testing.

Make an observation or ask a question. The first step is to observe something

that you would like to learn about or ask a question that you would like answered.
These can be specific or general. Some examples would be "I observe that our
total available network bandwidth drops at noon every weekday" or "How can
we increase our website registration numbers?" Taking the time to establish a
well-defined question will help you in later steps.

Gather background information. This involves doing research into what is

already known about the topic. This can also involve finding if anyone has already
asked the same question.

Create a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an explanation for the observation or

question. If proven later, it can become a fact. Some examples would be "Our
employees watching online videos during lunch is using our internet bandwidth"
or "Our website visitors don't see our registration form."

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Create a prediction and perform a test. Create a testable prediction based on
the hypothesis. The test should establish a noticeable change that can be measured
or observed using empirical analysis. It is also important to control for
other variables during the test. Some examples would be "If we block video-
sharing sites, our available bandwidth will not go down significantly during
lunch" or "If we make our registration box bigger, a greater percentage of visitors
will register for our website than before the change."

Analyze the results and draw a conclusion. Use the metrics established before
the test see if the results match the prediction. For example, "After blocking
video-sharing sites, our bandwidth utilization only went down by 10% from
before; this is not enough of a change to be the primary cause of the network
congestion" or "After increasing the size of the registration box, the percent of
sign-ups went from 2% of total page views to 5%, showing that making the box
larger results in more registrations."

Share the conclusion or decide what question to ask next: Document the
results of your experiment. By sharing the results with others, you also increase
the total body of knowledge available. Your experiment may have also led to
other questions, or if your hypothesis is disproven you may need to create a new
one and test that. For example, "Because user activity is not the cause of excessive
bandwidth use, we now suspect that an automated process is running at noon
every day."

Using the scientific method in technology and computers

The scientific method is incredibly valuable in technology and related fields. It is
obviously used in research and development, but it is also useful in day-to-day
operations. Because almost everything can be quantified, testing hypotheses can
be easy.

Most modern computer systems are complicated and difficult to troubleshoot.

Using the scientific method of hypothesis and testing can greatly simplify the
process of tracking down errors and it can help find areas of improvement. It can
also help when you evaluate new technologies before implementation.

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Using the scientific method in business
Many business processes benefit when using the scientific method. Shifting
business landscapes and complex business relationships can make behaviors hard
to predict or act counter to previous history. Instead of using gut feelings or
previous experience, a scientific approach can help businesses grow. Big
data initiative can make business information more available and easier to test
with.

The scientific method can be applied in many areas. Customer satisfaction and
retention numbers can be analyzed and tested upon. Profitability and finance
numbers can be analyzed to form new conclusions. Making predictions on
changing business practices and checking the results will help to identify and
measure success or failure of the initiatives.

Common pitfalls in using the scientific method

The scientific method is a powerful tool. Like any tool, though, if it is misused it
can cause more damage than good.

The scientific method can only be used for testable phenomenon. This is known
as falsifiability. While much in nature can be tested and measured, some areas of
human experience are beyond objective observation.

Both proving and disproving the hypothesis are equally valid outcomes of testing.
It is possible to ignore the outcome or inject bias to skew the results of a test in a
way that will fit the hypothesis. Data in opposition to the hypothesis should not
be discounted.

It is important to control for other variables and influences during testing to not
skew the results. While difficult, not accounting for these could produce invalid
data. For example, testing bandwidth during a holiday or measuring registrations
during a sale event may introduce other factors that influence the outcome.

Another common pitfall is mixing correlation with causation. While two data
points may seem to be connected, it is not necessarily true that once is directly
influenced by the other. For example, an ice cream stand in town sees drops in
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business on the hottest days. While the data may look like the hotter the weather,
the less people want ice cream, the reality is that more people are going to the
beach on those days and less are in town.

Q. 2 Compare and contrast the types of research. Why and where we use
these types (basic, applied action) research to discuss educational
phenomena.

There are many different types of research methods to help professionals gain the
information they seek. The two main research methods commonly used are basic
research, which helps expand existing knowledge, and applied research, which
provides a solution to an existing problem. Understanding the differences
between these two types can help you choose which one is best for you to use in
your next study.In this article, we define basic research and applied research,
provide examples of each and discuss the differences between the two types of
research.

What is basic research?

Basic research, or fundamental research, is a type of investigation focused on

improving the understanding of a particular phenomenon, study or law of nature.
This type of research examines data to find the unknown and fulfill a sense of
curiosity. Usually, these involve "how," "what" and "why" questions to explain
occurrences. Basic research looks at how processes or concepts work.
Information obtained from basic research often creates a foundation for applied
studies.

Examples of basic research

Here are some examples of basic research:

 A study looking at how alcohol consumption impacts the brain

 A study to discover the components making up human DNA
 A study accessing whether stress levels make people more aggressive
 A study looking to see if gender stereotypes lead to depression
 A study searching for the causative factors of cancer

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  A study on the growth process of oak trees
 A study trying to find out what makes up a proton
 A study seeing what areas of the United States have the most rain
 A study examining whether a vegetarian diet is healthier than one with
meat
 A study on the origination of cryptocurrency
 A study on the various types of kiwis grown in Chile

Benefits of conducting basic research

Expanding knowledge through basic research can have several benefits. Some
advantages of conducting basic research include:

 Understanding living systems and living processes

 Helping to prepare for the future by equipping society for issues that may
arise
 Providing a foundation for applied research
 Leading to medical advances

What is applied research?

Applied research is a type of examination looking to find practical solutions for

existing problems. These can include challenges in the workplace, education and
society. This research type uses empirical methodologies, such as experiments,
to collect further data in an area of study. Findings are applicable and usually
implemented upon completion of a study. Applied research focuses on answering
one specific question for a client or sponsor. It's a type of research method for
applying natural sciences to real life to improve the human condition. There are
three types of applied research:

 Action research: Action research helps businesses find practical solutions

to problems by guiding them.
 Evaluation research: In evaluation research, researchers analyze existing
information to help clients make an informed decision.
 Research and development: Research and development focus on creating
new products or services to meet a target market's needs.

Examples of applied research

Here are some examples of potential applied research scenarios:

 A study on how to improve illiteracy in teenagers

 A study looking for ways to market products for millennials
 A study trying to decrease fraud on social media platforms

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  A study searching for ways to encourage high school graduates to attend
college
 A study to find ways to make car tires last longer
 A study exploring ways to cook gluten-free meals with a limited budget
 A study on how to treat patients with insomnia
 A study looking for ways to improve patient retention at a dentist's office
 A study on methods for diagnosing patients with schizophrenia
 A study providing solutions for how to train dogs to stay in their yard
 A study on how to prevent mosquito bites from itching
 A study to find what marketing strategies to use on college campuses

Benefits of applied research

Beyond serving as a way to solve existing problems, applied research has several
benefits. Here are some advantages of using applied research:

 Saving businesses money by helping them make better decisions

 Creating new objectives
 Designing new products and services
 Providing unbiased data through testing empirical evidence

Basic research vs. applied research

Both basic research and applied research are methods for finding certain
information. Researchers of these methods use inductive and deductive reasoning
to support their research hypotheses. When conducting basic research and applied
research, researchers tend to use similar data collection methods, however, their
end goals vary. Some differences between basic and applied research include:

Curiosity-driven vs. solution-driven

Each research type has a different purpose it's trying to achieve. Basic research
focuses on the advancement of knowledge, rather than solving a problem.
However, applied research directs its efforts toward finding a solution to a
specific problem. In applied research, researchers often work to help a client and
are driven by the client's desires. Basic research tends to be self-initiated and
caused by an individual's motivation to learn more about an area.

Expand existing knowledge vs. find new knowledge

Since curiosity motivates researchers to conduct basic research, they look to fill
any existing gaps in information. This type of research seeks to develop
knowledge and make predictions. Applied research focuses on discovering new

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information. The two often overlap when basic research provides a foundational
understanding to help with applied research.

Theoretical vs. practical nature

Information found through basic research can help develop theories, whereas
information found through applied research can help solve particular problems.
Since applied research helps solve a problem, it's seen as being a more practical
research method. However, basic research can help researchers develop theories
and predictions.

Informational vs. commercial gain

While basic research helps society learn more about a particular field of study,
applied research tends to have more of a commercial gain. This is because applied
research has the potential to lead to a monetary gain and can help create new
products. Often, governments and industries favor applied research over basic
research. Basic research tends to be more popular in fields such as sociology,
biology, astronomy philosophy and theology since it helps explain why certain
instances occur.

Universal scope vs. specific scope

Basic research tends to be a more universal research method since it applies to a

variety of concepts. However, since applied research focuses on solving one
particular problem, it tends to have a more specific utility. Applied research finds
information for a select subject.

How do you determine when to use basic research vs. applied research?

Both basic research and applied research can be helpful tools for obtaining the
information you don't know, but they each work best in different settings. Basic
research can help you when you're looking for answers to universal, theoretical
questions. Typically, you conduct this kind of research when you're hoping to
expand existing knowledge and create predictions.Applied research tends to be
more beneficial when you're trying to come up with a solution. Here, you can use
your finding to develop new technologies and improve existing systems. This
research works best if you have a specific question you are looking to answer.
When choosing what type of research to use, consider whether you are looking
to expand existing knowledge or hoping to find completely new knowledge to
solve a problem.

Careers that use basic research and applied research

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Many industries search for data through the use of either basic research, applied
research or both. The type of research they use depends on what the final
discovery they want to find is. Here are some careers that use these two research
methods:

 Researcher: A researcher may use basic research to analyze trends and,

depending on the industry they work in, they may work to find a solution
to a problem through the use of applied research.
 Psychologists: Basic research helps psychologists understand different
types of mental health conditions, while applied research can help them
find possible solutions to help their patients cope with these conditions.
 Market research analysts: Market research analysts use basic research to
help predict sales trends and use applied research to come up with new
ways to collect data from customers to use for market strategies.
 Research assistant: Like researchers, a research assistant may use basic
research when looking to expand knowledge in an area of study and applied
research when looking to find a resolution to a problem.
 Sociologists: A sociologist often uses basic research when trying to learn
more about a particular group of people, such as middle schoolers, in their
settings and may also use applied research to find solutions to problems a
group faces.

Q. 3Define the concepts of history and historical research. What is the

important of internal and external criticism in historical research?

Also, distinguish primary source of data from the secondary source

of data with examples?

Historical Research

Historical research is a process of collecting and interpreting data about past

events or ideas in order to find how they affected the present events and ideas. It
studies possible reasons behind certain events to explain their influence on the
events that followed. Historical research may not just help to figure out
connections between past and present events, it can also provide the researchers
with information regarding possible future events. In his book “Historical
Research: A Guide” (2002), W.H.McDowell defines historical research as:

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“Historical research represents a systematic enquiry into the past and an attempt
to separate true from fictionalized accounts of historical events, based upon the
examination of a wide range of relevant source material. This is an important task
because history is the source of many of our ideas, beliefs and customs. A better
understanding of the past places us in a more advantageous position to appreciate
change in the present and to try and learn from past mistakes.”
Historical research mainly relies on first-hand information sources such as
historical records, books, photographs, letters, evidence that belongs to the time
the research focuses on. To put it simply, those sources are written by someone
who was a participant or direct witness of the event. Secondary source materials
- books and articles are written sometime after the events can also contribute to
research to some extent. However, one should keep in mind that secondary
sources of information can be more biased because they usually contain data that
the authors wrote using multiple sources. It is worth mentioning that primary
sources can also be biased, and because the research is looking for the answers in
the past, there is no guarantee for information accuracy.

Researchers should start historical research without any impossible assumptions;

they should not look for something that is not there. It is, in fact, a basic rule for
all kinds of research, but it should be followed in particular in historical research.
Steps in the historical research process are typically the same as other forms of
research that start with identifying the issue, followed by defining data collection
methods, data collection, and analysis and conclusion.

Advantages and limitations of historical research

Even though historical research has a number of limitations, it comes with

benefits that other types of research cannot replicate.

Advantages
 No other method provides us with an opportunity to find insights
about past events.
 Identifying key elements of past negative events can play a
significant role in preventing certain similar circumstances. In other
words, it can teach a history lesson.
 It can result in an important discovery on a global scale.
 A researcher is not involved with the event.
Limitations
 Sources may not be reliable and may represent misleading facts about
the events.
 Not all past events can be studied because of the lack of evidence and
source materials. It gets more challenging to have research if the events
are from a more distant past.

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  Finding a reason for certain events does not mean that the same
reason can lead to similar events. Because it may have happened in a
totally different circumstance in the past.
 The research may last longer, depending on the historical event and
data availability.
 May require travels between various destinations.
 A researcher does not have control over the result.

Importance of Internal and External Criticism in Historical Research

Internal Criticism

Internal criticism in historical research involves the critical examination and

evaluation of sources, evidence, and arguments within the study itself. It focuses
on ensuring the reliability, authenticity, and coherence of the historical narrative:

 Authenticity Verification: Internal criticism helps historians verify the

authenticity of primary sources by scrutinizing their origin, context, and
authorship.
 Consistency and Coherence: It ensures that the interpretation of evidence
and arguments within the study is logical, consistent, and free from
contradictions.
 Avoiding Bias: Internal criticism helps identify and mitigate biases in
interpretation, ensuring that historical conclusions are based on objective
analysis rather than subjective viewpoints.

External Criticism

External criticism, on the other hand, involves assessing the reliability and
credibility of sources and evidence from an external perspective. It focuses on
evaluating the context, provenance, and overall trustworthiness of historical
sources:

 Source Evaluation: External criticism examines the external context in

which sources were created or preserved, assessing factors such as the
motivations of the author, the biases of the source, and the historical
circumstances surrounding its creation.
 Corroboration: It seeks corroboration from multiple independent sources
to validate historical claims and reduce the impact of individual biases or
inaccuracies.
 Historiographical Context: External criticism places sources within their
historiographical context, evaluating how they contribute to broader
historical debates and interpretations.

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Distinguishing Primary Sources from Secondary Sources

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original documents or artifacts that provide direct evidence
or firsthand accounts of historical events, periods, or people. They offer a direct
connection to the past and are typically created contemporaneously with the
events they describe:

 Examples: Diaries, letters, speeches, photographs, official records (e.g.,

birth certificates, census data), artifacts, eyewitness accounts, and original
research studies.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations or analyses of primary sources or other

secondary works. They are produced after the fact by scholars, historians, or
researchers and provide commentary, analysis, or synthesis of primary sources:

 Examples: History books, scholarly articles, biographies, documentaries,

and reviews of research studies.

Importance of Distinguishing Between Primary and Secondary Sources

Understanding the distinction between primary and secondary sources is crucial

for historical research:

 Accuracy and Reliability: Primary sources offer direct and unmediated

evidence of historical events, providing a more accurate representation of
the past. Secondary sources, while valuable for interpretation and analysis,
may introduce biases or errors.
 Contextual Understanding: Primary sources provide insight into the
perspectives, beliefs, and experiences of historical actors, offering a deeper
understanding of historical context. Secondary sources contextualize and
interpret this information within broader historical frameworks.
 Historical Inquiry: Historians rely on both primary and secondary sources
to construct comprehensive narratives and interpretations of history. They
use primary sources for evidence and secondary sources for critical
analysis and synthesis.

In historical research, both internal and external criticism ensure the reliability,
objectivity, and scholarly integrity of the findings. Distinguishing between
primary and secondary sources allows historians to evaluate evidence rigorously,

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construct nuanced interpretations, and contribute to ongoing scholarly discourse
about the past.

Q. 4Distinguish experimental research from non-experimental research

studies How experimental research is conducted? And why do we use

experimental studies to address the social issues?

Experimental research is the type of research that uses a scientific approach

towards manipulating one or more control variables of the research subject(s) and
measuring the effect of this manipulation on the subject. It is known for the fact
that it allows the manipulation of control variables.

This research method is widely used in various physical and social science fields,
even though it may be quite difficult to execute. Within the information field,
they are much more common in information systems research than in library and
information management research.

Experimental research is usually undertaken when the goal of the research is to

trace cause-and-effect relationships between defined variables. However, the type
of experimental research chosen has a significant influence on the results of the
experiment.

Therefore bringing us to the different types of experimental research. There are 3

main types of experimental research, namely; pre-experimental, quasi-
experimental, and true experimental research.

Pre-experimental Research

Pre-experimental research is the simplest form of research, and is carried out by

observing a group or groups of dependent variables after the treatment of an
independent variable which is presumed to cause change on the group(s). It is
further divided into three types.

 One-shot case study research

 One-group pretest-posttest research
 Static-group comparison

Quasi-experimental Research
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The Quasi type of experimental research is similar to true experimental research,
but uses carefully selected rather than randomized subjects. The following are
examples of quasi-experimental research:

 Time series
 No equivalent control group design
 Counterbalanced design.

True Experimental Research

True experimental research is the most accurate type, and may simply be called
experimental research. It manipulates a control group towards a group of
randomly selected subjects and records the effect of this manipulation.

True experimental research can be further classified into the following groups:

 The posttest-only control group

 The pretest-posttest control group
 Solomon four-group

Pros of True Experimental Research

 Researchers can have control over variables.

 It can be combined with other research methods.
 The research process is usually well structured.
 It provides specific conclusions.
 The results of experimental research can be easily duplicated.

Cons of True Experimental Research

 It is highly prone to human error.

 Exerting control over extraneous variables may lead to the personal bias of
the researcher.
 It is time-consuming.
 It is expensive.
 Manipulating control variables may have ethical implications.
 It produces artificial results.

What is Non-Experimental Research?

Non-experimental research is the type of research that does not involve the
manipulation of control or independent variable. In non-experimental research,
researchers measure variables as they naturally occur without any further
manipulation.

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This type of research is used when the researcher has no specific research
question about a causal relationship between 2 different variables, and
manipulation of the independent variable is impossible. They are also used when:

 subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions.

 the research subject is about a causal relationship but the independent
variable cannot be manipulated.
 the research is broad and exploratory
 the research pertains to a non-causal relationship between variables.
 limited information can be accessed about the research subject.

There are 3 main types of non-experimental research, namely; cross-sectional

research, correlation research, and observational research.

Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves the comparison of two or more pre-existing

groups of people under the same criteria. This approach is classified as non-
experimental because the groups are not randomly selected and the independent
variable is not manipulated.

For example, an academic institution may want to reward its first-class students
with a scholarship for their academic excellence. Therefore, each faculty places
students in the eligible and ineligible group according to their class of degree.

In this case, the student’s class of degree cannot be manipulated to qualify him or
her for a scholarship because it is an unethical thing to do. Therefore, the
placement is cross-sectional.

Correlational Research

Correlational type of research compares the statistical relationship between two

variables.Correlational research is classified as non-experimental because it does
not manipulate the independent variables.

For example, a researcher may wish to investigate the relationship between the
class of family students come from and their grades in school. A questionnaire
may be given to students to know the average income of their family, then
compare it with CGPAs.

The researcher will discover whether these two factors are positively correlated,
negatively corrected, or have zero correlation at the end of the research.

Observational Research

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Observational research focuses on observing the behavior of a research subject in
a natural or laboratory setting. It is classified as non-experimental because it does
not involve the manipulation of independent variables.

A good example of observational research is an investigation of the crowd effect

or psychology in a particular group of people. Imagine a situation where there are
2 ATMs at a place, and only one of the ATMs is filled with a queue, while the
other is abandoned.

The crowd effect infers that the majority of newcomers will also abandon the
other ATM.

You will notice that each of these non-experimental research is descriptive in

nature. It then suffices to say that descriptive research is an example of non-
experimental research.

Pros of Observational Research

 The research process is very close to a real-life situation.

 It does not allow for the manipulation of variables due to ethical reasons.
 Human characteristics are not subject to experimental manipulation.

Cons of Observational Research

 The groups may be dissimilar and nonhomogeneous because they are not
randomly selected, affecting the authenticity and generalizability of the
study results.
 The results obtained cannot be absolutely clear and error-free.

What Are The Differences Between Experimental and Non-Experimental

Research?

 Definitions

Experimental research is the type of research that uses a scientific approach

towards manipulating one or more control variables and measuring their defect
on the dependent variables, while non-experimental research is the type of
research that does not involve the manipulation of control variables.

The main distinction in these 2 types of research is their attitude towards the
manipulation of control variables. Experimental allows for the manipulation of
control variables while non-experimental research doesn’t.

 Examples

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 Examples of experimental research are laboratory experiments that involve
mixing different chemical elements together to see the effect of one element on
the other while non-experimental research examples are investigations into the
characteristics of different chemical elements.

Consider a researcher carrying out a laboratory test to determine the effect of

adding Nitrogen gas to Hydrogen gas. It may be discovered that using the Haber
process, one can create Nitrogen gas.

Non-experimental research may further be carried out on Ammonia, to determine

its characteristics, behaviour, and nature.

 Types

There are 3 types of experimental research, namely; experimental research, quasi-

experimental research, and true experimental research. Although also 3 in
number, non-experimental research can be classified into cross-sectional
research, correlational research, and observational research.

The different types of experimental research are further divided into different
parts, while non-experimental research types are not further divided. Clearly,
these divisions are not the same in experimental and non-experimental research.

 Characteristics

Experimental research is usually quantitative, controlled, and multivariable. Non-

experimental research can be both quantitative and qualitative, has an
uncontrolled variable, and also a cross-sectional research problem.

The characteristics of experimental research are the direct opposite of that of non-
experimental research. The most distinct characteristic element is the ability to
control or manipulate independent variables in experimental research and not in
non-experimental research.

In experimental research, a level of control is usually exerted on extraneous

variables, therefore tampering with the natural research setting. Experimental
research settings are usually more natural with no tampering with the extraneous
variables.

 Data Collection/Tools

The data used during experimental research is collected through observational

study, simulations, and surveys while non-experimental data is collected through

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observations, surveys, and case studies. The main distinction between these data
collection tools is case studies and simulations.

Even at that, similar tools are used differently. For example, an observational
study may be used during a laboratory experiment that tests how the effect of a
control variable manifests over a period of time in experimental research.

However, when used in non-experimental research, data is collected based on the

researcher’s discretion and not through a clear scientific reaction. In this case, we
see a difference in the level of objectivity.

 Goal

The goal of experimental research is to measure the causes and effects of

variables present in research, while non-experimental research provides very little
to no information about causal agents.

Experimental research answers the question of why something is happening. This

is quite different in non-experimental research, as they are more descriptive in
nature with the end goal being to describe what.

 Uses

Experimental research is mostly used to make scientific innovations and find

major solutions to problems while non-experimental research is used to define
subject characteristics, measure data trends, compare situations and validate
existing conditions.

For example, if experimental research results in an innovative discovery or

solution, non-experimental research will be conducted to validate this discovery.
This research is done for a period of time in order to properly study the subject of
research.

 Advantage

Experimental research process is usually well structured and as such produces

results with very little to no errors, while non-experimental research helps to
create real-life related experiments. There are a lot more advantages of
experimental and non-experimental research, with the absence of each of these
advantages in the other leaving it at a disadvantage.

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For example, the lack of a random selection process in non-experimental research
leads to the inability to arrive at a generalizable result. Similarly, the ability to
manipulate control variables in experimental research may lead to the personal
bias of the researcher.

 Disadvantage

Experimental research is highly prone to human error while the major

disadvantage of non-experimental research is that the results obtained cannot be
absolutely clear and error-free. In the long run, the error obtained due to human
error may affect the results of the experimental research.

Some other disadvantages of experimental research include the following;

extraneous variables cannot always be controlled, human responses can be
difficult to measure, and participants may also cause bias.

 Variables

In experimental research, researchers can control and manipulate control

variables, while in non-experimental research, researchers cannot manipulate
these variables. This cannot be done due to ethical reasons.

For example, when promoting employees due to how well they did in their annual
performance review, it will be unethical to manipulate the results of the
performance review (independent variable). That way, we can get impartial
results of those who deserve a promotion and those who don’t.

Experimental researchers may also decide to eliminate extraneous variables so as

to have enough control over the research process. Once again, this is something
that cannot be done in non-experimental research because it relates more to real-
life situations.

 Setting

Experimental research is carried out in an unnatural setting because most of the

factors that influence the setting are controlled while the non-experimental
research setting remains natural and uncontrolled. One of the things usually
tampered with during research is extraneous variables.

In a bid to get a perfect and well-structured research process and results,

researchers sometimes eliminate extraneous variables. Although sometimes seen
as insignificant, the elimination of these variables may affect the research results.

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Consider the optimization problem whose aim is to minimize the cost of
production of a car, with the constraints being the number of workers and the
number of hours they spend working per day.

In this problem, extraneous variables like machine failure rates or accidents are
eliminated. In the long run, these things may occur and may invalidate the result.

 Cause-Effect Relationship

The relationship between cause and effect is established in experimental research

while it cannot be established in non-experimental research. Rather than establish
a cause-effect relationship, non-experimental research focuses on providing
descriptive results.

Although it acknowledges the causal variable and its effect on the dependent
variables, it does not measure how or the extent to which these dependent
variables change. It, however, observes these changes, compares the changes in
2 variables, and describes them.

 Comparison

Experimental research does not compare variables while non-experimental

research does. It compares 2 variables and describes the relationship between
them.

The relationship between these variables can be positively correlated, negatively

correlated or not correlated at all. For example, consider a case whereby the
subject of research is a drum, and the control or independent variable is the
drumstick.

Experimental research will measure the effect of hitting the drumstick on the
drum, where the result of this research will be sound. That is, when you hit a
drumstick on a drum, it makes a sound.

Non-experimental research, on the other hand, will investigate the correlation

between how hard the drum is hit and the loudness of the sound that comes out.
That is, if the sound will be higher with a harder bang, lower with a harder bang,
or will remain the same no matter how hard we hit the drum.

 Quantitativeness

Experimental research is a quantitative research method while non-experimental

research can be both quantitative and qualitative depending on the time and the

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situation where it is been used. An example of a non-experimental quantitative
research method is correlational research.

Researchers use it to correlate two or more variables using mathematical analysis

methods. The original patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are
observed, then the impact of one of these variables on the other is recorded along
with how it changes the relationship between the two variables.

Observational research is an example of non-experimental research, which is

classified as a qualitative research method.

 Cross-section

Experimental research is usually single-sectional while non-experimental

research is cross-sectional. That is, when evaluating the research subjects in
experimental research, each group is evaluated as an entity.

For example, let us consider a medical research process investigating the

prevalence of breast cancer in a certain community. In this community, we will
find people of different ages, ethnicities, and social backgrounds.

If a significant amount of women from a particular age are found to be more prone
to have the disease, the researcher can conduct further studies to understand the
reason behind it. A further study into this will be experimental and the subject
won’t be a cross-sectional group.

Q. 5 Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen

your answer with the example of Case Studies, Causal Comparative studies
and correlation studies

Definition of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a type of research design that aims to describe

characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena as they exist naturally. It focuses on
observing and documenting facts, patterns, and relationships without
manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships. Descriptive
research provides a snapshot of the current state of affairs and is often used to
answer questions about who, what, where, when, and how.

Major Forms of Descriptive Research

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 1. Case Studies

 Definition: Case studies involve an in-depth examination of a single

individual, group, event, or phenomenon. Researchers collect detailed
information through various methods such as interviews, observations, and
document analysis.
 Purpose: To provide a rich, holistic understanding of complex issues or
unique cases.
 Example: A case study in psychology might explore the developmental
trajectory of a child raised in a bilingual household, examining language
acquisition, cognitive development, and social interactions over time.

2. Causal Comparative Studies (Ex Post Facto Studies)

 Definition: Causal comparative studies compare two or more groups that

differ on a particular variable of interest. The researcher does not
manipulate the independent variable but examines how it affects the
dependent variable retrospectively.
 Purpose: To identify relationships between variables and explore potential
causes or explanations for observed differences.
 Example: A study comparing academic performance between students
who attended preschool and those who did not, controlling for
socioeconomic status, to determine if preschool attendance has an impact
on later academic achievement.

3. Correlational Studies

 Definition: Correlational studies examine the relationship between two or

more variables to determine how they are related and to what degree. They
do not imply causation but assess the strength and direction of associations
between variables.
 Purpose: To identify patterns and predict outcomes based on the presence
and strength of correlations.
 Example: A study examining the correlation between exercise frequency
and mental health outcomes in college students to determine if there is a
relationship between physical activity levels and psychological well-being.

Examples Strengthening Each Form

 Case Studies: Consider a case study analyzing the effectiveness of a new

teaching method in a specific elementary school. Researchers collect data
through classroom observations, interviews with teachers and students, and
analysis of academic performance. This detailed examination provides

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 insights into the implementation, challenges, and outcomes of the new
method within a real-world educational setting.
 Causal Comparative Studies: Imagine a study comparing the health
outcomes of patients who received different treatments for a specific
medical condition. Researchers retrospectively analyze medical records
and patient outcomes to identify differences in recovery rates or symptom
improvement between treatment groups. This allows them to infer potential
causal relationships based on existing differences in treatment received.
 Correlation Studies: Consider a correlational study investigating the
relationship between socioeconomic status and academic achievement
among high school students. Researchers collect data on family income,
parental education levels, and student grades to assess how these variables
correlate with each other. The findings may reveal patterns indicating
whether higher socioeconomic status is associated with better academic
performance.

Conclusion

Descriptive research encompasses various forms, including case studies, causal

comparative studies, and correlation studies, each serving distinct purposes in
exploring and understanding different aspects of phenomena or relationships. By
employing these methodologies effectively, researchers can provide valuable
insights into complex issues, inform decision-making processes, and contribute
to the broader body of knowledge within their respective fields. Each form of
descriptive research offers unique strengths in capturing and interpreting data,
making them essential tools in the research toolkit across disciplines.

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