CAIE-IGCSE-Computer Science - Theory
CAIE-IGCSE-Computer Science - Theory
ORG
CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Peter for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1. Data Representation 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
2 142
Denary System 2 71 Remainder: 0
Base 10 number system 2 35 Remainder: 1
Has values from 0 to 9 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 4 Remainder: 0
2 2 Remainder: 0
Base 16 number system 2 1 Remainder: 0
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F 0 Remainder: 1
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15,
which is F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
divided by the previous value of the current number and
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
0000 0 0 number
0001 1 1 When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0010 2 2 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
0011 3 3 it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0100 4 4
0101 5 5 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0110 6 6
0111 7 7 Separate each value from each other and convert them
1000 8 8 to denary
1001 9 9
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
1010 A 10
All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
1011 B 11
1100 C 12 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1101 D 13 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1110 E 14 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1111 F 15
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1.2. Number Conversions Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
Converting Binary to Denary
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the
power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table
like this:
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Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s 0
until it reaches 4 1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
For each group, find the denary value as shown above, left-hand side to match them).
and then convert each denary value to its corresponding e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is 2. Add the values as follows with the points given
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F). above
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD overflow.
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then Logical Shifts
convert the final answer to denary
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to being emptied is going to become 0
hexadecimal as explained above
Explanation with Example
1.3. Binary Calculations
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Binary values are not added the way denary values are 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
have been removed)==
Points to Note: 2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
0+0=0 in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
1+0/0+1=1 marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)
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Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one ASCII
from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
the third position from the right. The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one code that represents the letters, numbers and characters
located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control
our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s codes
complement of itself. Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
values
Converting negative values to two complement Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
Convert the binary value to two’s complement follows:
Make the MSB 1, if not already
0 is at 48
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
A is at 65
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted a is at 97
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the: ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
when trying to trace errors. form, it is sampled
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
to a printer or monitor. where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)
How is Sound Recorded
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
less error-prone than binary.
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
values and is prone to errors.
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The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that
set time intervals make up an image; for example, an image could contain
The value is converted to digital form 4096 × 3072 pixels.
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
series of binary digits than those with a higher resolution.
A series of readings gives an approximate representation When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
of the sound wave a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known
as being pixelated.
Sampling Resolution: High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
compared to low-resolution ones.
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
resolution (aka bit depth)
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
1.6. Measurement of the Size of
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored Computer Memories
about the amplitude of the sound.
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to 8 bits is a byte
store the data. 4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size
Sampling Rate
IECB System (Most Common)
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound size Bytes
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
1 mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
Images
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
Bitmap Images 1 tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pebibyte (1PiB) 250 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers Conventional System
Colour Depth Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes
The number of bits representing each colour is called the 1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes
colour depth. 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one 1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done 1 000 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
being black)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file Calculation of File Size
when storing an image.
Image Resolution
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Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits) JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate sizes
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then pixels per centimetre
multiply the result by two.) When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
size is reduced
1.7. File Types JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
Storage of music files
A communications protocol that allows electronic Compression
musical instruments to interact with each other
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes Lossless File Compression
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes: All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the again when the file is uncompressed.
MIDI device what function to perform Important for files where the loss of data would be
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel disastrous (spreadsheet)
(operates on 16 different channels) An algorithm is used to compress data
Examples of MIDI commands: No data is lost
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
(loudness of music) Run-Length Encoding
It needs a lot of memory storage
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
MP3 (e.g. repeated colours in an image)
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format characters), and the second value represents the code of
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
Done using file compression algorithms, which use character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
Perceptual Music Shaping 98 02 99 05 100.”
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
properly repeated units/bits
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
quality, too much strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
CD files are converted using File Compression Software 255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
compression algorithm becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of
MP4
characters is approaching
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
than just sound Lossy File Compression
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
Videos could be streamed without losing any real
discernible quality
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The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats. computer to printer)
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
compressed not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Reduces file quality Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
reduced. line)
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
2. Data Transmission time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
2.1. Types and Methods of Data Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Transmission Transmission
Data Packets Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances Better for short distances
Packet Structure - (Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Header Expensive (More hardware
Contains the IP address of the sender and the Cheaper Option
required)
receiver Used when the size of data
The sequence number of the packet Used when speed is necessary
transmitted is small
Size of the packet Slower Option Faster than Serial
Payload
Contains the actual data
Trailer
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Includes a method of identifying the end of the
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
packet
USB consists of:
Error-Checking methods Four-wire shielded cable
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where
Two wires are used for power and earth
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are
Two wires are used in data transmission
then sent independently from start to end and
reassembled at the receiver’s computer. Advantages Disadvantages
Transmission rate is less than
Advantages Disadvantages Automatically detected
120 MB/sec
There is no need to create a
Packets may be lost Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is about
single line of communication
incorrect connections 5 metres
Possible to overcome failed or
More prone to errors in real-
Different data transmission
busy nodes time streaming rates
Delay at the receiver while the
High data transmission speed Backwards compatible
packets are being re-ordered
Industry-standard
Easy to expand package usage
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It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
Type Types - data back to the sender for verification.
Even - Even number of 1-bits The sender would compare the received and original
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits data for errors.
Example (Even Parity) - The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
occurred when sending the data or sending the data
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 back for verification.
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number Check Digits
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Limitations with Parity Checks Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
error is not found the code.
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified 6372 typed as 6379
8432 typed as 842
Parity Blocks
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
would be used. Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns 2.4. Encryption
Checksum Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender other attackers.
would calculate the checksum value using a specific
algorithm. Plaintext and Ciphertext
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
and the same algorithm used before. Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
The receiver would then compare the value received and
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
request is made to re-send the data.
Echo Check
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REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
Symmetric Encryption: Stores the instruction the
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process; Current instruction
CIR CPU is currently decoding
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting register
or executing
the data. Stores the Address of the
Asymmetric Encryption: Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and
register
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is sends it to MDR
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only Stores the Data from the
available to the user. MDR Memory data register address received from the
The receiver would have the private key, and they MAR and sends data to CIR
would send the public key to the sender. The sender Stores the address of the
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory
data can be decrypted using the private key.
During calculations, data is
ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it
3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
computer systems
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A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of Used to input sound to a computer
varying thicknesses When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique vibrates, producing an electric signal
series of lines The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate digital values and stored in a computer
using guard bars Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction digital
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect Touchscreens
little light, which allows the bars to be read Capacitive (medium cost tech)
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells) Made up of many layers of glass
The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Quick Response (QR) Codes When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
current changes
Another type of barcode is the QR codes Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light determined by an on-board microprocessor
background Infra-red heat (expensive)
Can hold more storage (7000 digits) Use glass as the screen material
Advantages of QR codes: Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
No need for the user to write down the website Infra-red optical (expensive)
address Uses glass as screen material
QR codes can store website addresses Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
Digital Cameras touched
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the Resistive (inexpensive)
shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens glass
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
onto a light sensitive cell
The cell is made up of pixels bottom layer complete a circuit
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Keyboards touched
Mouse/trackball
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
Microphones
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Devices that read or measure physical properties The light sensor sends data to the ADC
Data needs to be converted to digital The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical Microprocessor samples data every minute
values into digital If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Sensors and their purposes: Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Lamp switched on
converts sound to electric pulses.
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's 3.4. Output Devices
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Inkjet Printers
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment. Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Data from the document sent to the printer driver
the air or any sample. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, available
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
detector. memory (printer buffer)
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
emitted by any object. available in the paper tray
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
level. four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
generate electric current based on light brightness. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
magnetic field. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
content wherever this sensor has been installed. Laser Printers
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. Used to print flyers, high quality
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects produce text and images
around the sensor Prints the whole page in one go
Temperature - These sensors measure the
temperature of the environment.
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
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1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
charged areas which match the text/image because:
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
drum has a yellow tint
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum LEDs improve the colour image
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
produce a copy of the page LEDs consume very little power
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from which supplies the light source
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Light Projectors:
3D Printers
Two common types of light projectors:
Used for models of cars Digital Light Projector (DLP)
Produce solid objects that work LCD Projector
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic Projectors are used to project computer output onto
powder larger screens/interactive whiteboards
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
2D and 3D Cutters
Uses millions of micromirrors
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction the number of micromirrors and the way they are
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
Actuators When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
processes. When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
Used in many control applications involving sensors and they are off
devices (ADC and DAC) This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Loudspeakers/Headphones on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from LCD Projectors
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies
LCD and LED Monitors
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Older technology than DLP RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb access data that is actively being used or processed by
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic- the user immediately.
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different Features of RAM
wavelengths Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light turned off)
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue Used to store; data, files
These three different lights pass through three LCD It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
screens; these screens show the image to be projected the memory can be changed
as millions of pixels in grayscale The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, will operate
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto slow
the screen As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
new data
RAM is of two types:
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Virtual memory
Primary vs. Secondary Storage When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with
The CPU directly accesses primary storage memory management; thus, the system has a high
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples into the picture.
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
examples storages are discussed below)
Primary Memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM)
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Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the systems
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Advantages Disadvantages
companies Small in size, therefore can
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client The interface can be confusing
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate Low cost to make
sometimes
as a single entity Troubleshooting is a specialist’s
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Requires very little power
job
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, Often thrown away as difficult
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed Very fast reaction to changing
to upgrade and faults are
input
from a public cloud storage provider harder to find
Increased garbage as they are
Dedicated to one task only
thrown away
Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks
IP Addresses
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Operating Systems are designed to establish The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
communication between the user and the computer through the bootstrap loader.
Functions of a typical operating system - The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
-managing files the location of the OS in the storage.
– handling interrupts BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
– providing an interface
– managing peripherals and drivers
– managing memory
– managing multitasking
– providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
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1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
programs and device drivers documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
processor, etc. importing images.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
System Software: using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
with each cell identified using a unique combination of
these are a set of programs which control and manage columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
the operations of hardware produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
gives a platform for other software to run calculations.
it is required to allow hardware and software to run Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
without problems manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
in a table.
Application Software: Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
computer’s resources control applications by comparing sensor data with
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
user can execute the software when they require, and it tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
is mostly not automatic from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
Examples streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
System Software: users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
transitions between clips.
tasks without re-compilation.
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
into a single program, allowing the use of separately
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
written code modules in the final program.
different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
communicate with a computer's operating system, required.
without which a device like a printer would be unable to
work. Interrupts
Operating system: Software that manages basic
computer functions such as input/output operations, An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
program loading and running, and security management, from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
making computers more user-friendly. pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
management, and security.
Application Software:
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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their effectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the deletion or for the user to decide.
system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.12. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software
for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.
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Backup software is a utility software that helps create Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. understood by the hardware device they are associated
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard with.
drives are good practices, but operating system backup Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
utilities are also recommended. cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only by the operating system.
backup files if changes have been made to them. USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
There could be three file versions for total security: the vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally number that allow the operating system to identify the
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup device.
on cloud storage. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
Security Software computer simultaneously.
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Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS Remembers the user’s login
The website address would contain - Temporary cookies are stored
details so the user doesn’t have
domain host (www) in the RAM till the browser is
to log in every time they visit a
closed.
domain name (website name) website
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes Stored on the hard disk on the
Doesn’t collect any information
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy) computer until their expiry
on the user
The path would usually become the file directory roots. date or the user deletes them
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science A good example is the virtual
The /computer-science is the file name shopping basket on e-
commerce websites.
HTTP and HTTPS
4.2. Digital Currency
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure Form of payment to pay for goods and services
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
data. Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem
Web Browsers in centralised banking systems.
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
It is software used to connect to the internet transactions.
It translates the HTML code Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established Blockchain Network
Offers additional features like search history & ad
blockers Blockchain Network
Retrieval and Location of web pages
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server computers where the transaction data is stored
(DNS) Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
IP is sent to the browser if it exists changed without the consent of all the network
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver members
Browser interprets the HTML
How do blockchains work
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
Cookies block would contain -
Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
They are used to track data about the users and autofill money and more
forms or give suggestions accordingly Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Types of Cookies - Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
in the chain
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Hacking
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Biometric
Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
into giving out their information. Most development
To remove risk: Intrusive as used to
methods are very easy
identify criminals,
Don’t open links from unknown receivers Fingerprint to use and require
Can’t be used if the
Use anti-phishing tools Scans very low storage space
finger gets dirty or
Block pop-up ads to store the biometric
damaged (e.g. cuts)
Have an up-to-date browser data.
With very high It is very intrusive,
Pharming accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify,
Retina Scan
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer, retina and set up
which redirects the user to fake websites Can’t identify if there
Effect: Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
The user gives out login details and other personal Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
details or person’s age.
To remove risk: Voices can be
recorded and used for
Using anti-virus software verification, but low
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy and illnesses
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the Voice verification is done
such as colds or
URL bar Recognition quickly and relatively
coughs can affect a
cheaper
person’s voice, making
Social Engineering identification
impossible.
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
informing them that their account has been hacked)
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Advantages Disadvantages
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of Expensive to set up and
authentication to prove who the user is Faster and Safer
maintain
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems are
patches which improve device security quickly prone to attacks
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong Over-reliance on automated
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans to
the tone would also seem urgent lose skills
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the Higher Productivity and
traffic between a network and the user’s computer Efficiency
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - You should be able to describe the advantages and
Filtering Internet traffic disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential scenario.
Blocking access to certain websites Including scenarios from:
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
server, keeping the web server safe. industry
Acts as a firewall as well. transport
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a agriculture
user’s profile weather
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while gaming
communicating with other users on the internet. lighting
science
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Advantages Disadvantages
Types of Robots - Setup and Maintenance costs
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can High level of Expertise
are very high
completely replace humans Can only rely on the information
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an High Accuracy and Consistent
in the system
interface, can supplement but can’t completely Tend to give cold responses
replace humans High response times
sometimes
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
Advantages Disadvantages are trained to learn from past experiences.
Robots can find it difficult to do
Robots can work 24/7
non-standard tasks Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher AI Machine Learning
conditions unemployment Machines are trained to make
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots Representation of human
decisions without being
long run replace humans in some task intelligence in machines
programmed to
They have high productivity Expensive to install and The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines
and are more consistent maintain in the short run that think like humans learn through data acquisitions
Robots have the risk of getting
hacked.
Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on
Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
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Computer Science
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