6 Space physics 6.1 Earth and the Solar System 6.1.1 The Earth 1 Know that: (@) the Earth is a planet that orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days (b) the orbit of the Earth around the Sun is an ellipse which is approximately circular (c) the Earth rotates on its axis, which is tilted, once in approximately 24 hours (4) it takes approximately one month for the Moon to orbit the Earth (€) it takes approximately 500s for light from the Sun to reach the Earth 2 Define average orbital speed from the equation ar T where ris the average radius of the orbit and T's the orbital period; recall and use this equation 6.1.2 The Solar System 1 Describe the Solar System as containing: (2) one star, the Sun (b) the eight named planets and know their order from the Sun (c)_ minor planets that orbit the Sun, including dwarf planets such as Pluto and asteroids in the asteroid belt (4) moons, that orbit the planets (€) smaller Solar System bodies, including comets and natural satellites 2 Analyse and interpret planetary data about orbital distance, orbital period, density, surface temperature and uniform gravitational field strength at the planet's surface 3 Know that the strength of the gravitational field (2) at the surface of a planet depends on the mass of the planet (b) around a planet decreases as the distance from the planet increases 4 Know that the Sun contains most of the mass of the Solar System and that the strength of the gravitational field at the surface of the Sun is greater than the strength of the gravitational field at the surface of the planets 5 Know that the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the Sun Know that the strength of the Sun's gravitational field decreases and that the orbital speeds of the planets decrease as the distance from the Sun increases6.2. Stars and the Universe 6.2.1 The Sun asa star 1 Know that the Sun is a star of medium size, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, and that it radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum 2 Know that stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy and that in stable stars the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen into helium 6.22 Stars 1 State that: (@) galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars (b) the Sun is a star in the galaxy known as the Milky Way (¢) other stars that make up the Milky Way are much further away from the Earth than the Sun is from the Earth (4) astronomical distances can be measured in light-years, where one light-year is the distance travelled in ‘a vacuum by light in one year 2 Describe the life cycle of a star: (@) astaris formed from interstellar clouds of gas and dust that contain hydrogen () a protostar is an interstellar cloud collapsing and increasing in temperature as a result ofits internal gravitational attraction (©) aprotostar becomes a stable star when the inward force of gravitational attraction is balanced by an ‘outward force due to the high temperature in the centre of the star (4) all stars eventually run out of hydrogen as fuel for the nuclear reaction (©) most stars expand to form red giants and more massive stars expand to form red supergiants when most of the hydrogen in the centre of the star has been converted to helium (f) ared giant from a less massive star forms a planetary nebula with a white dwarf at its centre (@) a red supergiant explodes as a supernova, forming a nebula containing hydrogen and new heavier elements, leaving behind a neutron star or a black hole at its centre (h) the nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets 6.2.3 The Universe 1 Know that the Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies making up the Universe and that the diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100000 light-years 2 Describe redshift as an increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from receding stars and gala 3 Know that the light from distant galaxies shows redshift and that the further away the galaxy, the greater the observed redshift and the faster the galaxy’s speed away from the Earth 4 Describe, qualitatively, how redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang theory6.1.1 The Earth, Moon & Sun The Earth's Axis e The Earthisa rocky planet that rotates ina near circular orbit around the Sun e It rotates onits axis, which isa line through the north and south poles © The axisis tilted at an angle of approximately 23.4° from the vertical ¢ The Earth completes one full rotation (revolution) in approximately 24 hours (1 day) ¢ This rotation creates the apparent daily motion of the Sun rising and setting © Rotation of the Earth on its axis is therefore responsible for the periodic cycle of day and nightDay and Night ¢ The Earth's rotation aroundits axis creates day and night © Dayis experienced by the half of the Earth's surface that is facing the Sun o Nightis the other half of the Earth's surface, facing away from the Sun ZA ae Day and night are caused by the Earth's rotationising and Setting of the Sun The Earth's rotation on its axis makes the Sun looks like it moves from east to west o At the equinoxes the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west © Equinox (meaning ‘equal night’) is when day and night are approximately of equal length However, the exact locations of where the Sunrises and sets changes throughout the seasons In the northern hemisphere (above the equator): © Insummer, the sun rises north of east and sets north of west © Inwinter, the sun rises south of east and sets south of west The Sunrises in the east and sets in the west. Its approximate area changes throughout the year¢ The Sunis highest above the horizon at noon (12 pm) ¢ Inthenorthern hemisphere, the daylight hours are longest up until roughly the 21st June o This day is known as the Summer Solstice and is where the Sunis at its highest point in the sky all year e The daylight hours then decrease to theirlowest around 21st December © Thisis known the Winter Solstice and is where the Sun is at its lowest point in the sky all yearThe Earth's Orbit « The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days © Thisislyear « The combination of the orbiting of the Earth around the Sun and the Earth's tilt creates the seasons A al a EARTH TILTED 20 MAR ON AXIS < 24JUN @ = 241DEC 23 SEPT =o" Seasons in the Northern hemisphere caused by the tilt of the EarthSeasons inthe Northern hemisphere caused by the tilt of the Earth Over parts B, Cand Dof the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun © This means daylight hours are more than hours of darkness © Thisis spring and summer The southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun © This means there are shorter days than night © Thisis autumn and winter Over parts F, GandH of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun © The situations in both the northern and southern hemisphere are reversed © Itisautumn and winter in the northern hemisphere, but at the same time it is spring and summer in the southern hemisphere AtC: © Thisis the summer solstice © The northern hemisphere has the longest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its shortest day © This is the winter solstice o The northern hemisphere has its shortest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its longest day AtAandD: © Night and day are equal in both hemispheres o These are the equinoxesMoon & Earth ¢ The Moonisa satellite around the Earth It travels around the Earth in roughly a circular orbit onceamonth © This takes 27-28 days * The Moon revolves around its own axis ina month so always has the same side facing the Earth at all times o Wenever see the hemisphere that is always facing away from Earth, although astronauts have orbited the Moon and satellite have photographed it * The Moon shines with reflected light from the Sun, it does not produce its own light Phases of the Moon * The way the Moon's appearance changes across a month, as seen from Earth, is called its periodic cycle of phases WAXING ns RNIN WANING Cry CRESCENT iv ON Cr eee) Phases of the Moonas it orbits around EarthIn theimage above, the inner circle shows that exactly half of the Moon is illuminated by the Sunat all times The outer circle shows how the Moon looks like from the Earth atits various positions In the New Moon phase: © The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun o Therefore, the sunlight is only on the opposite face of the Moon to the Earth o Thismeans the Moonis unlit as seen from Earth, soitisnot visible At the Full Moon phase: o The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun o The side of the Moon that is facing the Earthis completely lit by the sunlight o Thismeans the Moonis fully lit as seen from Earth In between, a crescent can be seen where the Moonis partially illuminated from sunlightEXTENDED e When planets move around the Sun, or amoon moves around a planet, they orbit in circular motion © This means that in one orbit, a planet travelsa distance equal to the circumference of acircle (the shape of the orbit) o Thisis equal to 2mr where ris the radius a circle ¢ The relationship between speed, distance andtimeis: distance Speed = time * the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation: ¢ Where: ° v=orbital speed in metres per second (m/s) © r=average radius of the orbit in metres (m) o T=orbital period in seconds (s) © This orbital period (or time period)is defined as: The time taken for an object to complete one orbit e Theorbitalradius ris always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to the object orbitingOrbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around aSun Worked Example The Hubble Space Telescope moves ina circular orbit. Its distance above the Earth’s surface is 560 km and the radius of the Earthis 6400 km. It completes one orbit in 96 minutes. Calculate its orbital speed inm/s.Step 1: List the known quantities © Radius of the Earth, R = 6400 km © Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface,h =560km © Time period, T=96 minutes Step 2: Write the relevant equation 2nr T Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r © The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope r=R+h Radius of Earth, R \ Contre of ' mass of i r=R+h r = 6400 + 560 = 6960km Step 4: Convert any units © The time period needs to be in seconds iminute= 60second: 9Gminutes= 60 x 96 = 5760s © The radius needs to be in metres 1km = 1000m 6960km = 6960000m Step 5: Substitute values into the orbital speed equation _ 2m x 6960000 v= ——s760 = 759218 = 7590m/sExam Tip Remember to check that the orbital radius rgiven is the distance from the centre of the Sun (if a planetis orbiting a Sun) or the planet (if amoonis orbiting a planet) and notjust from the surface. If the distance is a height above the surface you must add the radius of the body, to get the height above the centre of mass of the body. This is because orbits are caused by the mass, which canbe assumed to act at the centre, rather Ata Tene a RU [ec Don't forget to check your units and convert any if required!The Solar System ¢ The Solar System consists of: 1.TheSun (Cone Star) 2. Eight planets 3. Natural and artificial satellites 4. Dwarf planets Pluto 5. Asteroids and comets The Sun & the Planets ¢ The Sunlies at the centre of the Solar System o The Sunisastar that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system * There are eight planets and an unknown number of dwarf planets which orbit the Sun © The gravitational field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all nearby objects with the exception of natural satellites © The gravitational field around a dwarf planetis not strong enough to have pulled in nearby objects ¢ The 8 planets in our Solar System in ascending order of the distance from the Sun are: o Mercury e Venus © Earth o Mars o Jupiter © Saturn eo Uranus o Neptune¢ There are two types of satellite: ° Natural ° Artificial * Some planets have moons which orbit them o Moonsare an example of natural satellites ¢ Artificial satellites are man-made and can orbit any object in space ° The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth andis an example of an artificial satellite Asteroids & Comets ¢ Asteroids and comets also orbit the sun ¢ Anasteroid is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun o Theasteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter ¢ Comets are made of dust andice and orbit the Sunina different orbit to those of planets © Theice melts when the comet approaches the Sunand forms the comet's tail *NATURAL SATELLITE ecommerce ROCKY PLANETS GAS PLANETS ASTEROID BELT The objects in our solar systemAccretion Model of the Solar System + There are 4rocky and small planets: Mercury, Venus Earth and Mars These are the nearest to the Sun * There are 4 gaseous andlarge planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune There are the furthest from the sun MERCURY The eight planets of our Solar System¢ The differences inthe types of planets are defined by the accretion model for Solar System formation ¢ The Sun was thought to have formed when gravitational attraction of pulled together clouds of hydrogen dust and gas (called nebulae) ¢ The Solar System then formed around 4.5 billion years ago o The planets were formed from the remnants of the disc cloud of matter left over from the nebula that formed the Sun © These interstellar clouds of gas and dust included many elements that were created during the final stages of a star's lifecycle (a previous supernova) ¢ Gravity collapsed the matter from the nebula in on itself causing it to spin around the Sun ° The gravitational attraction between all the small particles caused them to join together and grow in an accretion process ¢ Arotating accretion disc is formed when the planets emergedThe accretion model of the creation of the Solar SystemThe accretion model of the creation of the Solar System « Asthe Sungrewin size it became hotter « Where theinner planets were forming near the Sun, the temperature was too high for molecules such as Hydrogen, Helium, water and Methane toexist ina solid state © Therefore, the inner planets are made of materials with high melting temperatures suchas metals (e.g. iron) © Only1% of the original nebula is composed of heavy elements, so the inner, rocky planets could not grow much and stayed as a small size, solid androcky « Thecooler regions were further away from the Sun, and temperature was low enough for the light molecules to exist ina solid state © The outer planets therefore could grow to alarge size up and include even the lightest element, Hydrogen o These planets are large, gaseous and cold6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies ° Thep TEST YOURSELF Light Speed anets and moonsof the solar system are visible ld from Earth when they reflect light from the Sun ° he outer regions of the Solar System are around 5 x10!2 m from the Sun, which means even light ‘akes some time to travel these distances e The Sunis so far away from Earth that the light we see actua ly left the Sun eight minutes earlier © the nearest star to us after the Sun is so far away hat light from it takes four years toreach us he Milky Way galaxy contains billions of stars, huge distances away, with the light taking even longer to be seen from Earth * The speed of light is aconstant 3 x 108 m/s ° herefore, using the equation: distance speed= “ine he time taken to travel a certain distance can be calculated by rearranging to: . distance ‘ime = ——— speedWorked Example Calculate the time taken for light from the Sun to reach Mercury if the radius of Mercury's orbit is 5.8 x 109m. Step 1: State the equation for the time taken for light to travel a certain distance : distance ime= —— speed Step 2: Substitute in the values © The distance travelled is the radius of the orbit ® Distance,d=5.8x10°m. ° Speed = the speed of light, v= 3.0 x 10° m/s 5.8 x 10° = = f) 30 x10 1933333 ‘ime Step 3: Roundup the answer andinclude units ‘ime= 19.3sExam Tip The speed of light is very fast. This is why in our everyday life things like switching on alight seem to be instant. However, this is only because the light travels very fast and the distances we perceive are very small. In large, astronomical distances which can be millions or even billions of kilometres, the limit of the speed of light starts to have an affect. For example, it takes light 8 minutes to travel from the Sun tothe Earth. This means we are seeing the Sun asit was eight minutes ago. If the Sun was to disappear, we would not notice till eight minutes later. Although, by that time, time delay would be the least of our worries... p.s.: The Sunis not going to vanish!Elliptical Orbits EXTENDED « Orbits of planets, minor planets and comets are elliptical © Anellipseis just a 'squashed' circle « Planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits o However, the Sunis not at the centre of an elliptical orbit © Thisis only the case when the orbit is approximately circular FOCI OF ELLIPSE ZS <—F PLANET Planets and comets travel in elliptical orbits, but the Sunis not at the centre of these orbits Exam Tip You will not be asked to do any calculations with elliptical orbits. If you are asked to calculate the time period, orbital speed or radius of an orbit, it can be assumed that it is circular.EXTENDED Analysing Orbits * Overmany years, data about all the planets, moons and the Sun have been collected * Thisisnotjust for general interest, but to indicate: © Factors that affect conditions on the surface of the planets © Environmental problems that a visit (using manned spaceships or robots) would encounter Table of Data for Planets in our Solar System Uniform Orbital Density Surface Surface Planet distance Orbital duration y temperatures Gravitational smillion /daysor years 4/5 oe Field km Strength/ N/kg Mercury) 57.9 88 days 5427 350 37 Venus | 108.2 | 225days 5243 460 89 Earth | 149.6 365days | 5514 20 98 Mars | 2279 687days 3933 -23 37 Jupiter | 778.6 | M9years 1326 -120 231 Saturn | 1433.5 29.5years | 687 -180 9.0 Uranus | 2872.5 75 years 1271 -210 87 Neptune| 4495.1 16Syears_——_1638 -220 11.0 Exam Tip Although you don't need to memorise any of this data, you must be able to confidently analyse and interpret it. Look out for trends such as one variable increasing whilst the the other Ce rere eed Ohl el tee a Ml ete Pra Naan ante cel Elie etre tol mend neice nae olen eect MMe ey ects lo Sra Aa Freckle Sica en SE Tats Lael de (oer aT affect it?6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits DOWNLOAD PD j [_resrvourserr | Gravitational Field Strength * The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet * Weight is defined as The force acting onan object due to gravitational attraction « Planets have strong gravitational fields ° Hence, they attract nearby masses witha strong gravitational force ° Because of weight: © Objects stay firmly on the ground © Objects will always fall to the ground © Satellites are keptin orbit ve FALLING OBJECTS SATELLITES}, Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due toits gravitational field strengthBoth the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g differs between the surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space, including the Moon because of the planet or moon's mass o The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field strength o Ahigher gravitational field strength meansa larger attractive force towards the centre of that planet or moon g varies with the distance froma planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is roughly the same © The strength of the field around the planet decreases as the distance from the planet increases However, the value of g on the surface varies dramatically for different planets and moons The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earthis approximately 10 N/kg The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moonisless than on the Earth © This meansit would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than on the Earth The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and Saturn) is more than on the Earth © This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the EarthValue for g on the different objects in the Solar System * Onsuch planets such as Jupiter, an object's mass remains the same at all points in space « However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be unable to fully stand up ‘BODY ON EARTH HAS A MUCH SMALLER FORCE PER UNIT MASS THAN ON JUPITER EARTH 9 = 9.84 Nk" THIS MEANS A BODY WILL HAVE A MUCH GREATER WEIGHT ON. JUPITER THAN ON EARTH JUPITER 9 = 25 Nkg* Aperson’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully stand up Exam Tip You do not need to remember the value of gon different planets for your exam, the value of g for Earth will be given in the exam question.Gravitational Attraction of the Sun « There are many orbiting objects in our solar system and they each orbit a different type of planetary body Orbiting Objects or Bodies in Our Solar System Table Cer eed SY What it Orbit: Planet Sun Moon Planet, Comet Sun Asteroid Sun Artificial satellite Any object or body in solar system « Asmaller body or object will orbit alarger body o Forexample, a planet orbiting the Sun « Inorder to orbit a body such as a star ora planet, there has to bea force pulling the object towards that body © Gravity provides this force « Therefore, it is said that the force that keeps a planet in orbit around the Sunis the gravitational attraction of the Sun The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always attractive © Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger body Therefore, the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the Sun andis always directed from the orbiting object to the centre of the Sun* Thegravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path GRAVITATIONAL, ATTRACTION Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth Sun's Gravitational Field & Distance EXTENDED e Asthe distance from the Sun increases: © The strength of the Sun's gravitational field on the planet decreases © Their orbital speed of the planet decreases * To keep an object ina circular path, it must havea centripetal force © For planets orbiting the Sun, this force is gravity « Therefore, the strength of the Sun's gravitational field in the planet affects how much centripetal force ison the planet © This strength decreases the further away the planet is from the Sun, and the weaker the centripetal force *° Thecentripetal force is proportional to the orbital speed ° Therefore, the planets further away from the Sun have a smaller orbital speed © This also equates toa lanner orbital duration¢ Thecentripetal force is proportional to the orbital speed © Therefore, the planets further away from the Sun have a smaller orbital speed © This also equates to alonger orbital duration PLANETS FURTHEST FROM THE SUN TAKE THE LONGEST AMOUNT OF TIME TO ORBIT THE SUN — THEY TRAVEL AT THE SLOWEST SPEEDS PLANETS CLOSEST TO THE SUN TAKE THE SHORTEST AMOUNT OF TIME TO ORBIT THE SUN — THEY TRAVEL AT THE FASTEST SPEEDS How the speed of a planet is affected by its distance from the Sun * This can be seen from data collected for a planet's orbital distance against their orbital speed © E.g. Neptune travels much slower than Mercury Table of Orbital Distance, Speed and Duration Orbital Orbital Orbital duration / Planet distance / Speed/ days or years millionkm km/s Mercury 57.9 479 88 days Venus 108.2 35.0 225 days Earth 149.6 29.8 365 days Mars 227.9 24.1 687 days Jupiter 778.6 13.1 11.9 years Saturn 1433.5 97 29.5 years Uranus 2872.5 6.8 75 years Neptune 4495.1 5.4 165 yearsExam Tip Be careful with your wording in this topic when talking about gravity. It isimportant to refer to the force of gravity as ‘gravitational attraction’,’ strength of the Sun's gravitational field’ or ‘the force due to gravity’. Avoid terms such as 'the Sun's gravity’ or even more vague, ‘the force from the Sun’.Orbits & Conservation of Energy EXTENDED ¢ Anobjectin an elliptical orbit around the Sun travels at a different speed depending on its distance from the Sun « Although these orbits are not circular, they are still stable o Forastable orbit, the radius must change if the comet's orbital speed changes * Asthe comet approaches the Sun: ° The radius of the orbit decreases © The orbital speed increases due to the Sun's strong gravitational pull e Asthe comet travels further away from the Sun: © Theradius of the orbit increases © The orbital speed decreases due to a weaker gravitational pull from the Sun ‘SLOWEST HERE 3. COMET AND TAIL FASTEST HERE PLANET, Comets travel in highly elliptical orbits, speeding up as they approach the Sun