Unit-2

Angle Modulation
Angle Modulation:

There is another method of modulating a sinusoidal carrier

namely the angle modulation in which either frequency or
phase of the carrier is varied according to the message signal,
but the carrier amplitude is constant .

Thus angle modulation system can be classified as follows :

Mathematical representation of Angle modulation :

Relation between PM and FM

in which phase and frequency are related, it is possible to produce a frequency-modulated signal
using a phase modulator by first integrating the information signal, and then sending the output
of the integrator circuit to the phase modulator.
Conversely, it is also possible to produce a phase-modulated signal using a frequency
modulator by first differentiating the message signal and sending the output of the differentiator
circuit to the frequency modulator.
Angle modulation is being used for the following applications :

1. Radio broadcasting
2. TV sound transmission
3. Two way mobile radio
4. Cellular radio
5. Microwave communication
6. Satellite communication

The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is

s(t)=Ac cosθi(t)

Where,

Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
signal
θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave

Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.

 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with
the message signal.
Single tone frequency modulation:
Definition: A category of angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is
changed according to the amplitude of the message signal is known as frequency modulation. It
is abbreviated as FM and is a widely used analog modulation technique.

One can modulate a signal by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal according to the
message signal, which we commonly knew as amplitude modulation (AM). The implementation
of AM is simple. However, it possesses various disadvantages.

Evolution of FM has overcome the disadvantages associated with AM. Thus, is enormously
used.

Theory of Frequency Modulation

As we know, that both the amplitude and phase of the carrier wave remains unchanged and only
the change in frequency is noticed in case of frequency modulation. Hence, we can say
information is transmitted by the frequency variation in the case of FM.

Let us now move further and have a look at how a carrier wave undergoes frequency modulation.
The first image in the above figure shows the modulating signal that has to be transmitted from
an end to other. The second one is the carrier wave; whose frequency is to be varied according to
the amplitude of the message signal.

The next image shows the frequency modulated signal that is transmitted after modulation is
done.

Here as we can see, that initially when the amplitude of the modulating signal is minimum
during its positive half cycle, then the frequency of the modulated signal is somewhat similar to
the carrier wave. However, with the increase in the amplitude of the message signal the
frequency of the carrier wave starts varying.

When the amplitude of the modulating signal is maximum, an increase in the frequency of the
carrier wave is noticed. Hence, more number of cycles occurs in that particular time interval.

Similarly, as the amplitude of the message signal starts decreasing, a corresponding decrement in
the frequency of the carrier wave is also noticed.

Thus, we can conclude that, with the increase in the amplitude of the message signal, a
corresponding increment in the frequency of the carrier wave is observed. Likewise, the decrease
in the amplitude of the modulating signal will lead to the decrease in the frequency also.

Single tone frequency modulation

Let the modulating signal be m(t) having amplitude Vm and frequency fm

and the carrier wave is given by

It is noteworthy that in FM, the frequency changes according to the modulating voltage.

Hence, instantaneous frequency is given as,

Substituting the value of the modulating signal in the expression shown above,
Here, Δf denotes the frequency deviation.

The extent of the occurred change in frequency of the carrier wave is termed as the deviation.
It is noteworthy that this deviation is made according to the voltage of the modulating signal and
does not depend on the modulating frequency, which can be easily understood by the expression
of frequency deviation.

Thus, we can conclude that the maximum frequency of an amplitude modulated wave is given
as,

Modulation index (β or mf):

It is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating signal frequency. Thus, is
given by the expression,

When the frequency deviation is constant, then due to inverse relation, with the increase in
modulating frequency, modulation index will decrease.

It is the major factor in frequency modulation because the transmission bandwidth is decided by
the modulation index. FM supports the modulation index to be greater than 1.

Per cent of modulation

The degree of modulation in frequency modulation is determined by the extent of the deviation.
It is basically defined as the ratio of actual deviation in frequency to the maximum value of
deviation allowed.

Advantages of FM

 A frequency modulated wave shows resilience (flexibility) property towards noise

and interference factor. Thus, is utilized in the high-quality broadcast.
 It provides better sound quality.
  The effect of noise that is dominant in amplitude modulation, is not severe in case
of frequency modulation.
Disadvantages of FM

 As during long-distance transmission, the high-frequency signal passes through the

ionospheric layer of atmosphere and does not get reflected. Thus, is used for short
distance transmission.
 FM signal transmission and reception are somewhat more complex as compared to
AM.
 Frequency modulation is expensive than that of Amplitude modulation.
Applications of FM

1. It is used in radio signal broadcasting.

2. During satellite and microwave communication, frequency modulation is widely
used.
3. It has extensive applications in cellular radio communication and TV sound
transmission.

Arbitrary Modulated FM Signal

Generation of NBFM and Generation of WBFM

In WBFM direct and indirect methods.

Generation of NBFM

We know that the standard equation of FM wave is

s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+2πkf ∫m(t)dt)

⇒s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)cos(2πkf ∫m(t) dt - Ac sin(2πfct)sin(2πkf ∫m(t)dt)

For NBFM,

∣∣∣2πkf ∫m(t)dt∣∣∣<<1
We know that cosθ≈1 and sinθ ≈ θmax
By using the above relations, we will get the NBFM equation as
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)−Ac sin(2πfct)2πkf ∫m(t)dt

The block diagram of NBFM modulator is shown in the following figure.

Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m(t). The carrier
signal Accos(2πfct) is the phase shifted by −90o to get Ac sin(2πfct) with the help of −90o phase
shifter. The product modulator has two inputs ∫m(t)dt and Ac sin(2πfct)). It produces an output,
which is the product of these two inputs.
This is further multiplied with 2πkf by placing a block 2πkf in the forward path. The summer
block has two inputs, which are nothing but the two terms of NBFM equation. Positive and
negative signs are assigned for the carrier signal and the other term at the input of the summer
block. Finally, the summer block produces NBFM wave.

Generation of WBFM

The following two methods generate WBFM wave.

 Direct method
 Indirect method
Direct Method

This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM. VCO
produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal voltage. This is
similar to the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the generation of WBFM wave is
shown in the following figure.
Here, the modulating signal m(t) is applied as an input of Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).
VCO produces an output, which is nothing but the WBFM.
fiαm(t)
⇒fi=fc+ kf m(t)

Where,

fi is the instantaneous frequency of WBFM wave.

Examples: Reactance Method , varactor diode Method etc.
Reactance Modulator:
In direct FM generation shown in figure 2.4.1, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is
changed directly in proportion with the message signal. For this, a device called voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO) is used. A VCO can be implemented by using a sinusoidal oscillator
with a tuned circuit having a high value of Q. The frequency of this oscillator is changed by
changing the reactive components involved in the tuned circuit. If L or C of a tuned circuit of an
oscillator is changed in accordance with the amplitude of modulating signal then FM can be
obtained across the tuned circuit as shown in figure 2.4.1 below.

Figure.2.4.1 Principle of Reactance Modulator Diagram

The reactance modulator takes its name from the fact that the impedance of the circuit acts as a
reactance (capacitive or inductive) that is connected in parallel with the resonant circuit of the
Oscillator. The varicap can only appear as a capacitance that becomes part of the frequency
determining branch of the oscillator circuit. However, other discrete devices can appear as a
capacitor or as an inductor to the oscillator, depending on how the circuit is arranged. A colpitts
oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider as the phase-reversing feedback path and would most
likely tapped coil as the phase-reversing element in the feedback loop and most commonly uses a
modulator that appears inductive.
Frequency of oscillations of the Hartley oscillator is given by :

Varactor Diode Modulator:

 Varactor diode modulator is the direct method of FM generation wherein the carrier frequency
is directly varied by the modulating signal.
 A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies linearly with
applied voltage when the diode is reverse biased
 Varactor diodes are used along with reactance modulator to provide automatic frequency
correction for an FM transmitter. The varactor diode modulator circuit is shown in Figure5. for
generation of FM wave. The varactor diode FM modulator has been shown below in figure 2.4.4.

A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies linearly with the
applied bias and the varactor diode must be reverse biased. Working Operation Varactor diode is
arranged in reverse bias to offer junction capacitance effect. The modulating voltage which is in
series with the varactor diode will vary the bias and hence the junction capacitance, resulting the
oscillator frequency to change accordingly.
The external modulating AF voltage adds to and subtracts from the dc bias, which changes the
capacitance of the diode and thus the frequency of oscillation. Positive alternations of the
modulating signal increase the reverse bias on the varactor diode, which decreases its
capacitance and increases the frequency of oscillation.
Conversely, negative alternations of the modulating signal decrease the frequency of oscillation.
The RFC and capacitor C b act as a filter which transmits only the AF variations to the varactor
diode and blocks high frequency RF voltage from reaching the AF stage.
The varactor diode FM modulators are widely accepted because they are simple to use, reliable
and have the stability of a crystal oscillator. This method of FM generation is direct because the
oscillator frequency is varied directly by the modulating signal, and the magnitude of frequency
change is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage. Varactor diode
modulator is used for automatic frequency control and remote tuning.
The drawback of varactor diode modulator is that since it uses a crystal, the peak frequency
deviation is limited to relatively small values. Thus they are used mostly for low index
applications such as two way mobile radio. Also since they are a two terminal device, the
applications are quite limited. The varactor diode is reverse biased by the negative dc source –
Vb.
The modulating AF voltage appears in series with the negative supply voltage. Hence, the
voltage applied across the varactor diode varies in proportion with the modulating voltage .This
will vary the junction capacitance of the varactor diode. The varactor diode appears in parallel
with the oscillator tuned circuit. Hence the oscillator frequency will change with change in
varactor diode capacitance and FM wave is produced.
The RFC will connect the dc and modulating signal to the varactor diode but it offers a very high
impedance at high oscillator frequency. Therefore, the oscillator circuit is isolated from the dc
bias and modulating signal.
Indirect Method

This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of frequency
multipliers we will get WBFM wave. The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown
in the following figure.

This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first stage, the NBFM wave will be
generated using NBFM modulator. We have seen the block diagram of NBFM modulator at the
beginning of this chapter. We know that the modulation index of NBFM wave is less than one.
Hence, in order to get the required modulation index (greater than one) of FM wave, choose the
frequency multiplier value properly.

Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an output signal whose frequency
is ‘n’ times the input signal frequency. Where, ‘n’ is the multiplication factor.
If NBFM wave whose modulation index β is less than 1 is applied as the input of frequency
multiplier, then the frequency multiplier produces an output signal, whose modulation index is
‘n’ times β and the frequency also ‘n’ times the frequency of WBFM wave.

Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency multiplier and mixers in order to
increase the frequency deviation and modulation index of FM wave.

Example: Armstrong Method

Armstrong Method :
The part of the Armstrong FM transmitter (Armstrong phase modulator) which is expressed in dotted
lines describes the principle of operation of an Armstrong phase modulator. It should be noted, first that
the output signal from the carrier oscillator is supplied to circuits that perform the task of modulating
the carrier signal. The oscillator does not change frequency, as is the case of direct FM. These points out
the major advantage of phase modulation (PM), or indirect FM, over direct FM. That is the phase
modulator is crystal controlled for frequency.

The crystal-controlled carrier oscillator signal is directed to two circuits in parallel. This signal (usually a
sine wave) is established as the reference past carrier signal and is assigned a value 0°.The balanced
modulator is an amplitude modulator used to form an envelope of double side-bands and to suppress
the carrier signal (DSSC). This requires two input signals, the carrier signal and the modulating message
signal shown in the figure 2.4.6.

The output of the modulator is connected to the adder circuit; here the 90° phase-delayed carriers
signal will be added back to replace the suppressed carrier. The act of delaying the carrier phase by 90°
does not change the carrier frequency or its wave-shape. This signal identified as the 90° carrier signal.
The carrier frequency change at the adder output is a function of the output phase shift and is found by.
fc = ∆θfs (in hertz) .

When θ is the phase change in radians and fs is the lowest audio modulating frequency. In most FM
radio bands, the lowest audio frequency is 50Hz. Therefore, the carrier frequency change at the adder
output is 0.6125 x 50Hz = ± 30Hz since 10% AM represents the upper limit of carrier voltage change,
then ± 30Hz is the maximum deviation from the modulator for PM.

The 90° phase shift network does not change the signal frequency because the components and
resulting phase change are constant with time. However, the phase of the adder output voltage is in a
continual state of change brought about by the cyclical variations of the message signal, and during the
time of a phase change, there will also be a frequency change.
FM Detectors or FM Demodulator:

the demodulators which demodulate the FM wave. The following two methods demodulate FM
wave.

 Frequency discrimination method

 Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method:

We know that the equation of FM wave is

v(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+2πkf ∫m(t)dt)

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 't'.

dv(t)/dt= −Ac(2πfc+2πkf m(t))sin(2πfct+2πkf ∫m(t)dt)

We can write, −sinθ as sin(θ−1800)

⇒dv(t)/dt=Ac(2πfc+2πkf m(t))sin(2πfct+2πkf ∫m(t)dt−1800)

⇒dv(t)/dt=Ac(2πfc)[1+(kf /fc)m(t)]sin(2πfct+2πkf ∫m(t)dt−1800)

In the above equation, the amplitude term resembles the envelope of AM wave and the angle
term resembles the angle of FM wave. Here, our requirement is the modulating signal m(t).
Hence, we can recover it from the envelope of AM wave.

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using frequency
discrimination method.

This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the envelope detector. Differentiator is used
to convert the FM wave into a combination of AM wave and FM wave. This means, it converts
the frequency variations of FM wave into the corresponding voltage (amplitude) variations of
AM wave. We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces the demodulated output
of AM wave, which is nothing but the modulating signal.
Phase Discrimination Method:
The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using phase discrimination
method.

This block diagram consists of the multiplier, the low pass filter, and the Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO). VCO produces an output signal v(t) whose frequency is proportional to the
input signal voltage d(t) Initially, when the signal d(t) is zero, adjust the VCO to produce an
output signal v(t) having a carrier frequency and −900−900 phase shift with respect to the carrier
signal.

FM wave s(t) and the VCO output v(t) are applied as inputs of the multiplier. The multiplier
produces an output, having a high frequency component and a low frequency component. Low
pass filter eliminates the high frequency component and produces only the low frequency
component as its output.

This low frequency component contains only the term-related phase difference. Hence, we get
the modulating signal m(t) from this output of the low pass filter.

Stereophonic FM Broadcasting:
Stereo uses two microphones (or two groups of microphones) to generate a left signal L(t) and a right
signal R(t). These signals are to be fed into two identical speakers at the receiving end. With proper
speaker positioning, the result is a more accurate reproduction of the soundstage than is possible with
mono.

This having transmitter and receiver given below

The Transmitter
The transmitter is shown in Figure 1. Note that the left and right signals are first bandlimited to 15kHz.
The oscillator at fp = 19kHz provides a pilot carrier, which will eliminate the need for a local oscillator at
the receiver. The frequency doubler gives fsc = 38kHz;

(1) The modulating signal for the main channel consists of the sum of the right and left
signals.

(2) The pilot subcarrier at 19 kHz ±2 Hz, must frequency modulate the main carrier between
the limits of 8 and 10 percent.

(3) One stereophonic subcarrier must be the second harmonic of the pilot subcarrier (i.e., 38
kHz) and must cross the time axis with a positive slope simultaneously with each crossing of
the time axis by the pilot subcarrier. Additional stereophomic subcarriers are not precluded.

(4) Double sideband, suppressed-carrier, amplitude modulation of the stereophonic subcarrier

at 38 kHz must be used.

(5) The stereophonic subcarrier at 38 kHz must be suppressed to a level less than 1%
modulation of the main carrier.

(6) The modulating signal for the required stereophonic subcarrier must be equal to the
difference of the left and right signals.
 (7) The following modulation levels apply:

(i) When a signal exists in only one channel of a two channel (biphonic) sound
transmission, modulation of the carrier by audio components within the baseband range of
50 Hz to 15 kHz shall not exceed 45% and modulation of the carrier by the sum of the
amplitude modulated subcarrier in the baseband range of 23 kHz to 53 kHz shall not exceed
45%.

(ii) When a signal exists in only one channel of a stereophonic sound transmission having
more than one stereophonic subcarrier in the baseband, the modulation of the carrier by
audio components within the audio baseband range of 23 kHz to 99 kHz shall not exceed
53% with total modulation not to exceed 90%.

The Receiver

The receiver first recovers M(t) as the output of a frequency discriminator. The job then is to sort M(t)
into its component signals and thereby recover L(t) and R(t). The receiver is diagrammed in Figure 3.
Note that we get fsc at the receiver by filtering out the pilot carrier and using a frequency doubler; a
local oscillator is not required. This is better than transmitting fsc and trying to recover it directly by
filtering. This system is compatible with a mono receiver. In such a receiver, L+R passes through the
baseband filter, while the pilot carrier and the DSB-SC signal do not.
It uses three filters to extract (L + R) and (L – R) signals and the pilot-carrier from the
discriminator output. The (L + R) signal is obtained from the low-pass filter, which contains
frequencies between 50 Hz and 15 kHz. This signal delayed for a fixed time before applying it to
the matrix and the de-emphasis network. This is done to simultaneously get the (L + R) and (L –
R) signals at the matrix. The matrix network separates the left (L) and right (R) channels. These
are then de-emphasized and amplified by the audio amplifiers and are given to their respective
speakers.

A band pass filter is used to extract the (L – R) signal varying between 23-53 kHz. It is a
double-side band (DSB) signal. This signal is applied to an AM detector to demodulate. The
transmitter uses a 38 kHz carrier signal to get a DSB-SC signal from the (L – R) signal. Thus, at
the receiver, a carrier of 38 kHz is required to demodulate the received (L – R) signal.

The pilot carrier of 19 kHz is extracted using another band pass filter. This pilot carrier is given
to the frequency doubler, which doubles its frequency to 38 kHz. After amplification of this The
AM detector detects the (L – R) signal, which is carrier, it is applied to the AM detector matrix.
As some time is taken for the (L –R) signal to demodulate, the (L + R) signal is delayed so that
both (L + R) and (L – R) reach the matrix at the same time.