A-PDF Watermark DEMO: Purchase from www.A-PDF.

com to remove the watermark

IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

Laser
Syllabus : Paper 401 – Unit III : Lasers - Introduction; Spontaneous and stimulated emission;
Einstein's coefficients and optical amplification; Population inversion; Main components of a laser;
Lasing action; Ruby Laser - construction and working - energy level diagram; He-Ne Laser -
by Professor Physics
construction and working - energy level diagram
Spatial Coherence and directionality, estimates of beam intensity, temporal coherence and spectral
energy density

Introduction : The word LASER was coined as an acronym for Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
The special nature of laser light has made laser technology a vital tool in nearly every aspect
of everyday life including communications, entertainment, manufacturing, and medicine. A
laser device is a source of highly intense, monochromatic, coherent and highly directed beam
of light produced by stimulated emission of radiation. T. Maiman produced first laser device
using ruby crystal in 1960. The idea of stimulated emission of radiation was given by Albert
Einstein in 1917.

Interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation

An isolated atom can exist in its ground state of energy 𝐸1 or in an excited state of higher
energy 𝐸2 . The atom can change from one of these states to the other through following three
processes. They are
1. Stimulated absorption, 2. Spontaneous emission and 3. Stimulated emission.

Stimulated absorption E2 E2
Consider an atom initially in the Photon (h)
ground state of energy 𝐸1 . If an
E1 E1
electromagnetic radiation of frequency
𝜈 is incident on the atom, the atom absorbs energy h from the radiation and move to the
higher energy state 𝐸2 if h = E2 - E1.
The process by which an atom in a lower energy state can be raised to a higher energy state
by absorbing a photon of energy h is called induced or stimulated absorption..
ATOM + PHOTON  ATOM*
E2

Spontaneous emission : Consider the atom in the excited state of Photon (h)
energy 𝐸2 . The atom will remain in this state for a time of about E1
10−8 𝑠. The atom will fall on its own to the ground state emitting
radiation of energy h. The process by which an excited atom jumps from a higher energy
state to a lower energy state with emission of a photon is called spontaneous emission.
ATOM*  ATOM + PHOTON

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 1

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

Stimulated emission : Consider an atom in the excited state of energy 𝐸2 .

If an electromagnetic radiation of frequency  is incident on the atom, the atom moves to the
ground state of energy 𝐸1 by
E2 E2
emitting a photon of energy h along Photon (h)
with the incident photon of energy
Photon (h)
h. This stimulated emission is E1 E1
possible only if the frequency  of
the radiation satisfies the relation h = E2 - E1.
The process in which an atom in a higher energy state jumps to lower energy state with the
emission of a photon identical to the incident photon is called as stimulated emission.
ATOM* + PHOTON  ATOM + 2 PHOTONS

Differences between Spontaneous and Stimulated emission

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1 Instantaneous emission of light Emission of light photon with the help of
photon due to transition of an another photon having energy same as the
atom from higher to lower energy emitting photon due to transition of atom
level from higher to lower energy level
2 The emission has broad The emission has monochromatic
spectrum of radiation (many radiation (single wavelength)
wavelengths)
3 Incoherent radiation (light Coherent radiation (light photons of same
photons of different phases and phase and same frequency)
different frequencies)
4 The light beam has less The light beam has high intensity
intensity
5 Less directionality and more High directionality and less angular
angular spread. e.g. Light from spread
sodium or mercury lamp e.g. Light from a laser source

Relation between Einstein coefficients

Consider an atomic system present in a radiation field of energy density 𝜌(𝜈) under
equilibrium conditions. Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the energy levels of the atom with 𝐸2 > 𝐸1 . The
number of atoms per unit volume in the two levels respectively are 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 . The photon
emitted due to transition between the levels will have energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 .
Postulations made by Einstein are

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 2

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

1 The rate of induced/stimulated absorption of radiation by atoms in the ground state is

proportional to (a) the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower level 𝑁1 and (b) density
𝑑𝑁1
𝜌(𝜈)of radiation energy incident on these atoms. Mathematically ∝ 𝑁1 𝜌(𝜈)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁1
or = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝜌(𝜈)…..(1) where 𝐵12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein
𝑑𝑡
coefficient for induced absorption.
2 The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to
lower level is proportional to the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher level 𝑁2 only.
𝑑𝑁2 𝑑𝑁2
i.e. ∝ 𝑁2 or = 𝐴21 𝑁2 …..(2) where 𝐴21 is the proportionality constant called
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission.
3 The rate of stimulated emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to
lower level is proportional to (1) the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher level 𝑁2
𝑑𝑁2
and (2) density of radiation energy incident on these atoms. i.e. ∝ 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜈)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁2
or = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜈)…..(3) where 𝐵21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein
𝑑𝑡
coefficient for stimulated emission.
Under thermal equilibrium, the absorption rate or the number of photons absorbed per
second is equal to the sum of the number of photons emitted per second by spontaneous and
stimulated emissions.
Thus RHS of equation (1) is equal to sum of RHS of equations (2) and (3)
𝐵12 𝑁1 𝜌(𝜈) = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜈) or 𝜌(𝜈)[𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ] = 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐴21 𝑁2 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝜌(𝜈) = or 𝜌(𝜈) = 𝐵 𝑁
𝐵12 𝑁1 −𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝑁2 ( 12 1 − 1)
𝐵21 𝑁2
𝐴21
or 𝜌(𝜈) = 𝑁1 𝐵12 …..(4)
𝐵21 ( − 1)
𝑁2 𝐵21

According to Boltzmann, the atomic population at different energy levels at a given

temperature T is given by (Boltzmann distribution law)
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −(𝐸1 /𝑘𝑇) and 𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −(𝐸2 /𝑘𝑇) . where 𝑁0 is the total number of atoms and
k is the Boltzmann constant.
𝑁1 𝑒−(𝐸1/𝑘𝑇)
Dividing the above equations, = = 𝑒 (𝐸2−𝐸1/𝑘𝑇)
𝑁2 𝑒−(𝐸2/𝑘𝑇)
𝑁
or 𝑁1 = 𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) …….(5) (since 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈 )
2

𝑁 𝐴21 1
substituting for 𝑁1 from (5) in (4) we get 𝜌(𝜈) = [ ]…..(6)
2 𝐵21 (𝐵12 𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) − 1)
𝐵 21
The energy density of radiation at a given temperature as per Planck’s radiation formula is

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 3

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

8𝜋ℎ𝜈3 1
𝜌(𝜈) =
𝑐3
[(𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇)− 1)]…..(7)
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈3
Comparison of equations (6) and (7), we get = …..(8)
𝐵21 𝑐3
𝐵12
and = 1. This implies 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 …..(9)
𝐵21
𝐴21 1
By substituting (8) in (7) 𝜌(𝜈) = [(𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) − 1)]
𝐵21
𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝟐𝟏
Rearranging, we have
𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
=
𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝝆(𝝂)
= (𝒆(𝒉𝝂/𝒌𝑻) − 𝟏) ……(10)

𝐴21
Case 1 : If ℎ𝜈 > 𝑘𝑇, 𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) ≫ 1 From eqn. (10), ≫ 1 then spontaneous emission
𝐵21
probability is greater than stimulated emission probability which is the case in electronic
transition in atoms and molecules.
Case 2 : If ℎ𝜈 ≈ 𝑘𝑇, 𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) will be low and comparable to 1. Then 𝐴21 will be comparable
to 𝐵21 i.e. the phenomena of stimulated emission becomes significant.
ℎ𝜈
( ) 𝐴21
Case 3 : If ℎ𝜈 < 𝑘𝑇, (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) ≪ 1. From eqn. (10), ≪ 1, then stimulated emission
𝐵21
probability is greater than spontaneous emission probability which is the case in atomic
transitions in microwave regions and visible regions. This leads to laser action.

Population inversion
Consider a sample having a number of atoms in thermal equilibrium at a certain
temperature. If the number N1 of these atoms are in the ground state of energy E1 and the
number N2 are in a state of higher energy E2 then according to Boltzmann’s law
N2  − (E 2 − E1 ) 
= exp  
N1  kT 
Thus N2< N1. There will always be less atoms in the excited state than in the ground state.
The number of atoms present in a given energy state of a substance at thermal equilibrium
is called population of that energy state.
E2 E2
The condition when the number of atoms in
an excited state is more than that in the
ground state is called population E1 E1
inversion.

The process of supplying energy from an external source, to achieve population inversion in
a sample, is called pumping.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 4

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

The process in which the atoms in a given sample are raised to higher energy states using
light energy is called optical pumping. In this process, the sample is illuminated with light
of frequency  such that h = E2 - E1. The atoms in the ground state absorb the energy of
incident photons and jump to the higher energy state.
In an excited state, the atom remains for a short duration of time of around 10-8s.

An excited state in which atoms can stay for a comparatively longer duration of time of around
5ms is called metastable state.

Components of laser : The components of a laser are

(i) active medium – collection of atoms/molecules or ions in a solid, liquid or a gas capable
of amplifying light by way of population inversion.
(ii) the pumping source to achieve population inversion. This could be optical pumping
or electric discharge or any other method to move the atoms to metastable state from ground
state.
(iii) the optical resonator – a mechanism to retain the photons and make them move back
and forth in the active medium with the help of mirrors to achieve amplification.

Principle of Laser
The action of laser is based on stimulated emission and amplification of light. In producing
laser, the following conditions must be satisfied.
(1) State of population inversion,
(2) Existence of metastable state and
(3) confinement of emitted photons to achieve population inversion.

Laser action
Consider a system of atoms that exist in three different energy states namely, ground
state(E1), excited state (E2) and metastable state (E3) as shown in the diagram. In the excited
state an atom can E2 E2
non radiative non radiative
exist only for a time transition transition
interval of 10−8 s. In E3 E3
Photon (h)
Photon (h’) Photon (h)
the metastable state
an atom can remain E1
E1
stable for a longer
duration of time (5 ms).

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 5

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

(a) The system of atoms in the ground state are illuminated by radiation such that they get
excited and move to excited state (E2) by absorbing photons of energy h' = E2 − E1 . This is
called optical pumping.
(b) Since the life of excited atoms is very small, they jump to metastable state (E3) by non
radiative transition. The atoms can remain in this metastable state for longer time. Thus
there will be more atoms in metastable state than in the ground state. Thus population
inversion is said to be achieved.
(c) The atoms in the metastable state are bombarded by photons each of energy h = E3 − E1
The atoms make transition to the ground state by stimulated emission. This results in
emission of photons each of energy h = E3 − E1 . These photons along with the bombarding
photons have same energy and are in same phase. Thus the number of photons is multiplied
by a factor of two. This process repeats and light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation or LASER occurs.

Ruby Laser
Construction :It is a three level solid state pulsed laser.
It consists of a ruby rod which is a crystal of aluminum
oxide with an addition of 0.01 to 0.05% chromium oxide.
Chromium ions (Cr3+) replace few aluminium atoms in
the crystal lattice. The ends of the ruby rod are optically
flat and perfectly parallel whose one end is fully silvered and the other end is partially
silvered. The rod is inside a glass tube around which there is a helical xenon flash tube that
acts as the optical pumping system.

E2
Working: non radiative
transition
1. Chromium ions are excited from level E1 E3
to E2 by the absorption of light of Photon (h’) Photon (h)
694.3 nm
wavelength 550 nm from the xenon flash 550 nm
E1
tube. These ions quickly undergo
transition to energy level E3 called metastable state by radiating heat. The life time of
this state is around 3 ms. Thus the population of the E3 state becomes more than that
of E1 state. This results in population inversion.
2. There will be some photons produced by spontaneous transition from E3 to E1 and
have a wavelength of 694.3 nm. These photons are reflected back and forth at the
silvered surfaces of the ruby rod.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 6

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

3. The photons that are moving parallel to the axis of the rod resonate and stimulate the
emission of similar other photons. The emitted photons multiply resulting in a beam
of photons that are moving parallel to the rod which are coherent and monochromatic.
When the beam develops sufficient intensity, it emerges from the partially silvered end
of the rod as Laser light.

Helium Neon Laser

Construction : A helium–neon laser or
He-Ne laser, is a four level gas laser
whose medium consists of a mixture of
helium and neon (in the ratio 10:1) inside
small bore capillary tube, excited by a DC
electrical discharge. The He-Ne laser
operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nm, in
the red part of the visible spectrum having a average power output of 50 mW. In He-Ne laser,
neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels suitable for laser transitions while
helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms.
Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube to send the electric current
through the gas mixture. These electrodes are connected to a DC power supply. The glass
tube (containing a mixture of helium and neon gas) is placed between two parallel mirrors
with the right mirror completely silvered and the left one partially silvered through which
laser light comes out.

Working :
1. When the power is switched on, a high voltage of
about 10 kV is applied across the gas mixture. The
electrons produced in the process of discharge are
accelerated between the electrodes through the gas
mixture which transfer some of their energy to the
helium atoms in the gas. As a result, electrons of
the helium atoms jumps to their 23S1 and 21S0
excited metastable states by absorbing energies of
19.78eV and 20.62eV energy respectively. These
energies are equal to the energy required to excite the Neon atoms to 4s and 5s states.
2. When the excited electrons of the helium atoms collide with the lower energy state
electrons of the neon atoms, they transfer energy to the neon atoms. As a result, the
lower energy state electrons of the neon atoms jumps into their excited
metastable states as energy levels of 5s2 and 4s2 excited levels of Neon atoms are

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 7

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

identical to that of metastable states of the helium atoms. Thus, helium atoms help
neon atoms in achieving population inversion.
3. After some period, the metastable state electrons of the neon atoms will spontaneously
fall into the next lower energy states by releasing photons. The Ne atom makes three
laser transitions as shown in the energy level diagram. The only transition that results
in light in the visible region is 5s to 3p transition resulting in light of wavelength
632.8 nm.
4. The photons emitted from the neon atoms will moves back and forth between two
mirrors until it stimulates other excited electrons of the neon atoms and causes them
to emit laser light of wavelength 632.8 nm.

Differences between Ruby laser and He – Ne laser

Ruby laser He –Ne laser
1 It is solid state laser Gas laser
2 It is a three level energy system It is four level energy system
3 It is a pulsed laser It is a continuous laser
4 Optical pumping is used for Electric discharge is used for
population inversion population inversion
5 Large heat is generated. Thus It does not get heated and can work
cooling mechanism is required. continuously. No cooling system
required.
6 Optical pumping is difficult as Due to the four level system is easier
more than half the atoms need to to excite the atoms
be excited from ground state.
7 High intense flash light is required Low power of 5W to 10W is sufficient
for pumping. for excitation.
8 Output power of laser is spikes of Output power is continuous laser of
104 to 105 W 0.5 mW to 50mW.
9 Wavelength of laser is 694.3nm Wavelength of laser is 632.8 nm

Properties of Laser
1. Laser light is highly monochromatic
2. Laser light is highly coherent
3. Laser light is highly directional
4. Laser light has high intensity
5. Laser light can be sharply focused

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 8

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

Monochromaticity
(a) Laser light consists of essentially one wavelength, having its origin in stimulated
emission from one set of atomic energy levels. This is possible because laser transition
involves well-defined energy levels.
(𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )
(b) Electromagnetic wave of frequency 𝜈 = only can be amplified, ∆𝜈 has a certain
ℎ
range which is called line width (range of frequencies or wavelengths) or bandwidth.
This line width is decided by various broadening factors such as Doppler effect of
moving atoms and molecules.
(c) The generation of laser is such that the laser cavity forms a resonant system and laser
oscillation is sustained only at the resonant frequencies of the cavity. This leads to
further narrowing of the laser line width. So laser light is usually very pure in
wavelength, having property of narrow linewidth and high monochromaticity. For a He-
Ne laser of wavelength of 632.8nm the wavelength bandwidth is about 0.01nm

Coherence : During the stimulated emission, a passing excited photon stimulates a

transition from a higher level to the lower level, thus resulting in the emission of two photons,
The two emitted photons are said to be in phase, which means that the crest or the trough
of the wave associated with one photon will occur at the same time as on the wave associated
with the other photon. An avalanche of similar photons is created and these photons have a
fixed phase relationship with each other. They are said to possess the property of coherence.
This fixed phase relationship between the photons results in laser beam.

A wave which appears to be a pure sine wave for an infinitely large period of time or in an
infinity extended space is said to be a perfectly coherent wave. In such a wave there is a
definite relationship between 1. phase of wave and a given time and at a certain time later
(Temporal) and 2. Phase of a wave at a point and at a certain distance away (Spatial).

There are two types of coherence –spatial coherence and temporal coherence

Spatial Coherence : A beam of light is said to be spatially coherent, if the phase difference
of the waves crossing two points lying on a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the beam is independent of time. It is the measure of Correlation between waves at different
points in space.
To understand coherence, let us take two points on a wave front, at time equal to zero. There
will be a certain phase difference between these two points and if it remains same even after
lapse of a period of time, then the electromagnetic wave (em) has perfect coherence between
the two points. In case, the phase difference remains same for any two points anywhere on
the wave front, then we say that the electromagnetic wave has perfect spatial coherence,
where as if this is true only for a specific area, then the electromagnetic wave is said to have

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 9

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

only partial spatial coherence. Spatial coherence is related to directionality and uniphase
wave fronts.

Temporal Coherence : Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation

between the value of a wave and itself delayed by a time τ, at any pair of times. Temporal
coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. In other words, it characterizes how well
a wave can interfere with itself at a different time.

Coherent time τc : The time during which the phase or amplitude of a wave remains constant
before it undergoes change is called coherent time. At a delay of τ=0 the degree of coherence
is perfect, whereas it drops significantly as the delay passes τ = τc.
The coherence length Lc is defined as the distance the wave travels in time τc. It is the
distance travelled by the wave during which the phase or the amplitude of the wave remains
constant. It is given by 𝑳𝒄 = 𝒄 𝝉𝒄 where c is the speed of light.
𝑐 𝜆2
In radio band systems, the coherent length is approximates 𝐿𝐶 = = where n is the
𝑛 ∆𝑓 𝑛 ∆𝜆
refractive index of the medium and ∆𝑓 is the bandwidth. For a laser 𝐿𝐶 is very large.
The coherence length can be measured using a Michelson interferometer and is the optical
path length difference of a self-interfering laser beam which corresponds to a 1/e =
𝐼 − 𝐼
37% fringe visibility, where the fringe visibility is defined as 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 where 𝐼 is the
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
fringe intensity.

Note : 1. A wave containing only a single frequency (monochromatic) is perfectly correlated with itself
at all time delays.
2. Conversely, a wave whose phase drifts quickly will have a short coherence time.
3. Pulses (wave packets) of waves, which naturally have a broad range of frequencies, also have a
short coherence time since the amplitude of the wave changes quickly.
4. White light, which has a very broad range of frequencies, is a wave which varies quickly in both
amplitude and phase. Since it consequently has a very short coherence time (just 10 periods or so),
it is often called incoherent.
5. Monochromatic sources are usually lasers; such high monochromaticity implies long coherence
lengths (up to hundreds of meters). For example, a stabilized and mono mode helium–neon laser can
easily produce light with coherence lengths of 300 m. LEDs are characterized by Δλ ≈ 50 nm, and
tungsten filament lights exhibit Δλ ≈ 600 nm, so these sources have shorter coherence times than the
most monochromatic lasers.
An 800 nm laser diode with a 1 nm spectral width would have a coherence length of about 0.64 mm.
A 600 nm LED with a spectral width of 60 nm would have a coherence length of around 6 μm.

Directionality : One of the important properties of laser is its high directionality. The mirrors
placed at opposite ends of a laser cavity enables the beam to travel back and forth in order

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 10

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

to gain intensity by the stimulated emission of more photons at the same wavelength, which
results in increased amplification due to the longer path length through the medium. The
multiple reflections also produce a well-collimated beam, because only photons traveling
parallel to the cavity walls will be reflected from both mirrors. If the light is the slightest bit
off axis, it will be lost from the beam. The resonant cavity, thus, makes certain that only
electromagnetic waves traveling along the optic axis can be sustained, consequent building
of the gain.

Beam divergence : The oscillation of the beam in the resonator cavity produces a narrow
beam that subsequently diverges at some angle depending on the resonator design, the size
of the output aperture, and resulting diffraction effects on the beam. These diffraction effects
usually referred as a beam-spreading effect are a result of the light waves passing through a
small opening. These diffraction phenomena impose a limit on the minimum diameter of a
light point after passing through an optical system. For a laser, the beam emerging from the
output mirror can be thought of as the opening or aperture, and the diffraction effects on the
beam by the mirror will limit the minimum divergence and spot size of the beam.

The divergence angle describes the directionality of the laser. For a perfect spatially coherent
1.22𝜆
laser beam, the diffraction limited divergence angle θ is given by 𝑑𝜃 = where d is the
𝑑
diameter of the front mirror. In case of gas lasers 𝑑𝜃 is as small as 10-5 to 10-6 radian.

The optical intensity I, of a laser beam, is the optical power per unit area, which is
transmitted through an imagined surface perpendicular to the propagation direction. The
units of the optical intensity (or light intensity) are W/m2 or (more commonly) W/cm2.

It's the coherent, organized property of laser light that makes it capable of delivering a high
amount of energy in a small beam. In the case of visible lasers, this makes the laser beam
very bright and intense. Due to the laser light's parallelism, it can be focused very efficiently
compared with other types of light.

Estimation of Intensity and energy density :

For a plane electromagnetic wave generated by a continuous wave laser, the
𝐸𝐵 𝐸
intensity (power per unit area) has a magnitude: 𝐼 = 𝜇 , But 𝐵 = 𝑐 ,
0
𝐸2 𝑐𝐵2
The magnitude of instantaneous intensity is 𝐼 = =
𝑐 𝜇0 𝜇0
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑐 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
The average intensity is 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = = =
𝜇0 2𝜇0 2𝑐𝜇0 2𝜇0
𝜀0 𝐸2 𝐵2 𝐵2
The energy density, in units of J/m3, is: 𝑢 = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵 = + = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 =
2 2 𝜇0 𝜇0
Exactly half the energy in an EM wave is in the electric field, and half in the magnetic field.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 11

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

Applications of Laser
1. Laser is used in laser Raman spectroscopy to understand the molecular structure.
2. The distance between two objects can be found accurately using laser reflectors.
3. They are used for cutting, drilling and welding of hard materials.
4. Lasers are used optical communication systems.
5. Lasers are extensively used in holography and its applications.
6. Laser is used in the measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere and water.
7. Lasers are used to read compact discs.
8. In surgery, control of bleeding is achieved with the use of laser where minimally
invasive surgical techniques are used. Lasers are used in bloodless surgery to correct
eye disorders, to cut or destroy tissues that are abnormal, to shrink or destroy tumors
or lesions etc…
9. Holography is the science of making holograms. Typically, a hologram is a
photographic recording of a light field, rather than of an image formed by a lens, and
it is used to display a fully three-dimensional image of the holographed subject, which
is seen without the aid of special glasses. In its pure form, holography requires the use
of laser light for illuminating the subject and for viewing the finished hologram. In laser
holography, the hologram is recorded using a source of laser light, which is very pure
in its color and orderly in its composition. All holograms involve the interaction of light
coming from different directions and producing a microscopically fine interference
pattern which a plate, film, or other medium photographically records.

Descriptive questions
1. (a) Explain stimulated absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation with the help
of energy level diagram.
(b) What is the principle of working of a laser?

2 (a) What is stimulated emission of radiation? Explain.

(b) Derive the relation between transition probabilities of spontaneous and stimulated emissions
in terms of Einstein coefficients.

3. (a) What is population inversion? Explain.

(b) Explain the working of a laser.

4 (a) Mention four characteristic properties of laser light.

(b) Describe the construction and working of He – Ne laser. Also draw the energy level diagram.

5 (a) Describe the construction and working of a Ruby laser. Explain the energy level diagram
(b) Mention any two applications of Laser light.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 12

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

6 (a) What are spatial and temporal coherence? Explain.

(b) What are coherence time and coherence length? Explain.
(c) Write a note on directionality and divergence of laser.

Numerical problems
1 A laser beam with power per pulse 2 mW lasts for 10 ns, contains 7.5 × 107 photons per
pulse. Calculate the wavelength of laser light.
𝐸 𝑛ℎ𝑐
[ 𝑃= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸= 𝜆 = 745 nm ]
𝑡 𝜆

2 Calculate the energy difference in eV between two levels of a gas laser, the transition
between which results in the emission of light of wavelength 634.8 nm. Also calculate the
number of photons emitted per second if the optical power output is 1.2 mW.
ℎ𝑐 𝑃
[ ∆𝐸 = , 𝑛= . ∆E = 1.95 eV, n = 3.87 × 1015 ]
𝜆 ∆𝐸

3 The ratio of population in upper to lower energy states at room temperature of 300K is
1/e. Determine the wavelength of radiation emitted at room temperature, given ℎ =
6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1 .
𝑁2 𝑁2 1 1 1 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 ℎ𝑐
[ = 𝑒 − (𝐸2− 𝐸1)/𝑘𝑇 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = , 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 = 𝑜𝑟 1 = 𝑜𝑟 1 = , 𝜆 = 53.8 𝜇𝑚.
𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )/𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇𝜆

4 At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of the number of spontaneous to stimulated emissions is

found to be 1010 at a frequency of 5 × 1014 Hz. Find the ratio of the number of atoms in the
higher level to the lower level in a 2 – level system at equilibrium.
[ 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝜌(𝜈) = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜈) and 𝐵12 = 𝐵21. Thus 𝐵21 𝑁1 𝜌(𝜈) = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜈)
𝐵12 𝑁1 𝜌(𝜈) 𝑁2 𝐵12 𝜌(𝜈) 𝑁2 1 1
𝑁2 = Thus = , = 𝐴21 = = 10−10 ]
𝐴21 + 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈) 𝑁1 𝐴21 + 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈) 𝑁1 +1 1010 +1
𝐵12 𝜌(𝜈)

5 Calculate the ratio of stimulated to the spontaneous emission rate at a temperature of

2500C for sodium D line of 590 nm.
𝐴21 𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
[ As = (𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) − 1) 𝑅= = = = 𝑬𝟒𝟔.𝟕 −𝟏 = 5.23 × 10−21 ]
𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈) 𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝒆(𝒉𝝂/𝒌𝑻) −𝟏 𝒆(𝒉𝒄𝝀/𝒌𝑻) −𝟏

6 At what temperature are the rates of spontaneous and stimulated emission are equal
? Given ∶ 𝜆 = 500 nm.
𝐴21 ℎ𝑐
[ = 1 = (𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇) − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 (𝑇) = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝜆𝑘𝑇 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 T = 46,633 K ]
𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈)

7 A laser source emits wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 5 mW. How many
photons are emitted per second by this laser?
ℎ𝑐 𝑃
[ 𝐸= = 3.148 × 10−19 𝐽, 𝑛= = 1.59 × 1016 ]
𝜆 𝐸

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 13

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : LASER & POLARISATION

8 In a He – Ne laser, transition from 5S – 3P level gives a laser emission of wavelength 632.8

nm. If the 3P level has energy 15.2 × 10−19 J, calculate the pumping energy required,
assuming no loss.
ℎ𝑐
[𝐸 = = 3.148 × 10−19 𝐽, 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 15.2 × 10−19 + 3.15 × 10−19 = 18.35 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆

9 A pulse from a laser with 1mW power lasts for 10 ns. If the number of photons emitted per
second is 3.491 × 107 , calculate the wavelength of laser.
𝑃 1×10−3 ×10 ×10−9 ℎ𝑐
[ 𝐸= = = 2.864 × 10−19 , 𝜆 = = 694.26 𝑛𝑚 ]
𝑛 3.491×107 𝐸

10 In a Ruby laser, the total number of Cr ions is 2.8 × 1019 . If the laser emits radiation of
wavelength 700 nm, calculate the energy of the laser pulse in eV.
ℎ𝑐
[ 𝐸= = 1.77 𝑒𝑉, 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸 × 𝑛 = 4.95 × 1019 𝑒𝑉 ]
𝜆×1.6×10−19

11 Estimate the order of magnitude of the standing waves in a laser when the length of
resonating cavity is 1 m and wavelength is 632.8 nm.
𝑛𝜆
[ Length of resonating cavity = integral multiples of 𝜆/2. L= , 𝑛 = 3.16 × 106 ]
2

12 Determine the intensity of a laser beam of power 50 mW having a diameter of 1.5 mm.
Assume the intensity across the beam is uniform.
𝑃 𝑃 4𝑃
[𝐼= = = = 2.8 × 104 𝑊𝑚−2 ]
𝐴 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋𝑑2

13 A ruby laser emits light of wavelength 694 nm. The duration of pulses is 0.1 ns. Calculate
the coherent length, bandwidth and linewidth.
1 𝜆2
[ 𝐿𝐶 = 𝑐 𝜏𝑐 = 0.03 𝑚, 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ∆𝜈 = = 1010 𝐻𝑧, 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = ∆𝜆 = ∆𝜈 = 0.016 𝑛𝑚 ]
𝜏𝑐 𝑐

14 A laser beam of wavelength 694.3 nm is focused on a surface area of 0.25 mm diameter.

If the power of the laser source is 10 mW, Calculate the intensity and energy of the emitted
photons.
𝑃 4𝑃 ℎ𝑐
[ 𝐼= = 𝜋𝑑2 = 2.05 × 105 𝑊𝑚−2 , 𝐸 = = 2.86 × 10−19 𝐽 ]
𝐴 𝜆

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College 14