Total Quality Management

Module IV

Contents:
1. The seven traditional tools of quality management
2. New management tools
3. Six Sigma-Concepts, methodology, applications to manufacturing, Bench marking process, evaluation
4. FMEA -stages
 Seven Basic Tools of Quality Control:
The Appropriate Techniques for Solving Quality Problems in the Organizations

Introduction:
➢ Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa was first total quality management guru, who has been associated with the development and advocacy
of using the seven-quality control (QC) tools in the organizations for problem solving and process improvements.
➢ Seven old quality control tools are a set of the QC tools that can be used for improving the performance of the production
processes, from the first step of producing a product or service to the last stage of production.
➢ These tools have the significant roles to monitor, obtain, analyze data for detecting and solving the problems of production
processes, to facilitate the achievement of performance excellence in the organizations.
➢ The first guru who proposed seven basic quality tools was Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1968, by publishing a book entitled
“Gemba no QC Shuho”.
➢ These seven basic quality control tools, which introduced by Dr. Ishikawa, are :
1) Check sheets;
2) Graphs (Trend Analysis);
3) Histograms;
4) Pareto charts;
5) Cause-and-effect diagrams;
6) Scatter diagrams;
7) Control charts. Figure 1 indicates the relationships among these seven tools and their utilizations
for the identification and analysis of improvement of quality (Kerzner, 2009).
1. Check Sheet:
➢ Check sheets are simple forms with certain formats that can aid the user to record data in a firm systematically.
➢ Data are “collected and tabulated” on the check sheet to record the frequency of specific events during a data collection
period.
➢ They prepare a “consistent, effective, and economical approach” that can be applied in the auditing of quality assurance for
reviewing and to follow the steps in a particular process.
➢ They are efficient and powerful tools to identify frequently problems, but they dont have effective ability to analyze the
quality problem into the workplace.
➢ The check sheets are in several, three major types are such as
▪ Defect-location check sheets; tally check sheets, and; defect-cause check sheets (Kerzner, 2009).

Figure 2: Check sheet (Tally) for telephone interruptions

2. Histogram:
➢ Histogram is very useful tool to describe a sense of the frequency distribution of observed values of a variable.
➢ It is a type of bar chart that visualizes both attribute and variable data of a product or process, also assists users to show the
distribution of data and the amount of variation within a process.
➢ It displays the different measures of central tendency (mean, mode, and average).
➢ Figure 3 illustrates a histogram of the frequency of defects in a manufacturing process.

Figure 3: Histogram for variables

How to make a histogram?
7steps for histogram 2. Compute the range:
➢ Data collection ✓ Largest value=442
➢ Compute the range ✓ Smallest Value=204
➢ Determine the number of intervals ✓ Range of Values=442-204=238
➢ Determine the interval width
➢ Summarized the records
➢ Construct the graph 3. Determine the number of intervals required:
➢ Analyze the pattern of the chart
Data points Interval
1. Data Collection:
✓ For better analysis and forecasting of the process Less than 50 5 to 7
collect at least 100 record points. 50 to 99 6 to 10
✓ Here we take an example of 150 points for making a 100 to 250 7 to 12
chart
More than 250 10 to 20

4. Determine interval widths:

𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒔 = = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖
𝟏𝟎

Round up to 25
5. Summarized the data:
Count 3 5 7 27 29 36 29 8 3 3
Range 200-225 226-250 251-275 276-300 301-325 326-350 351-375 376-400 401-425 426-450
Value

6. Construct the graph:

7. Analyze the graph pattern:
✓ Central tendency
✓ Process variation
✓ Histogram Shape
✓ Process capability (Comparison with the specification)
3. Pareto Analysis:
➢ It introduced by an Italian economist, named Vilfredo
Pareto, who worked with income and other unequal
distributions in 19th century, he noticed that 80% of the
wealth was owned by only 20% of the population.
➢ Later, Pareto principle was developed by Juran in 1950.
A Pareto chart is a special type of histogram that can
easily be apply to find and prioritize quality problems,
conditions, or their causes of in the organization (Juran
and Godfrey, 1998)..
➢ On the other hand, it is a type of bar chart that shows
the relative importance of variables, prioritized in
descending order from left to right side of the chart.
➢ The aim of Pareto chart is to figure out the different
kind of “nonconformity” from data figures,
maintenance data, repair data, parts scrap rates, or other
sources.
➢ Also, Pareto chart can generate a mean for
investigating concerning quality improvement, and
improving efficiency, “material waste, energy
Figure 4: Pareto Charts
conservation, safety issues, cost reductions”, etc., as
Figure 4 demonstrated concerning Pareto chart, it can
able to improve the production before and after
changes (Montgomery, 2009; Kerzner, 2009;
Omachonu and Ross, 2004).
Fishbone Diagram:
➢ Cause and effect diagram was developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943.
➢ It has also two other names that are Ishikawa diagram and fishbone because the shape of the diagram looks like the skeleton
of a fish to identify quality problems based on their degree of importance (Neyestani, 2017)
➢ The cause and effect diagram is a problem-solving tool that investigates and analizes systematically all the potential or real
causes that result in a single effect.
➢ On the other hand, it is an efficient tool that equips the organization’s management to explore for the possible causes of a
problem (Juran and Godfrey, 1998).
➢ This diagram can provide the problem-solving efforts by “gathering and organizing the possible causes, reaching a common
understanding of the problem, exposing gaps in existing knowledge, ranking the most probable causes, and studying each
cause” (Omachonu and Ross, 2004).
➢ The generic categories of the cause and effect diagram are usually six elements (causes) such as environment, materials,
machine, measurement, man, and method, as indicated in Figure 5.

Figure 5: The cause and effect

diagram (Fishbone Diagram)
Scatter Diagram:
➢ Scatter diagram is a powerful tool to draw the distribution of information in two dimensions, which helps to detect and
analyze a pattern relationships between two quality and compliance variables (as an independent variable and a dependent
variable), and understanding if there is a relationship between them, so what kind of the relationship is (Weak or strong
and positive or negative).
➢ The shape of the scatter diagram often shows the degree and direction of relationship between two variables, and the
correlation may reveal the causes of a problem.
➢ Scatter diagrams are very useful in regression modeling (Montgomery, 2009; Oakland, 2003).
➢ The scatter diagram can indicate that there is which one of these following correlation between two variables: a) Positive
correlation; b) Negative correlation, and c) No correlation, as demonstrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Scatter Diagrams

Flowchart:
➢ Flowchart presents a diagrammatic picture that indicates a series of symbols to describe the sequence of steps exist in an
operation or process.
➢ On the other hand, a flowchart visualize a picture including the inputs, activities, decision points, and outputs for using and
understanding easily concerning the overall objective through process.
➢ This chart as a problem solving tool can apply methodically to detect and analyze the areas or points of process may have
had potential problems by “documenting” and explaining an operation, so it is very useful to find and improve quality into
process (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011), as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Flow chart of review process

Control Chart:
➢ Control chart or Shewhart control chart was introduced and developed by Walter A. Shewhart in the 1920s at the Bell
Telephone Laboratories, and is likely the most “technically sophisticated” for quality management (Montgomery, 2009).
➢ Control charts is a special form of “run chart that it illustrates the amount and nature of variation in the process over time”.
Also, it can draw and describe what has been happening in the process.
➢ Therefore, it is very important to apply control chart, because it can observe and monitor process to study process that is in
“statistical control” (No problem with quality) accordant to the samplings or samplings are between UCL and LCL (upper
control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL)).
➢ “statistical control” is not between UCL and LCL, so it means the process is out of control, then control can be applied to
find causes of quality problem, as shown in Figure 8 that A point is in control and B point is out of control. In addition, this
chart can be utilized for estimating “the parameters” and “ reducing the variability” in a process (Omachonu and Ross,
2004).
➢ The main aim of control chart is to prevent the defects in process.
➢ It is very essentially for different businesses and industries, the reason is that unsatisfactory products or services are more
costed than spending expenses of prevention by some tools like control charts (Juran and Godfrey, 1998).
➢ A Control Chart is presented in the following Figure.
Figure 8: The Shewhart control chart