Prepared by:

ENGR. JACK O. BERTULFO

Faculty, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER
➢ Heat Transfer is the basic
science that deals with
the rate of transfer of
thermal energy.

➢ It plays a crucial role in

the design of vehicles,
power plants,
refrigerators, electronic
devices, buildings,
bridges, etc.
 I. THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

❑ Heat – a form of energy that can be transferred from one system to

another as a result of temperature difference.

❑ Heat Transfer - science that deals with the determination of the rates of
energy
How is heat
transferred
in this The basic requirement for heat
figure? transfer is the presence of
temperature difference.
 Application Areas of Heat Transfer
❑ ordinary household appliances
electric or gas range,
heating and air-conditioning system,
refrigerator and freezer,
water heater, iron, computer, TV

❑ car radiators, solar collectors,

❑ various components of power plants,

❑ Spacecraft

❑ insulation thickness in walls and roofs on hot water or steam pipes, or on

water heaters
 Historical Background
➢ middle of 19th century
Heat was defined as the energy associated with the random motion
of atoms and molecules

➢ Caloric theory proposed by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–

1794) in 1789.

➢ The caloric theory states that heat is a fluid-like substance called the
caloric that is a massless, colorless, odorless, and tasteless substance that
can be poured from one body into another

➢ In 1798, Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) (1753–1814) showed in his

papers that heat can be generated continuously through friction.
 Historical Background
➢ The validity of the caloric theory was also challenged by several
others.

➢ In 1843, through careful experiments of James P. Joule (1818–1889), he

finally convinced the skeptics that heat was not a substance after all,
and put the caloric theory to rest.
 II. Engineering Heat Transfer
❑ Heat transfer equipment are designed primarily on the basis of heat
transfer analysis.

❑ Some of these are the following:

1. heat exchangers,
2. boilers,
3. condensers,
4. radiators,
5. heaters,
6. furnaces,
7. refrigerators,
8. solar collectors
BOILERS SOLAR
COLLECTORS
 The heat transfer problems encountered in practice:
(1)rating and
(2)sizing problems.

❑ Rating problems
deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing
system at a specified temperature difference.

❑ Sizing problems
deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature
difference.
 III. Heat and other Forms of Energy
❑ Energy can exist in numerous forms.
e.g. thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electrical,
magnetic, chemical, nuclear, etc.

❑ Total energy - sum of all forms of energy of a system.

❑ Microscopic energy - forms of energy related to the molecular

structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity. Did you know?
“e.g. is a Latin
abbreviation for
❑ Internal energy (U) - sum of all microscopic exempli gratia
and means “for
forms of energy of a system example.”
❑ SI unit of energy - Joule (J) where: 1 kJ = 1000 J

❑English unit of energy- British thermal unit (Btu)

❑BTU is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of

water at 60°F by 1°F.

1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ

❑Another unit of energy is calorie.

❑Calorie is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1

gram of water at 14.5°C by 1°C.

1 cal = 4.1868 J
❑ Sensible energy or Sensible heat
portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the
kinetic energy of the molecules

High T → High KE of molecules → High U

❑ Internal energy
sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.
associated with the intermolecular forces between the molecules
of a system.

❑ Latent energy or Latent heat

internal energy associated with the phase of a system

❑ Chemical energy
internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule
❑ Nuclear energy
internal energy associated with the bonds within the nucleus of the
atom itself

❑ In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow:

h = u + Pv or H = U + PV

Where: h – specific enthalpy H - enthalpy

u – specific internal energy U - enthalpy
P – pressure V - volume
v – specific volume

❑ Flow energy (Pv)

energy needed to push a fluid and maintain flow
 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Do you
Pv = RT or P = ρRT or PV = mRT remember
what
equation is
❑ At low P and high T, the ρ of a gas decreases and this?
the gas behaves like an ideal gas.

❑ Specific heat
energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree

Specific heat at constant volume (Cv)

Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)

For ideal gases: C p = C v + R ; Unit: kJ/kg K

Where: C p - Specific heat at constant pressure

C v - Specific heat at constant volume
R – gas constant

❑ The specific heat of a substance depends on T & P

❑ The specific heat of an ideal gas depend on T only

❑ At low P, all real gases approach ideal gas behavior, and therefore
their specific heats depend on temperature only.
❑The equation for internal energy (U) and enthalpy (H) in
terms of specific heat is given by:

∆𝐔 = 𝐦𝐂𝐯∆𝐓 Unit: J or kJ
∆𝐇 = 𝐦𝐂𝐩∆𝐓 Unit: J or kJ

❑Incompressible substance
substance whose specific volume (or density) does not
change with temperature or pressure

C p =Cv = C
 Energy Transfer
❑ Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two mechanisms,
heat (Q) and work (W).

❑ Power (𝐖) - work per unit time

❑ Unit: J/s or W
kJ/s or kW
hp, where: 1 hp = 746 Watts = 550 ft-lb/s

❑ Recall that work is defined as the measure of energy transfer that occurs
when an object is moved over a distance by an external force at least
part of which is applied in the direction of the displacement. (W = Fd)
❑ Examples of engineering systems that produce
work:

Hydraulic turbines

Steam turbines

Car engines
❑ Examples of engineering systems that consume
work:

mixers

compressors

pumps
❑ Heat transfer rate (𝑸)

❑Heat flux is the rate of heat transfer per unit area

normal to the direction of heat transfer.

𝑸
𝒒= ; Unit: W/m2 ; Btu/h ft2
𝑨
 Sample Problem No. 1
Heating of a Copper Ball

A 10-cm diameter copper ball is to be heated from 100°C to an

average temperature of 150°C in 30 minutes. Taking the average
density and specific heat of copper in this temperature range to
be ρ = 8950 kg/m3 and C p = 0.395 kJ/kg·°C, respectively,
determine
(a) the total amount of heat transfer to the copper ball,
(b) the average rate of heat transfer to the ball, and
(c) the average heat flux.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics

❑ The first law of thermodynamics, also known as

conservation of energy principle, states that

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only

change forms.”
Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)

❑ For stationary closed system, no work:

Δ U =Q – W
Δ U =Q
Q =m Cv Δ T

Where: Q - heat
m - mass
Cv - specific heat at constant volume
Δ T - change in temperature

SI Unit: kJ
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems

❑ A large number of engineering devices such as water heaters and

car radiators involve mass flow in and out of a system, and are
modeled as control volumes.

❑ Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating

conditions.

❑ The term steady means no change with time at a specified

location.

❑ The opposite of steady is unsteady or transient.

❑ The total energy content of a control volume during a steady-flow

process remains constant (ECV = constant).
❑ That is, the change in the total energy of the control volume
during such a process is zero (ECV =0).

❑ The amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms (heat,

work, mass transfer) for a steady-flow process must be equal to the
amount of energy leaving it.

❑ The amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a flow device

per unit time is called the mass flow rate, and is denoted by 𝒎.

𝑚 = ρ 𝐴 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 ; Unit: kg/s

❑ The volume of a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct per unit time
is called the volume flow rate, 𝑽.

𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 ; Unit: 𝑚3/s

❑ Mass flow rate of a fluid through a pipe or duct remains constant
during steady flow.

❑ This is not the case for volume flow rate, however, unless the
density of the fluid remains constant.

❑ For a steady-flow system with one inlet and one exit:

𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎

❑ Energy balance for such a steady-flow system:

𝑸 = 𝒎 𝜟𝒉 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑𝜟𝑻
Surface energy balance
❑ It is necessary to keep track of the
energy interactions at the surface,
and this is done by applying the
conservation of energy principle
to the surface.

𝐄𝐢𝐧 = 𝐄𝐨𝐮𝐭
❑ This is valid for both steady and
transient conditions, and the
surface energy balance does not
involve heat generation since a
surface does not have a volume.
 Sample Problem No. 2

Heating of Water in an Electric Teapot

1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15°C is to be heated to 95°C in a

teapot equipped with a 1200-W electric heating element inside.
The teapot is 0.5 kg and has an average
specific heat of 0.7 kJ/kg · °C. Taking the
specific heat of water to be 4.18 kJ/kg · °C
and disregarding any heat loss from the
teapot, determine how long it will take
for the water to be heated.
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
❑ The science that deals with the determination of the rates of energy
transfers is heat transfer.

❑ The transfer of energy as heat is ALWAYS from the higher - temperature

medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when
the two mediums reach the same temperature.
Do you remember
the zeroth law of
thermodynamics?
What does it say?

❑ Heat can be transferred in three different modes namely conduction,

convection, and radiation.
 Conduction
❑ Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles.

❑ Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

❑ In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and

diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.

❑ In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules

in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
❑ The rate of heat transfer by conduction through a medium depends on
the
- geometry of the medium,
- thickness,
- material of the medium,
- temperature difference

𝐐𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 = −𝐤𝐀 𝐝𝐭 = −𝐤𝐀 𝚫𝐓

; Unit: kW
𝐝𝐱 𝚫𝐱

❑ This equation is known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction after J.

Fourier, who expressed it first in his heat transfer text in 1822.

❑ Where: 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = rate of heat transfer by conduction

k = thermal conductivity of the
material, dt/dx = temperature gradient
A= area
❑Thermal conductivity (k) - measure of
the ability of a material to conduct
heat.

❑Heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature, and the
temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature
decreases with increasing x.

❑The negative sign ensures that heat

transfer in the positive x direction is a
positive quantity.
 𝐝𝐭 𝚫𝐓 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐)
𝐐𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 = −𝐤𝐀 = −𝐤𝐀 = −𝐤𝐀 = 𝐤𝐀
𝐝𝐱 𝚫𝐱 𝜟𝒙 𝜟𝒙

Take note of the slight difference of

these two equations:
T1 = higher temperature
T2 = lower temperature

Either way, the resulting rate of

heat transfer by conduction in the
positive x direction is POSITIVE.
Refer to figure from previous slide.
 Sample Problem No. 3
The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof

The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m

thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is
k = 0.8 W/m · °C. The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of
the roof one night are measured to be
15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of
10 hours. Determine

(a) the rate of heat loss through the

roof that night and
(b) the cost of that heat loss to the
home owner if the cost of electricity
is $0.08/kWh.
 Thermal conductivity
❑ The thermal conductivity (k) of a material can be defined as

- the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the

material
per unit area per unit temperature difference.

- it is the measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat.

❑ High value of thermal conductivity means the material is a good heat

conductor.

❑ Low value of thermal conductivity means the materials is poor heat

conductor or simply an insulator.
Prepared By: Engr. Cindy May C. Belivestre
Which material in this
table is the best
conductor of heat?

Which is the best

insulator in the given
table ?
 This graph shows the variation of the
thermal conductivity of various solids,
liquids, and gases with temperature

What is the material at

T = 800 K with thermal
conductivity
k = 90 W/m℃?

Answer: Platinum
 Thermal Diffusivity

❑ Represents how fast heat diffuses through a material.

❑ It is the ratio of the heat conducted through the material to

the heat stored per unit volume.
➢ A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat
capacity will obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.

➢ The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of

heat into the medium.

➢ A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly

absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat will be
conducted further.
 Convection

❑ It is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and

the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion.

❑ It involves the combined effects

of conduction and fluid motion.

❑ The faster the fluid motion, the

greater the convection heat
transfer.
❑ Convection is governed by Newton’s law of cooling

Where:

h = convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2· °C or Btu/h· ft2· °F,

As = surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place,

Ts = surface temperature,

T∞ = temperature of the fluid far from the

surface.
 Sample Problem No. 4
Measuring Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at

15°C. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating,
and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 152°C in
steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through
the wire are measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively.
Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient
for heat transfer between the outer
surface of the wire and the air in the
room.
 Radiation
❑ It is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.

❑ Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation

does not require the presence of an intervening medium.

❑ In fact, energy transfer by radiation is the fastest (at the speed of light)
and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the
sun reaches the earth.

❑ In heat transfer studies we are interested in THERMAL RADIATION, which

is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature.
❑ Thermal radiation DIFFERS from other forms of electromagnetic radiation
such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television
waves that are not related to temperature.

❑ The rate of heat transfer by radiation (𝑸𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕 ) is governed by Stefan–

Boltzmann equation

❑ Where:
σ = Stefan–Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 · K4
= 0.1714 108 Btu/h · ft2 · R4
ε = emissivity of the surface with value 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1
As = surface area
Ts = surface temperature
➢ Emissivity
measure of how closely a
surface approximates a
blackbody for which ε = 1

➢ Blackbody
the idealized surface that
emits radiation at this
maximum rate

➢ Blackbody radiation
radiation emitted by a
blackbody
❑ Absorptivity
another important radiation property of a surface

the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that

is absorbed by the surface.

❑ Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 ≤ 𝜶 ≤ 𝟏

❑ A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it.

❑ That is, a blackbody is a perfect absorber (𝜶 = 1) as it is a perfect

emitter.

❑ The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is given by

The rate of heat transfer by radiation between the surface and
the surroundings
❑ Combined heat transfer coefficient (hcombined)
includes the effects of both convection and radiation.

❑ The total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by

convection and radiation

❑ Combined heat transfer coefficient is essentially a

convection heat transfer coefficient modified to include the
effects of radiation.
 Sample Problem No. 5
Radiation Effect on Thermal Comfort

Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 22°C at all times. The

inner surfaces of the walls, floors, and the ceiling of the house are
observed to be at an average temperature of
10°C in winter and 25°C in summer.

Determine the rate of radiation heat transfer

between this person and the surrounding surfaces
if the exposed surface area and the average
outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.4 m2 and 30°C, respectively.
 Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

❑ Not all three can exist simultaneously in a medium.

❑ A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection. For
example, the simultaneous heat transfer between the outer surfaces of
a cold piece of rock on the ground under sunlight.

❑ However, a solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or

radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surfaces. For
example, the simultaneous heat transfer between the outer surfaces of
a cold piece of rock on a floor without sunlight. Remember that air is a
fluid, hence the heat transfer involved → conduction & convection.
❑Heat transfer is
by conduction and possibly by radiation in a still fluid (no
bulk fluid motion)

by convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.

❑Convection can be viewed as combined conduction and

fluid motion

❑Conduction in a fluid can be viewed as a special case of

convection in the absence of any fluid motion.
 Sample Problem No. 6
Heat Loss from a Person

Consider a person standing in a

breezy room at 20°C. Determine the
total rate of heat transfer from this
person if the exposed surface area
and the average outer surface
temperature of the person are 1.6 m2
and 29°C, respectively, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is
6 W/m2 · °C
 Thank You
Next Topic: Heat Conduction Equation