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URL

URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. It is the resource

address on the internet. The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is created by Tim
Berners-Lee and the Internet Engineering working group in 1994.

URL is the character string (address) which is used to access data from the
internet. The URL is the type of URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).

Syntax of URL:

protocol://hostname/filename

( A protocol is the standard set of rules that are used to allow electronic devices to
communicate with each other.”

Protocol name

A colon followed by double forward-slash (://)

Hostname (domain name) or IP address

A colon followed by port number (optional – unless specified otherwise, “:80” is

the default when using HTTP, and “:443” is the default when using HTTPS)

Path of the file

Example:
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Email

Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic mode

over the internet. It offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of
distributing information among people.

E-Mail Address

Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account. This
name is known as E-mail address. Different users can send and receive messages
according to the e-mail address.

E-mail is generally of the form username@domainname.

For example, [email protected] is an e-mail address where

webmaster is username and tutorialspoint.com is domain name.

 The username and the domain name are separated by @ (at) symbol.
 E-mail addresses are not case sensitive.
 Spaces are not allowed in e-mail address.

E-mail Message Components

E-mail message comprises of different components: E-mail Header, Greeting,

Text, and Signature. These components are described in the following diagram:
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E-mail Header

The first five lines of an E-mail message is called E-mail header. The header part
comprises of following fields:

 From
 Date
 To
 Subject
 CC
 BCC
From
The From field indicates the sender’s address i.e. who sent the e-mail.
Date
The Date field indicates the date when the e-mail was sent.
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To
The To field indicates the recipient’s address i.e. to whom the e-mail is sent.
Subject
The Subject field indicates the purpose of e-mail. It should be precise.
CC
CC stands for Carbon copy. Recipient’s email address is entered in CC
field.Email is sent with visible CC recipient addresses. CC recipients receive
email, but are not expected to respond.
BCC
BCC stands for Blind Carbon Copy. Recipient’s email address is entered in BCC
field.Email is sent without displaying BCC recipient’s address.
BCC recipient receives email without seeing other recipients.
Greeting

Greeting is the opening of the actual message. Eg. Hi Sir or Hi Guys etc.

Text

It represents the actual content of the message.

Signature

This is the final part of an e-mail message. It includes Name of Sender, Address,
and Contact Number.

Advantages

E-mail has prooved to be powerful and reliable medium of commmunication. Here

are the benefits of E-mail:
 Reliable
 Convenience
 Speed
 Inexpensive
 Printable
 Global
 Generality
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Reliable

Many of the mail systems notify the sender if e-mail message was undeliverable.

Convenience

There is no requirement of stationary and stamps. One does not have to go to post
office. But all these things are not required for sending or receiving an mail.

Speed

E-mail is very fast. However, the speed also depends upon the underlying network.

Inexpensive

The cost of sending e-mail is very low.

Printable

It is easy to obtain a hardcopy of an e-mail. Also an electronic copy of an e-mail

can also be saved for records.

Global

E-mail can be sent and received by a person sitting across the globe.

Generality

It is also possible to send graphics, programs and sounds with an e-mail.

Disadvantages

Apart from several benefits of E-mail, there also exists some disadvantages as
discussed below:

 Forgery
 Overload
 Misdirection
 Junk
 No response
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Forgery

E-mail doesn’t prevent from forgery, that is, someone impersonating the sender,
since sender is usually not authenticated in any way.

Overload

Convenience of E-mail may result in a flood of mail.

Misdirection

It is possible that you may send e-mail to an unintended recipient.

Junk

Junk emails are undesirable and inappropriate emails. Junk emails are sometimes
referred to as spam.

No Response

It may be frustrating when the recipient does not read the e-mail and respond on a
regular basis.
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E-mail System

E-mail system comprises of the following three components:

 Mailer
 Mail Server
 Mailbox

Mailer

It is also called mail program, mail application or mail client. It allows us

to manage, read and compose e-mail.

Mail Server

The function of mail server is to receive, store and deliver the email. It is
must for mail servers to be Running all the time because if it crashes or is down,
email can be lost.

Mailboxes
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Mailbox is generally a folder that contains emails and information about

them.

Working of E-mail

Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the mailer
i.e. the mail application or mail program and server is a device that manages
emails.

Following example will take you through the basic steps involved in sending
and receiving emails and will give you a better understanding of working of email
system:

 Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.

 Person A composes the messages using a mailer program i.e. mail client and
then select Send option.
 The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to person B’s
mail server.
 The mail server stores the email message on disk in an area designated for
person B.

The disk space area on mail server is called mail spool.

 Now, suppose person B is running a POP client and knows how to

communicate with B’s mail server.
 It will periodically poll the POP server to check if any new email has arrived
for B.As in this case, person B has sent an email for person B, so email is
forwarded over the network to B’s PC. This is message is now stored on
person B’s PC.

E-mail Protocols are set of rules that help the client to properly transmit the
information to or from the mail server. Here in this tutorial, we will discuss various
protocols such as SMTP, POP, and IMAP.

SMTP

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It was first proposed in
1982. It is a standard protocol used for sending e-mail efficiently and reliably over
the internet.
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Key Points:
 SMTP is application level protocol.
 SMTP is connection oriented protocol.
 SMTP is text based protocol.
 It handles exchange of messages between e-mail servers over TCP/IP
network.
 Apart from transferring e-mail, SMPT also provides notification regarding
incoming mail.
 When you send e-mail, your e-mail client sends it to your e-mail server
which further contacts the recipient mail server using SMTP client.
 These SMTP commands specify the sender’s and receiver’s e-mail address,
along with the message to be send.
 The exchange of commands between servers is carried out without
intervention of any user.
 In case, message cannot be delivered, an error report is sent to the sender
which makes SMTP a reliable protocol.

IMAP

IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It was first proposed in
1986. There exist five versions of IMAP as follows:
1. Original IMAP
2. IMAP2
3. IMAP3
4. IMAP2bis
5. IMAP4
Key Points:
 IMAP allows the client program to manipulate the e-mail message on the
server without downloading them on the local computer.
 The e-mail is hold and maintained by the remote server.
 It enables us to take any action such as downloading, delete the mail without
reading the mail.It enables us to create, manipulate and delete remote
message folders called mail boxes.
 IMAP enables the users to search the e-mails.
 It allows concurrent access to multiple mailboxes on multiple mail servers.

POP
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POP stands for Post Office Protocol. It is generally used to support a single
client. There are several versions of POP but the POP 3 is the current standard.

Key Points
 POP is an application layer internet standard protocol.
 Since POP supports offline access to the messages, thus requires less
internet usage time.
 POP does not allow search facility.
 In order to access the messaged, it is necessary to download them.
 It allows only one mailbox to be created on server.
 It is not suitable for accessing non mail data.
 POP commands are generally abbreviated into codes of three or four letters.
Eg. STAT.

Comparison between POP and IMAP

S.N
POP IMAP
.
Generally used to Designed to handle
1
support single client. multiple clients.
Messages are
accessed online
Messages are
2 although it also
accessed offline.
supports offline
mode.
POP does not allow It offers ability to
3
search facility. search emails.
It allows selective
All the messages
transfer of
4 have to be
messages to the
downloaded.
client.
Multiple
Only one mailbox
mailboxes can be
5 can be created on the
created on the
server.
server.
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Suitable for
Not suitable for
accessing non-mail
6 accessing non-mail
data i.e.
data.
attachment.
POP commands are IMAP commands
generally abbreviated are not
7 into codes of three or abbreviated, they
four letters. Eg. are full. Eg.
STAT. STATUS.
It requires minimum Clients are totally
8 use of server dependent on
resources. server.
Mails once
Allows mails to be
downloaded cannot
9 accessed from
be accessed from
multiple locations.
some other location.
Users can view the
The e-mails are not headings and
10 downloaded sender of e-mails
automatically. and then decide to
download.
IMAP requires
POP requires less
10 more internet
internet usage time.
usage time.

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that
computer systems use to communicate over a network. OSI was introduced in 1983
by representatives of the major computer and telecom companies, and was adopted
by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layers

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We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that directly
serves the end user, down to the physical layer.

7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and
email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive
information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples of application
layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and
Domain Name System (DNS).
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6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how
two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly
on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the
application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between

devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and
functional while data is being transferred, and closing them when communication
ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if the
session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it
into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the
segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data that can be used by the
session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate
that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control,
checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into
network packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is
routing packets by discovering the best path across a physical network. The
network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses) to
route packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two
physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and
sends them from source to destination.
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This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which

identifies network protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes frames,
and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices
and define permissions to transmit and receive data.

1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless

connection between network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or
wireless technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for transmission of
the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit rate
control.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

 Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating
across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue
and focusing efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software
vendors:

 Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other
vendor, allowing open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for
example, only at the application layer, or across the stack.

What is a chat room?

A chat room is an online platform that enables users to communicate with
each other in real time. Chat rooms are typically hosted on a server with an internet
connection, enabling members from around the world to hold conversations about
various topics.
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Examples of chat room software

The following is a list of commonly used chat rooms and communication software:

 Slack
 Skype
 Google Meet and Google Chat
 Microsoft Teams
 Internet Relay Chat
 Discord
Chat rooms vs. video conferencing software
Chat rooms and chat applications are typically used for one-on-one or small-
group communication, while video conferencing software is designed for more
formal meetings with multiple participants.

Video conferencing platforms usually offer features such as screen

sharing, chatbots, interactive whiteboards and other collaboration tools.

Some software offers both video conferencing and chat options, such as
Skype and Microsoft Teams.

How are chat rooms used?

Chat rooms are used mainly for communication, with people discussing a
wide variety of topics or simply chatting casually online with co-workers or
friends. They may also be used for social networking, product promotion or
gaming, as well as a remote working tool.

To use a chat room, users must create an account with the online platform
and log in. Sometimes, users may also be prompted to download a
software client to facilitate the use of the chat room. They can then join chat rooms
or chat with other members who are currently logged in.
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Chat room conversations take place in a chat box, which is visible to all
participants. Many chat rooms provide features such as private messaging, chat
rooms specific to certain interests and topics, or the ability to customize chat room
colors or backgrounds.

Challenges with chat rooms

Site hosts typically post an FAQ list to guide users to appropriate chat room
behavior, such as introducing yourself when you enter a room, making it clear
when you are directing a question or response to a specific user, and reporting
disruptive users.

Chat room etiquette requires users to be respectful of one another, even when
discussing controversial topics.

With a few simple rules of etiquette, chat rooms can be safe spaces that connect
people.

What is the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)?

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a technical standard for

transmitting electronic mail (email) over a network. Like other networking
protocols, SMTP allows computers and servers to exchange data regardless of their
underlying hardware or software. Just as the use of a standardized form of
addressing an envelope allows the postal service to operate, SMTP standardizes the
way email travels from sender to recipient, making widespread email delivery
possible.

SMTP is a mail delivery protocol, not a mail retrieval protocol. A postal

service delivers mail to a mailbox, but the recipient still has to retrieve the mail
from the mailbox. Similarly, SMTP delivers an email to an email provider's mail
server, but separate protocols are used to retrieve that email from the mail server so
the recipient can read it.
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How does SMTP work?

All networking protocols follow a predefined process for exchanging data.

SMTP defines a process for exchanging data between an email client and a mail
server. An email client is what a user interacts with: the computer or web
application where they access and send emails. A mail server is a specialized
computer for sending, receiving, and forwarding emails; users do not interact
directly with mail servers.

Features of the TCP/IP Model

Below mentioned are some of the features that make the TCP/IP model stand out
in the network concepts:

 The TCP/IP model is among one of the most important network concepts that
contributed to the working of ARPANET.
 The TCP/IP model comprises four layers: the network access layer, the internet
layer, the transport layer, and the application layer (going from bottom to top).
 The network model is implemented during network and communication-related
issues.
 Communication between different modes of network devices is possible through
the application of various layers.
 The layers in the model provide maintenance of communication channels, flow
control, and reliability check format, among other applications in the form of
protocols.
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Layers of the TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is divided into four different layers:

 Application layer
 Transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network Access layer
Each layer performs a specific task on the data that is being transmitted over the
network channel, and data moves from one layer to another in a preset pattern as
mentioned below:

The above model represents the flow of data when it is being transmitted from the
sender side. In the case of data being received, the layers of the model work in
reverse order.
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Now, take a look at each of the layers in detail:

1. Application Layer

This is the topmost layer which indicates the applications and programs that utilize
the TCP/IP model for communicating with the user through applications and
various tasks performed by the layer, including data representation for the
applications executed by the user and forwards it to the transport layer.

2. Transport Layer

 This layer is responsible for establishing the connection between the sender
and the receiver device and also performs the task of dividing the data from
the application layer into packets, which are then used to create sequences.
 It also performs the task of maintaining the data, i.e., to be transmitted
without error, and controls the data flow rate over the communication
channel for smooth transmission of data.

3. Internet Layer

The Internet layer performs the task of controlling the transmission of the
data over the network modes and enacts protocols related to the various steps
related to the transmission of data over the channel, which is in the form of packets
sent by the previous layer.

4. Network Access Layer

This layer is the combination of data-link and physical layer, where it is

responsible for maintaining the task of sending and receiving data in raw bits, i.e.,
in binary format over the physical communication modes in the network channel.