THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

The Quantum Mechanical Model: Key Postulates Standing Wave (“stationary wave”)
1. Electrons behave as standing waves A wave contained between two points. Only particular
2. We cannot be certain about where an electron is wavelengths and frequencies can set up standing waves.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Electrons as Standing Waves: Schrödinger & deBroglie We cannot know position and momentum accurately &
The electron wave is a standing wave around the nucleus. simultaneously because any attempt to locate an atomic-sized
As the number of wavelengths in the standing wave increases particle would change its position, direction of travel, or both.
(in whole number multiples), so too does the fixed quantity of
energy that electron can have. That is why the quantum mechanical model places electrons in
orbitals rather than well-defined orbits. Orbitals are regions
The quantum mechanical model abides by Bohr’s idea of where there is a 90% chance of finding an electron.
quantized energy levels. The only thing
that changes is the WAY the electrons Schrödinger’s Wave Equation
move. By solving Schrödinger’s wave equation, we can get information about the orbital an
electron is in. This information can be quantified by giving a set of QUANTUM NUMBERS.

Principle Quantum Number: n

Orbital size & energy level: 1, 2…infinity
n= 1 2 3 4
Angular Momentum Quantum Number: l
Orbital shape (or sublevel): 0…(n-1)
l= 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
s s p s p d s p d f
Magnetic Quantum Number: ml
Orbital orientation (or # of orbitals): (-l…0…+l)
ml= 0 0 -1, 0, +1 0 -1, 0, +1 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 0 -1, 0, +1 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3

Electron Spin Direction: ms

(­ or ¯)
ms = ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯

4 Ways of Expressing Quantum Numbers

Rules for filling energy Exceptions
1. Electron Configurations
levels: 1. d4 & d9 (i.e., Cr & Cu)
We can use quantum numbers to describe
Aufbau principle: Electrons will be donated from s orbitals
the distribution of electrons in orbitals for as d4 and d9 are undesirable
electrons enter the
any element on the periodic table Cr = [Ar]4s23d4 à Cr = [Ar]4s13d5
lowest energy orbital
EXAMPLE: Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 Cu=[Ar]4s23d9à Cr = [Ar]4s13d10
available
*Energy levels are not 2. Cations
Energy level (n) Sublevel (l) # Electrons
entered until those below For positive metal ions, remove electrons
2. Shorthand Notation: them are filled from the outermost energy level
Write the noble gas that comes before that element in Na: 1s22s22p63s1 àNa+ 1s22s22p6
Co: [Ar]4s23d7 à Co+: [Ar]4s13d7
square brackets and continue from there Hund’s rule: orbitals of
3. Anions
EXAMPLE: [Ar] 4s23d6 the same energy remain Add an electron for every negative charge
singly occupied before O: 1s12s22p4 à O2-: 1s12s22p6
3. Box Orbital Diagrams pairing up
Electrons are shown in their orbitals GET COMFORTABLE
with your TABLE!
with arrows representing direction Pauli exclusion
of spin principle: no two
EXAMPLE: electrons can have the
same four quantum
Increasing energy

4. Energy Level Diagrams numbers

Orbitals are in separate columns *Electrons in the same
with relative energies shown orbital must have opposite
spins
EXAMPLE:
Fill 4s before 3d & 5s before 4d!