GE118 ETHICS is right or good and do what is right or

good without thinking of a rule or law”

Course Description:  It is a state where one owns the moral
This course deals with principles of ethical standard not just abide by the moral
behavior in modern society at the level of the standards.
person, society and in the interaction with the
environment and other shared resources. It also LESSON 1: Moral and Non-Moral Standards
teaches students to make moral decisions by
Etymology and Meaning of Ethics
using dominant moral frameworks and by
The term “ethics” comes from the Greek
applying seven-step moral reasoning model to
word “ethos” meaning “custom” used in the
analyze and solve moral dilemmas. works of Aristotle, while the term “moral” is the
MID-TERM GRADE 40% Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin
etymology of the word “ethics “, ethic deals with
Written Activities and Quizzes - 10% /
morality.
Performance Task, Project, and Participation - 30%
Ethics or moral philosophy, is a branch
/ Attendance - 10% / Learning Attitude -10% / Mid of philosophy which deals with moral standards,
- term Examination - 40% inquiries about the rightness and wrongness
Total of of human behavior or the goodness or
100% badness of personality, trait or character. It
deals with ideas, with topics such as moral
FINAL-TERM GRADE 60% standards or norms of morality, conscience,
Written Activities and Quizzes - 10% / moral values and virtues. Ethics is a study of
Performance Task, Project, and Participation - 30% the morality of human acts and moral
/ Attendance - 10% / Learning Attitude - 10% / agents, what makes as an obligatory and what
Final-term Examination - 40% makes a person accountable.
Total of “Moral” is the adjective describing a
human act as either ethically right or wrong, or
100%
qualifying a person, personality, character, as
Course Policies: either ethically good or bad.
1. Students shall not exceed 3 of the number of
absences. Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and
2. Students shall engage in group research works Non-Moral Standards
and other related activities with the use of
technology and up to date strategies for Moral standards are norms or prescriptions
presentations, classroom discussions and group that serve as the frameworks for determining
output. what ought to be done or what is right or
3. Students are allowed a maximum of 3 wrong action, what is good or bad
abscesses regardless of excuse character.
4. Students exceeding the maximum grace period
will be remarked absent.  “Killing is wrong”
5. It shall be the instructor’s prerogative to allow  “Telling lies is wrong”
any students to make- up for a missed  “Adultery is wrong”
requirement upon presentation of prof of excuse.  “Environment preservation is the right
thing to do”
CHAPTER I: Basic Concepts  “Freedom with responsibility is the right
way.
 Rules are important to social beings.  “Giving what is due to others is justice”
 Rules are meant to set order.
 Rules (the Philippine Constitution and other Moral standards are either consequence
laws included) are meant for man. standards (like Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism) or
 The greatest teacher, Jesus Christ, preached non-consequences standards (like Aristotle’s
emphatically, “The Sabbath is made for virtue, St. Thomas’s natural law, or Immanuel
man and not for man for the Sabbath”. Kant’ good will or sense of duty).
 The law of Sabbath, to keep it holy and The consequence standards depend on
observe rest, is meant to make man whole results, outcome. An act that results in the
by resting and by giving Him time to thank general welfare, in the greatest good of the
and spend time in prayer and worship for his greatest number, is moral. To take part in a
own good. project that results in the improvement of the
 For the sake of order in society, everyone is majority of people is, therefore, moral.
subject to rules. The non-consequence standards are
 In democratic countries, like the Philippines, based on natural law. Natural law is the law of
we often hear the statement “NO ONE IS God revealed through human reason. It is the law
ABOVE THE LAW” including the highest of God written in the hearts of men. Likewise,
official of the country. the non-consequences standard may also base on
 Rules are not meant to restrict your good will or intention, and on a sense of duty.
freedom. They are meant to help you grow in On the other hand, non-moral standards
freedom. are social rules, demands of etiquette and
 Any rule or law that prevents human persons good manners. They are guides of action which
from doing good and being good ought to be should be followed as expected by society. In
repealed. sociology, non-moral standards or rules are called
 Ancient Chinese sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu) folkways. In short, non-moral actions are those
referred to as state of “no more rules, no where moral categories cannot be applied.
more laws, because people discern what
 Examples of non-moral standards are rules
of good manners and right conduct,
etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, What Makes Standards Moral?
teachers and standards of grammar or
language, standards of art, standards of  For Theists, believers in God’s existence
sports set by authorities. moral standards are commandments of God
revealed to man through prophets.
 No talking when your mouth is full.  According to the Old Testament, the Ten
 Wear black or white for mourning; never Commandments were revealed by God to
red. Moses.
 Submit school requirements on time.  One who believes in God vows to Him and
 Observe correct grammar when writing obliges himself/herself to follow His Ten
and speaking in English. Commandments.
 Maintain a good body figure.  For Theists, God is the ultimate source of
what is moral revealed to human persons.
An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or  For Non-Theists, God is not the source of
non-moral lies it compliance as distinguished morality.
from its non-compliance. Non-compliance with  Moral standards are based on the wisdom of
moral standards cause a sense of guilt, while sages like Confucius or philosophers like
non-compliance with a non-moral standard Immanuel Kant.
may only cause shame or embarrassment.  In China, B.C, Confucius taught the moral
standard, “Do unto others what you like
Classification of the Theories of Moral others to do unto you”
Standards  Later, Immanuel Kant, the German
philosopher, formulated a criterion for
Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the determining what makes a moral standard
various moral standards formulated by moral moral.
philosophers as follows:  It is stated as follows: “Act only according
to that maxim whereby you can at the
1. Consequence (teleological, from tele same time will that it should become a
which means, end result, or consequence) universal law”
Standard – States that an act is right or  Moral standards are standards that we want
wrong depending on the consequences of to be followed by all, otherwise, one would
the act, that is, the good that is produced be wishing one owns ill fortune.
in the world. The consequences standard  Thus, the universal necessity of the maxim,
can be also a basis for determining what makes it a categorical imperative is
whether or not a rule is a right rule. what makes it obligatory.
2. Not-only-Consequence Standard  “Stealing is wrong” means “one ought not
(deontological) – It holds that the to steal” and “Do not kill” means “one ought
rightness or wrongness of an action or rule not to kill. It is one’s obligation not to steal or
depends on sense of duty, natural law, kill. Ultimately, the obligation arises from the
virtue and the demand of the situation or need of self-preservation.
circumstances. The rightness or
wrongness of an action does not only The Origin of Moral Standards:
depend or rely on the consequence of that Theist and Non-Theist
action or following that rule.
 The theistic line of thought states moral
Natural law and virtue ethics are standards is of divine origin while 20th century
deontological moral standard because their basis thinkers claim state that they simply evolved.
for determining what is right or wrong does not  The issue: Are moral standards derived from
depend on consequences but on natural law and God, communicated though signs or
virtue. Situation ethics, too is deontological revelation, or did they arise in the course
because the rightness or wrongness of an act man’s evolution?
depends on situation and circumstances requiring  With the Divine source concept, moral
or demanding exception to rule. standards are derived from natural law, man’s
“participation” in the Divine law.
Rosen & Garner are inclined to consider  The moral principle, “Do good and avoid
deontology, be it rule or act deontology, as the evil” is an expression of natural law.
better moral standard because it synthesizes or  Man’s obliging himself to respect the life,
includes all the other theory of norms. Under this liberty, and property of his fellowman arises
theory, the rightness and wrongness of an action from the God-given sacredness,
depends on all the following; spirituality and dignity of his fellow man.
It arises from his faith, hope, and love of
a) Consequences of an action rule, what God and man.
promotes one’s greatest good, or the  With the evolutionary concept, the basic of
greatest good of the greatest number; moral standards – do good, avoid evil – have
b) Consideration other than consequences, been observed among primates and must
like the obligatoriness or the act based on have evolved as the process of evolution
natural law, or its being one’s duty or it’s followed its course.
promoting an ideal virtue.
Are Theists and Non-Theists
Deontology also considers the object, purpose, (evolutionary) origin of moral standards
and circumstances or situation of the moral issue reconcilable?
or dilemma.
  The evolutionist claims that altruism, a
sense of morality, can be observed from
man’s fellow primates – the apes and
monkeys and, therefore, it can be said
that the altruism of human persons LESSON 3: THE THREE LEVELS OF MORAL
evolved from the primates. DILEMMA
 However, the evolutionist cannot
satisfactorily argue, with factual A. INDIVIDUAL
evidence, that the rudiments of moral
standards can be observed from the This refers to personal dilemmas, it is an
primates. individual’s “damn-if-you-do-damn-if-you-
 Neither can it be scientifically don’t” The dilemma is faced by an individual
established that the theist view, that who is torn between two obligations.
man’s obliging himself to avoid evil ,
refrain from inflicting harm on his Example: A doctor may face a dilemma when
fellowman, is a moral principle implanted deciding whether to prioritize the needs of a
by God in the hearts of men. patient with a rare disease or the needs of a
 But the concept of creation and evolution patient with a more common condition. Both
are not necessarily contradictory. patients have urgent medical needs, but the
doctor has limited resources and must make a
LESSON 2: MORAL DILLEMAS difficult choice.

 A Moral Dilemma is a problem in the B. ORGANIZATIONAL

decision making between two possible
options, neither of which is absolutely An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed
acceptable from an ethical perspective. by the dual necessities of a social
 It is also referred to as Ethical Dilemma as organization and members self-interest. It
a “decision making” problem between two may exist between group interests and
possible moral imperatives, neither of which organizational well-being. Organizational
unambiguously acceptable or preferable. dilemmas may likewise occur in business,
 It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in medical and public sector. It arises due to
moral philosophy. different opposing concerns between various
groupings in an organization.
Based on this definitions, moral dilemmas have
the following in common; Example: A company may face a dilemma
when deciding whether to invest in new
1. The agent is required to do each of technology to remain competitive or to
two (or more) actions which are prioritize cost-cutting measures to improve
morally unacceptable; profitability. Both options have potential
2. The agent can do each of the actions; benefits and drawbacks, and the company
3. But the agent cannot do both (or all) must weigh the pros and cons carefully.
of the actions. The agent thus seems
condemned to moral failure; no C. STRUCTURAL
matter what she does, she will do
something wrong (or fail something This refers to a situation where the
she ought to do) underlying structure of a system or
situation creates a conflict or contradiction
 This means that moral dilemmas are that makes it difficult to achieve desired
situations where two or more moral values or goals. It often arises from limitations,
duties make demands on the decision-maker, constraints, or inherent contradictions within
who can only honor one of them, and thus will the system itself.
violate at least one important moral concern,
no matter what he or she decides to do. Example: A government may face a dilemma
 Moral dilemmas are present situations where when trying to balance economic growth with
there is tension between moral values and environmental protection. Economic growth
duties that are more or less on equal footing. often requires the use of natural resources
 The decision-maker has to choose between a and the emission of pollutants, while
wrong and another wrong. The decision- environmental protection may involve limiting
maker is deadlock. industrial activities or imposing regulations
that can hinder economic growth. This creates
Meaning of False Dilemma a structural dilemma where it can be difficult
 A false dilemma is a situation where the to achieve both goals simultaneously.
decision-maker has a moral duty to do one
thing, but is tempted or under pressure to
do something else. A false dilemma is a
choice between right and a wrong.

What to do when faced with a Moral

Dilemma?
 In a state of emergency, necessity
demands no moral law. You have to
decide based on your judgement or
choose based on the principle of lesser
evil or greater good or urgency.