DATA TYPES AND PRESENTATION

NTA Level 6

MMAKA, AR
• Data is information in numbers, described in terms of variable
• Variable: any characteristic or attribute that can be measured and can
have different values e.g. weight
• This measurement is not constant, so therefore it is variable.
• Variables can be qualitative or quantitative, continuous or discrete, dependent
or idependent.
• Random variables cannot be predicted and are the most useful for statistical
purposes.
Types of Data

• Types of data depend on nature of data and level of measurement.

• Based on the nature of data, there two main types of data
 Quantitative data: data in form of number ( e.g. number of females=20; age
=30 years)
 Qualitative (categorical) data: data in form of text or words (e.g. there is
inadequate teaching staff in medical and nursing schools in Tanzania)
Qualitative variables
• Nominal or categorical data: The data are categorized according to names
that indicate an attribute or classification and are represented by counts or
numbers of observations in each category. Example; sex, marital status,
ethnic group, blood type, employment status.
• Binary data: These data are categorized in one or other of two mutually
exclusive categories, and are either nominal or categorical. Example; dead or
alive, cured or not cured, Yes/No.
• Ordinal data: The data are organized in mutually exclusive categories. This
display a logical order based on subjective ranking, using a relative scale of
magnitude. Example; rating or measuring scale such as Glasgow coma scale,
injury severity scoring scale, water low scale, Apgar scale, etc.
Quantitative variables
• Discrete numerical data:
• This data can take only certain fixed numerical values usually whole numbers
(integers).example number of children, number of patients
• Continuous numerical data:
• The data can take any number value within a given range i.e. within two fixed
points example temperature, weight, height, etc.
Levels of Measurement
Nominal: The nominal scale classifies persons or things based
on a qualitative assessment of the characteristic being assessed
• It is the lowest of the four measurement levels or categories.
• It is used when data can be organized into categories of a
defined property but the categories cannot be ordered.
• Data such as ethnicity, gender, marital status, religion, and
diagnoses are examples of nominal data.
Ordinal: The ordinal scale also classifies persons or things based
on the characteristic being assessed but does indicate ‘more than’ or
‘less than’
• Data that can be measured at the ordinal level can be assigned to categories
of an attribute that can be ranked.
• The scale could be:
• 0 = no exercise
• 1 = moderate exercise, no sweating
• 2 = exercise to the point of sweating
• 3 =strenuous exercise with sweating for at least 30 minutes per day
• 4 = strenuous exercise with sweating for at least 1 hour per day
• This type of scale is called metric ordinal scale.
• Interval: The interval scale has the same characteristics of the
ordinal scale – classifying persons or things based on the
characteristic assessed and indicating more than or less than –
but the interval scale indicates how much more than or less
than.
• The interval scale does not indicate a true zero point, meaning that there
cannot be an absence of a characteristic being measured.
• For example Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures are commonly used
as examples of interval scales.
Ratio measurements: The ratio scale includes all the characteristics of
the interval scale but does indicate a true zero point, A weight of zero
indicates an absence of weight.
• Is the highest form of measurement and meets all the rules of the lower
forms of measures including:
• mutually exclusive categories
• exhaustive categories
• rank ordering, equal spacing between intervals and
• continuum of values.
• Weight, length, and volume are common examples of ratio scales.
Differences between Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
Measurement
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Classifies persons Classifies persons Indicates how much Includes all the
or things based on a or things based on a more or less characteristics of
qualitative qualitative the interval scale,
assessment assessment
Similar or More or less but not Does not contain a Contains a true zero
dissimilar but not how much more or true zero point point.
more or less less
Can be numeric but Cannot create
there is no meaningful ratios of
implication of more these two numbers
or less
Uses of Data

Data have many uses in nursing and in health; these uses include the
following:
• Making national health policies, guidelines and regulations
• Planning nursing and other health services
• Monitoring and evaluation of performance of projects, programs and
health services
• Assessing quality of health services
• Planning, resources mobilization and advocacy for services
• Answering research questions
Methods of Data Presentation

• Data presentation methods are ways or techniques of displaying data or

information to aid understanding of analyzed data.
• The main methods of data/information presentation are the following:
 as text
 in tabular form
 in graphical form
 in pictorial form e.g. map
• Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data
format, the method of analysis to be used, and the information to be
emphasized
Methods of Data Presentation……

The organization of data can be achieved according to the type of data

under consideration as described below:
• Discrete data
• Text form
• Table
• Bar chart
• Pie chart
• Graph
• Dot plot
Methods of Data Presentation……
• Continuous data
• Grouped frequency distribution
• Histogram

• Table
• Can be used both for presenting data and for interpreting data
• Is a set of data arranged in rows and columns.
• Almost any quantitative information can be organized into a table.
• Tables are useful for demonstrating patterns, exceptions, differences, and
other relationships.
Text form
• Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain
results and trends, and provide contextual information.
• Data are fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences
• Text can be used to provide interpretation or emphasize certain data.
• If quantitative information to be conveyed consists of one or two numbers, it
is more appropriate to use written language than tables or graphs.
• For example “The incidence rate of surgical site infection following
caesarean section in rural health facilities in region “X” was 11% in 2020
and 15% in 2021. If this information were to be presented in a graph or a
table, it would occupy an unnecessarily large space on the page, without
enhancing the readers’ understanding of the data.
Tables
Frequency Distribution Tables:
• Tables, which convey information that has been converted into words
or numbers in rows and columns
• Tables are the most appropriate for presenting individual information,
and can present both quantitative and qualitative information. Examples
of qualitative information are the level of consciousness
• The strength of tables is that they can accurately present information
that cannot be presented with a graph.
• A frequency distribution is normally formed (manually) by a process
known as tallying. 5=
• Information with different units can be presented together. For instance,
blood pressure, heart rate, number of drugs administered, and
anesthesia time can be presented together in one table
• Useful for summarizing and comparing quantitative information of
different variables.
SITE OF ULCER FREQUENCY PERCENT
Gastric ulcer 35 32.7
Duodenal ulcer 62 58.0
Gastric & duodenal ulcer 10 9.3

Total 107 100

Contingency (2 by 2 Table) Table
• Contingency also called a two-way table is a useful tool for examining
relationships between categorical variables. The entries in the cells of a
two-way table can be frequency counts or relative frequencies
Factor Disease Total
Positive Negative
Present A b a+b
Not Present C d c+d
Total a+c b+d a+b+c+d
Bar graph/chart
• Is a chart that uses bars of equal width to display comparative data.
• Comparison of categories is based on the fact that the length of the bar
is proportional to the frequency of the event in that category.
• Bars for different categories are separated by spaces (unlike the bars in
a histogram).
• The bar chart can be portrayed with the bars either vertical or horizontal.
Histogram

• A histogram is used for continuous data, where the bars represent

ranges of data
• Histogram is used when horizontal (x-axis) variable is measured on an
interval or ratio scale (bars on graph touch each other)
 Frequency polygon

• A frequency polygon includes the same area under the line that a histogram
displays within the bars. Each point represents a midpoint in the data
Line graph
• A line graph is a type of chart which displays information as a series of data
points connected by straight line segments.
• It is a basic type of chart common in many fields.
• It is similar to a scatter plot except that the measurement points are ordered
Pie chart
• A pie chart is used to display a set of categorical data
• It is a circle, which is divided into segments. Each segment represents a
particular category.
• The area of each segment is proportional to the number of cases in that
category.
• It is generally the most appropriate format for representing information
grouped into a small number of categories.
•
Scatter plot
• Scatter plots present data on the x- and y-axes and are used to
investigate an association between two variables
• A point in a plot represents each individual or object, and an
association between two variables can be studied by analyzing patterns
across multiple points
• A regression line is added to a graph to determine whether the
association between two variables can be explained or not.
Scatter plot
Maps

• Maps are a unique category of graphical data presentation

• Unlike charts or graphs, maps reflect the shape of the real world acting
as a two-dimensional data view of a three-dimensional reality.
• Maps show, most commonly on a flat surface, the spatial organization
of any part of the physical universe at any scale, and at the same time
symbolize a wide variety of information, both static and temporal. Spot
map or dot density map is the most commonly used map by
epidemiologists during outbreak investigation whereby cases of illness
are
Maps
Objective of presentation
References
• Grove, S. K., Burns, N., &Gray, J. (2012). The practice of nursing research:
Appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence.Missouri: Elsevier Health
Sciences.
• Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and
assessing evidence for nursing practice. London: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
• Saunders, M. N., Lewis,P.,Thornhill, A (2012). Research methods for
business students.6th edition.Harlow: Pearson Education
• CDC, 2012. Principles of Epidemiology in Public Health Practice Third.,
• Gordis, L., 2014. Epidemiology Fifth., Philadelphia: Elsevier Inc.
• Rothman, K.J., Greenland, S. & Lash, T.L., 2008. Modern Epidemiology,
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.