Briefing Document: Digital Logic and Computer Design

Source: Excerpts from "M. Morris Mano. - Digital Logic and Computer Design. -Pearson
India (2017).pdf"
Overview:
This document provides a foundational understanding of digital logic and computer
design. It covers number systems, binary codes, Boolean algebra, logic gates,
combinational and sequential logic circuits, memory, and basic computer architecture. It
progresses from the fundamental building blocks of digital systems to more complex
components and their interactions.
Key Themes and Ideas:

1. Number Systems:

• Decimal System (Base-10): The text begins by defining the decimal system,
emphasizing that each digit's position represents a power of 10. For instance, the
coefficients a are multiplied by 10j. The document states, "The coefficients are
one of the ten digits (0, 1, 2, ..., 9), and the subscript value j gives the place
value and, hence, the power of 10 by which the coefficient must be multiplied."
• Binary System (Base-2): The binary system uses only two digits: 0 and 1, and
coefficients are multiplied by powers of 2. As the document says, "The
coefficients of the binary numbers system have two possible values: 0 and 1.
Each coefficient a is multiplied by 2j."
• General Base-r System: The text generalizes the concept to any base-r
system where coefficients range from 0 to r-1, and digits are multiplied by
powers of r. It says, "In general, a number expressed in base-r system has
coefficients multiplied by powers of r... The coefficients are range in values from
0 to r – 1".
• Conversions: The document outlines methods for converting decimal fractions
to binary and base-r representations by repeated multiplication and extracting
integer parts of the result.

1. Binary Codes:

• Representing Decimal Digits: Binary codes are used to represent decimal

digits. Four bits are required to code 10 distinct decimal digits, though this leaves
six combinations unused. The document states, "A binary code that distinguishes
among ten elements must contain at least four bits; three bits can distinguish a
maximum of eight elements."

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• Flexibility of Bit Length: While a minimum number of bits are needed, using
more bits is possible. The document notes, "Although the minimum number of
bits required to code 2n distinct quantities is n, there is no maximum number of
bits that may be used for a binary code."

1. Registers:

• Storage of Information: Registers are groups of binary cells that store digital
information. Each cell stores one bit. The text explains that, "A register is a
group of binary cells. Since a cell stores one bit of information, it follows that a
register with n cells can store any discrete quantity of information that contains n
bits."
• Interpretation: The meaning of the data stored in a register depends on how it
is interpreted.

1. Binary Logic:

• Variables and Operations: Binary logic uses binary variables (0 or 1) and

logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT. The document notes, "Binary logic
consists of binary variables and logical operations. The variables are designated
by letters of the alphabet... with each variable having two and only two distinct
possible values: 1 and 0."
• AND: Output is 1 only if all inputs are 1. The text explains, "The logical
operation AND is interpreted to mean that z = 1 if and only if x = 1 and y = 1;
otherwise, z = 0."
• OR: Output is 1 if at least one input is 1. The text explains, "z = 1 if x = 1 or if y
= 1 or if both x = 1 and y = 1. If both x = 0 and y = 0, then z = 0."
• NOT: Output is the opposite of the input. The document explains, "if x = 1, then
z = 0 but if x = 0, then z = 1."

1. Integrated Circuits (ICs):

• Physical Packaging: ICs are packaged in flat and dual-in-line (DIP) forms with
external pins that connect to internal circuits. The document states, "Integrated
circuits come in two types of packages, the flat package and the dual-in-line
(DIP) package... The dual-in-line package is the most widely used type..."
• Standard Sizes and Identification: IC packages have standard sizes with
varying pin counts, identified with numeric designations.

1. Boolean Algebra:

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• Mathematical System: Boolean algebra is a mathematical system with a set of
elements, operators, and axioms. It is fundamental to the design and analysis of
digital logic circuits. As the text explains, "Boolean algebra, like any other
deductive mathematical system, may be defined with a set of elements, a set of
operators, and a number of unproved axioms or postulates."
• Basic Laws: Key laws include identity, inverse, and distributive laws. The
document provides several examples, like "x + 0 = 0 + x = x" and "x*y = e"
where 'e' is the identity element.
• Distributive law: The distributive law is defined by: "If * and • are two binary
operators on a set S, * is said to be distributive over • whenever: x * (y • z) = (x
* y) • (x * z)".
• Truth Tables: Boolean algebra can be represented using truth tables that map
combinations of inputs to specific output values.

1. Canonical and Standard Forms:

• Minterms: Minterms are AND terms where each variable appears in either its
normal or complement form.
• Maxterms: Maxterms are OR terms where each variable appears in either its
normal or complement form.
• Relation Between Minterms and Maxterms: Minterms and maxterms are
complements of each other.

1. Logic Gate Implementations:

• AND, OR, NOT: The basic operations are directly implemented using logic
gates.
• NAND and NOR: NAND and NOR gates are universal gates (meaning all other
gates can be built using them). The document states, "The second expression is
obtained from De Morgan’s theorem. It also shows that an expression in sum of
products can be implemented with NAND gates."
• Exclusive-OR and Equivalence: Exclusive-OR (XOR) outputs 1 if inputs are
different and equivalence outputs 1 if they are the same. As the text explains, "F
= by′ + ox’s = x ⊕ y [Exclusive OR]" and "F = by + ox’s′ = x y [Equivalence]."
• Non-associativity of NOR: NOR operations are non-associative, e.g. (x ↓ y) ↓
z is not equal to x ↓ (y ↓ z).

1. Logic Families:

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• Classification of IC gates: IC gates are classified not only by their logic
operation, but also by the specific logic-circuit family to which they belong.
• Examples of logic families: The document lists popular examples, such as
TTL, ECL and CMOS.
• Voltage Levels: Each logic family has its own range and typical high- and low-
level voltages.
• Positive and Negative Logic: The same physical gate can function as a
positive-logic NAND or a negative-logic NOR depending on the polarity
assignment. The document states, "Thus, the same physical gate can function
either as a positive-logic NAND or as a negative-logic NOR."

1. Boolean Function Simplification:

• Karnaugh Maps: Karnaugh maps are a visual tool used for simplifying Boolean
expressions. As the document notes, "Any such combination [of adjacent squares
in Karnaugh maps] represents the Oaring of four adjacent minterms and results
in an expression of only one literal."
• Prime Implicants: Simplification involves identifying prime implicants and
selecting a minimum set that covers all minterms.

1. Arithmetic Circuits:

• Adders: Circuits to perform addition, including half and full adders.

• Subtractors: Circuits to perform subtraction, using borrowing. The text
explains, "By this method, each subtrahend bit of the number is subtracted from
its corresponding significant minuend bit to form a difference bit. If the minuend
bit is smaller than the subtrahend bit, a 1 is borrowed from the next significant
position."
• Full Adder Truth Table: The document includes the detailed truth table for a
full adder.

1. Combinational Logic with MSI and LSI:

• Encoders and Decoders: The document discusses encoders (e.g., decimal to

BCD encoder) and decoders (e.g., BCD to decimal decoder), which are essential
building blocks of digital systems.
• Implementation of Boolean functions using decoders: It is possible to
implement any combinational circuit using decoders. The text notes, "The
decoder method can be used to implement any-combinational circuit."

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• ROMs: Read-Only Memories (ROMs) are used for storing fixed binary
information.
• Multiplexers: Multiplexers (MUX) are used to select from multiple inputs and
forward it to a single output. A multiplexer with 8 inputs and 3 selects lines is
shown to implement a function.

1. Sequential Logic:

• State Diagrams and Tables: Sequential circuits are defined by their current
state, inputs, and next state, typically represented using state diagrams and
tables.
• Flip-Flops: Sequential circuits are built using flip-flops.
• Excitation Tables: The document describes how to build excitation tables, used
to define the inputs of the flip flops.
• Unused States: It states that "unused states in a sequential circuit can be
treated as don’t-care conditions".
• State Equation Method: The document explains that state equation method
can be used to design sequential circuits, particularly when D flip-flops are used.

1. Counters and Registers

• Counters with parallel load: Counters with parallel load capability are useful
in digital systems and referred to as registers with load and increment capability.
• RAM: Random access memory is presented, built with either flip-flops and gates
or with magnetic cores.
• Computer Design and Architecture: Microoperations and Register
Transfer: Register transfer statements are used to define the specific sequence
of operations during the execution of an instruction. The text states "A shift
operation with 0 inserted in the extreme bit is considered a logical shift
microoperation."
• ALU: Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs) perform arithmetic and logic operations. The
document says, "The four logic operations obtained by this configuration are
transfer, exclusive-OR, equivalence, and complement."
• Status Register: The status register stores the condition-code bits or flags
generated during the execution of instructions, such as zero, carry, overflow.
• Control Memory: Microprogrammed control uses control memory. The
document notes, "The conditional control statements in the other
microinstructions use the status variables S and E. The go to statement without a
condition attached specifies an unconditional branch to the indicated address."

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 • Microprogram Example: A full example of a microprogram with specific ROM
addresses and corresponding microinstructions is provided.
• PLA: Programmable logic arrays are used to implement logic functions.
• Instructions and Microoperations: A full list of instructions such as AND,
ADD, STO, ISZ, BSB, BUN and microoperations such as read memory, write
memory, AND, ADD, shift left, increment is provided, along with their
representation in the ROM output bits.

1. Microprocessors:

• Basic Operation: Microprocessors communicate with memory over address and

data buses and issue read and write signals. The text describes the steps, "First,
the microprocessor places the memory address into ABUS and informs the
memory that a valid address is available for reading. The memory responds to
RD by reading the byte at the address given by ABUS and placing it in DBUS."
• Instruction Sets: The document provides examples of microprocessor
instruction sets, including data movement, branching, and arithmetic
instructions.

1. Transistors and Basic Circuit Analysis

• Transistor as Switch: The text covers how transistors operate as electronic

switches.
• Diode operation: The document explains that in a diode, "When the diode
conducts, current ID flows in the direction shown in Fig. 13-3(b), and VD stays at
about 0.7 V."
• RTL and DTL: A basic description of resistor-transistor logic (RTL) and diode-
transistor logic (DTL) gates is given.
• ECL, MOS: The basic structures and operation of Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)
and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) transistors are also briefly explained.

Most Important Ideas and Facts:

• Digital systems operate using binary logic, representing information with 0s and
1s.
• Number systems other than base-10 are critical for digital design.
• Boolean algebra is the mathematical foundation for digital logic.
• Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits.
• Combinational logic circuits produce outputs based solely on current inputs.

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 • Sequential logic circuits incorporate memory, with outputs determined by both
current inputs and past states.
• Integrated circuits (ICs) package complex logic functions in small physical
spaces.
• Microprocessors execute instructions by fetching from memory.
• Microprogrammed control uses a control memory to define the sequence of
operations.

Conclusion:
This document provides a comprehensive overview of fundamental concepts in digital
logic and computer design, from number representation and logic operations, to
combinational and sequential circuits, and basic computer architecture. The material is
foundational for understanding how digital systems work at a low level, which provides
a base for designing more complex computer architectures.