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F3355u18*UG.GiG

ISBN 98 : 0-07-8119-6

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Caracas Venezuela
Reprint 2007 (2nd Edition)
2009 (3rd Edition)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND COLLABORATIONS

To all those people and institutions that in one way or another

participated in the making of this extremely important Book.
Also to my students and colleagues who eagerly contributed their
knowledge.

DEDICATION

To my husband Freddy, to my daughters Gabriela and Daniela

F3355u18*UG.GiG.........................................2
LIST OF TABLES.............................12
Chart PP.....................................12
PRESENTATION..........................11
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY.........................13
Research: Definition and
Characteristics................................13
Description of the Stages................14
The Scientific Method....................15
Steps of Scientific Research...........16
The Problem...................................18
His approach...................................18
Research Questions.........................20
Justification.....................................22
The Theoretical Framework...........22
Functions:.......................................24
Structure:........................................24
CHAPTER II..................................25
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...25
Types of Research..........................25
According to the sources................25
Documentary research....................26
Field Research................................28
Experimental Research...................28
Feasible Projects.............................30
Characteristics:...............................30
Variables and their
Operationalization..........................32
Types of Variables..........................32
3. ACCORDING TO THE
POSITION THEY OCCUPY IN
THE RESEARCH,..........................33
5. ACCORDING TO THE
SCALE............................................34
Population and Sample...................35
The most commonly used
Probabilistic samples are:...............36
Non-probability sampling can be. . .37
QUANTITATIVE..........................37
QUALITATIVE l......................37
Data Collection Techniques............38
The Observation.............................38
Preparing for observation...............39
Driving for observation..................39
After observation............................40
The interview..................................40
Conducting the Interview...............40
Post Interview.................................41
The survey......................................41
Content Analysis.............................42
Data Collection Instruments...........42
Validation of the Instrument...........45
Content Validity.............................45
Construct Validity...........................45
Validity of Criterion.......................45
Table 7. Validation as a research
 quality control process....................46
Reliability.......................................46
Pilot Test.........................................46
UL..............................................................46
Procedure........................................47
Schedule of Activities.....................49
Importance of Selecting the
Methodology...................................49
CHAPTER III.................................51
Justification of Research Projects...51
CHAPTER IV.................................54
CHAPTER V..................................59
ACTIVITIES..................................59
Applicability of the Scientific
Method............................................59
Variables and their
Operationalization..........................59
ANNEX A......................................65
HOW TO PREPARE REFERENCES
ACCORDING TO UPEL
STANDARDS, (2003)....................65
Elements of reference.....................65
Making citations and notes.............71
General Reference Citations...........72
Criteria for the Ordering of Records
........................................................72
From a Book, with the name of a city
in more than one country, with a -
translator and year of publication:
(Chávez, L 1991)............................77
 From Corporate Author:.................77
From an Encyclopedia without an
Author:............................................77
From an Encyclopedia with Author:
........................................................77
Specialized magazine article:.........77
Legal Type Sources:.......................77
Press Article:...................................77
With Author:...................................77
No Author:......................................78
Presentations and publications
derived from Events:......................78
(For 2nd year EMDP Science
Students).........................................79
(VARIABLE
 OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE
MODEL)..............................................2
Table X. Operationalization of
Variables...............................................2
ANNEX D..............................................77
Field research..................................77
SUMMARY....................................95
Some examples of the most
commonly used formulas in
Statistical Analysis.........................96
When the area under the curve is
known:............................................96
xx........................................................97
When the area under the curve is
unknown.........................................98
 Test procedure T:............................98

LIST OF TABLES

Chart PP

F3355u18*UG.GiG.........................................2
LIST OF TABLES.............................12
Chart PP.....................................12
PRESENTATION..........................11
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY.........................13
Research: Definition and
Characteristics................................13
Description of the Stages................14
The Scientific Method....................15
Steps of Scientific Research...........16
The Problem...................................18
His approach...................................18
Research Questions.........................20
Justification.....................................22
The Theoretical Framework...........22
Functions:.......................................24
Structure:........................................24
CHAPTER II..................................25
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...25
Types of Research..........................25
According to the sources................25
Documentary research....................26
Field Research................................28
Experimental Research...................28
Feasible Projects.............................30
Characteristics:...............................30
Variables and their
Operationalization..........................32
Types of Variables..........................32
3. ACCORDING TO THE
POSITION THEY OCCUPY IN
THE RESEARCH,..........................33
5. ACCORDING TO THE
SCALE............................................34
Population and Sample...................35
The most commonly used
Probabilistic samples are:...............36
Non-probability sampling can be. . .37
QUANTITATIVE..........................37
QUALITATIVE l......................37
Data Collection Techniques............38
The Observation.............................38
Preparing for observation...............39
Driving for observation..................39
After observation............................40
The interview..................................40
Conducting the Interview...............40
Post Interview.................................41
The survey......................................41
Content Analysis.............................42
Data Collection Instruments...........42
Validation of the Instrument...........45
Content Validity.............................45
 Construct Validity...........................45
Validity of Criterion.......................45
Table 7. Validation as a research
quality control process....................46
Reliability.......................................46
Pilot Test.........................................46
UL..............................................................46
Procedure........................................47
Schedule of Activities.....................49
Importance of Selecting the
Methodology...................................49
CHAPTER III.................................51
Justification of Research Projects...51
CHAPTER IV.................................54
CHAPTER V..................................59
ACTIVITIES..................................59
Applicability of the Scientific
Method............................................59
Variables and their
Operationalization..........................59
ANNEX A......................................65
HOW TO PREPARE REFERENCES
ACCORDING TO UPEL
STANDARDS, (2003)....................65
Elements of reference.....................65
Making citations and notes.............71
General Reference Citations...........72
Criteria for the Ordering of Records
........................................................72
From a Book, with the name of a city
in more than one country, with a -
translator and year of publication:
(Chávez, L 1991)............................77
From Corporate Author:.................77
From an Encyclopedia without an
Author:............................................77
From an Encyclopedia with Author:
........................................................77
Specialized magazine article:.........77
Legal Type Sources:.......................77
Press Article:...................................77
With Author:...................................77
No Author:......................................78
Presentations and publications
 derived from Events:......................78
(For 2nd year EMDP Science
Students).........................................79
(VARIABLE
OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE
MODEL)..............................................2
Table X. Operationalization of
Variables...............................................2
ANNEX D..............................................77
Field research..................................77
SUMMARY....................................95
Some examples of the most
commonly used formulas in
Statistical Analysis.........................96
When the area under the curve is
known:............................................96
 xx........................................................97
When the area under the curve is
unknown.........................................98
Test procedure T:............................98
1
 LIST OF GRAPHICS

Graphic pp

1 Levels for posing a problem3 19

2 Elements to pose the problem 20

3 Justification of the Research 22

4 The research according to the sources 26

5 Type of Research according to the Strategy

or the Design 28

6 Phases of ■ uni Project Feasible3 30

7 Special Projects 31

8 Research according to Temporality 32

9 The 1st Opinion Questionnaire 44

10 The Pilot Test 46

11 Representation of Reliability 47

12 Phases of research 47

13 When and Where of Research 48

 PRESENTATION

Through my experience as a Professor of Biology, Introduction to

Research, Research Methodology and Educational Research and as a tutor of
Research works in Diversified Secondary Education, Professional and Higher
Education (both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels), I have observed
that the difficulties encountered by students who are starting out in Research
are often related to the difficulty of approaching specialized texts in
Methodology.
This material is aimed at young people who are starting to develop
research projects, with the aim of providing them with the necessary tools to
venture into research, through simple language that is accessible to all those
who venture into research.
Research can arise when one is aware of a problem and feels the need
to find a solution, then, Research allows the discovery of new facts, or laws in
the field of human knowledge.
Most young people are curious, always interested in knowing the why or
how of what they see and hear. This intellectual curiosity, existing in all ages, is
like the great force that drives Science.
This material is dedicated to all those who are starting out in Research.

Maria Eugenia Bautista

 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research: Definition and Characteristics

Research arises when one is aware of a problem and wants to find a

solution. Therefore, research is a reflective, systematic, controlled and critical
procedure, which allows the discovery of new facts or laws in any field of human
knowledge.
There are countless definitions of what research is, including that of the
Western International Dictionary, which states, Research is a careful and
critical inquiry or examination in the search for facts or principles; a diligent
investigation to find out something. Ultimately, research is a way to understand
reality or discover truths.
Human beings are curious by nature and are constantly faced with
uncertainties to which they seek answers. When this process of searching,
recording, processing, creating or producing knowledge is developed in an
organized manner, through a specific method, it is said that research has been
done.
Characteristics
- It is a procedure through which new knowledge is collected from living
or non-living sources, allowing scientific advancement. Research
requires testing and verification; it is not just about developing ideas.
- The research places emphasis on the discovery of general principles;
it transcends the particular situations investigated, using sampling
procedures.
- Research is an expert, systematic and accurate exploration.
- It is logical and objective, using all possible evidence for critical control
of the data collected and the procedures used.
- The Research attempts to organize data in quantitative terms, where
possible.
 - Finally, the research is recorded and expressed in a report, document
or study, in which the methodology used is indicated, the
bibliographical references are documented, the terminology used is
specified, the limiting factors are recognized and the recorded results
are expressed with the greatest objectivity. This leads to conclusions
and generalizations.
Basic Stages of the Research Process
Stages Moment to which
Corresponds

1. Problem formulation Logical

2. Logical

Delimitation of the topic and research.

3. Development of the theoretical or Logical
reference framework

4. Choice of design or method Methodological

5. Operationalization Methodological
6. Technical
Data collection and/or
Making the instrument
7. Technical
Data organization and processing.

8. Data analysis, conclusion Logical

and writing.
Description of the Stages
1. It deals with the need to select a problem that is of interest for
research and its clear definition.
2. It is tasked with setting objectives for the work to be carried out,
clarifying what ends are considered possible and desirable to
achieve.
3. It deals with the review and organization of all aspects related to the
topic to be studied.
4. Within the methodological framework, the choice of the design or
general strategy is considered to confront the practice and
operationalization. Operationalization consists of making the concepts
and elements that intervene in the problem to be investigated
operational, that is, establishing the characteristics or qualities that an
 object or phenomenon under study possesses.
5. Sampling from Universes.
6. When data is obtained, it is organized, processed and analyzed using
instruments appropriate to the information obtained.
7. At this stage, the process of data analysis and interpretation is
synthesized to establish a Theory (conclusion) in relation to the
problem posed.
The Scientific Method
Defining Science is difficult, especially today, when for various reasons a
false idea of Science has been given. For example, it is said that cleaning
products have "scientific" ingredients, that it is "scientifically" proven that a
certain consumer item solves a problem. It is therefore appropriate to clearly
define the term Science. For this work the following definition will be used: Set
of knowledge by its principles and causes. Another very accurate definition of
Science is: A set of organized knowledge, in order to know the truth of the facts
and it must be understood that it is a continuous process of searching for
knowledge.
The man of science dedicates his life to this search, because if we ask
ourselves where scientific problems come from, the answer is: They arise from
a basic human characteristic, curiosity.
Scientists are curious people and therefore, they ask questions about
many things. Naturally, it is difficult to find the right answers. There is a
procedure that is used to find the solution to doubts and questions, this system
is called SCIENTIFIC METHOD, which can be defined as the series of steps
that go from Observation to the postulation of a Law.
Steps of Scientific Research

1. OBSERVATION: It is the first necessary step in any expression of

science. Through observation based on the senses, but augmented
and refined by appropriate instruments, the scientific researcher
discovers phenomena. It can be qualitative and quantitative.
In general terms, it can be said that what is not observable cannot be
investigated; this does not mean that the observation has to be direct,
it is sufficient that the effect can be perceived and, if possible,
 measured by apparatus or instrument, as happens, for example, with
electricity. A scientist must be able to observe the phenomenon or
structure he is studying over and over again and must look with
unprejudiced eyes, that is, he must see what he sees and not what he
wants to see. An observation is only of real scientific value if it is
repeated independently by several scientists.
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT: After making an observation, the second
step of the scientific method is to propose a problem. The problem
can be a question whose answer we hope to obtain, although
preferably it should be a set of aspects that frame the problem. One or
many observations would be of no use if the researcher did not try to
ask himself what the observation means.
3. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS: Once the appropriate question
has been formulated, the scientist must make an assumption; he must
try to imagine what happens. This seems at first glance unscientific,
however, issuing logical hypotheses is one of the aspects that most
differentiates the scientist from the simple observer. The hypothesis is
a tentative solution and must not only explain all the observed facts or
data, but also predict some events that have occurred or should
occur. It should be noted that the hypothesis can be denied or
affirmed with the experiment. In both cases it must be satisfactorily
explained and interpreted.
A hypothesis must have the following characteristics: it must be
explanatory, that is, clearly indicate the observation made and its
conditions; it must be predictive, explaining what will happen,
predicting what should happen, and finally it must be verifiable,
verifiable through an experiment or field research.
4. EXPERIMENTATION: To test a hypothesis, that is, an assumption
that the scientist makes after making his observations and stating the
problem, the researcher must do experiments, that is, studies of
phenomena or situations caused in a controlled manner with the
purpose of testing his hypothesis.
This step is undoubtedly the most laborious and delicate of the scientific
method. To test the hypothesis, the researcher must design his experiment,
drawing up a plan for the operations to be carried out. This plan must include: a)
Selection of material, b) Necessary conditions c) Description of the steps to
follow.
The experiment may be prone to frequent errors, which is why it must be
repeated and always requires maintaining factors without alteration, since there
must be a control group that is kept in natural conditions and that serves to
compare the results obtained in the experiment. At this stage it is often very -
necessary to carry out measurements, counts, etc., just as in the observation
stage, since experimentation requires continuous and accurate observation that
must be as precise and mathematical as possible.
In the case of field research, experimentation refers to the stage of
elaboration, validation, application of the information collection instruments
(Questionnaire, observation guide, structured interview, etc.) as well as their
tabulation.
5. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS: The scientist must organize the
results obtained according to a given criterion. It is advisable to use tables and
diagrams when recording data. It is also important for the researcher to
distinguish between the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the data. At this
stage, an explanation of the results obtained must be given. To do so, the
following must be considered: a) the data obtained, b) the theoretical framework
used as support and c) the author's position with respect to points of agreement
or disagreement between the data and the theory.
6. CONCLUSIONS: The researcher, once the experimentation has been
carried out, with all the possible variations and conditions, can conclude about
the fact initially observed. Determine whether the formulated hypothesis is
confirmed and fits within the theoretical framework from which it was started or
whether it achieved the objectives set at the beginning of the research, since it
managed to answer the questions that gave rise to the search process.
7. COMMUNICATION: The final step of experimentation is to write or
present a report of all the details of the research. This step allows the same
research to be repeated under identical conditions. The report must be made in
such a way that it allows understanding: The problem, The hypothesis, The
methodological design, the results and their interpretations.
 The Problem.
His approach
In order to clearly and precisely state a problem, one should not make the
mistake of stating a very broad and general topic, as this does not allow one to
accurately assess the specific problem that one wishes to investigate.
Although the problem may arise from a set of questions asked of reality,
its formulation must go beyond a simple question; it must place the reader in the
perspective from which we assume the problem.
The first thing to do to raise the problem is to place it in a context that
makes it understandable. To do this, the researcher must consider aspects that
surround the problematic situation, from a general perspective (macro level)
where he must consider elements related to the phenomenon under study
(contextualization), then he can go on to specify increasingly more specific
aspects (meso and micro levels).

Chart 1. Levels of Posing a Problem

In the second case, it must be addressed with simplicity and precision

using accessible language and establish the limits of the research. To achieve
this, the following must be specified:
a) Description of the phenomenon to be investigated
b) The space where it is produced
c) The time in which it is located
d) The subjects involved in the research.
 The order presented is not necessarily the order to follow, this
sequence is indicative, since it is important not to leave these elements
aside. It is also advisable to provide evidence, consequences and
possible causes of the problem using a descriptive or narrative writing of
the observations made by the same researcher or by others who have
addressed the problem (they share the same line of research), this allows
going from the particular, the specific, to the concrete of the problem that
you want to investigate (delimitation)
Evidence, consequences and causes are important elements to
consider in the contextualization and delimitation of the problem. This
allows us to focus on the levels in which the problematic situation occurs
and to visualize what we want to investigate. Through the formulation of
research questions.

Chart 2. Elements to raise the problem

Research Questions

These are questions that the researcher asks himself when he has
identified the problem, since these a) Respond to what he wants to
investigate, b) Allow the problem to be expressed in a concrete way and
c) Should invite the initiation of the inquiry process, therefore, their
wording should give rise to broad responses (not dichotomous, should not
be answered with yes/no).

Generally, the formulation of questions begins with expressions such

as: What, How, When, Where, Why, For what, How much, Who or Whom,
With what, etc.
 Research Objectives
- They represent what you want to achieve in the research.
- They must agree with the questions.
- They must be presented according to the degree of difficulty, first
the general and then the specific.
General Objective
- It represents the ultimate goal pursued in the research.
- It must be in agreement with the main question (holopraxic
statement).
- It must be closely related to the title of the Research.
Specific Objectives
- They are derived from the general objective.
- They delimit, guide and specify the scope of the research.
- They guide the selection of type and design of the research.
- They set the guidelines for the development of the theoretical
framework.
- They must be written using a verb in the infinitive.
- Only one verb should be used per objective.
- It must be achievable in a precise time.
- The verbs used in the specific objectives must be less complex
than those used in the general objective.
- From them the research variables are identified.
 Justification
Contributes to the “why” of research.
It should refer to “the event” (what happens, how it happens, when it
happens, who is involved, where it happens, what aspects have not been
resolved).
It is necessary to start from the needs; focus on opportunities
(relevance), potential (scope) and prevent consequences
(highlighting the relevance and urgency of solving the problem).
It is advisable to rely on authors who speak positively about the subject.
It is related to the recommendations that the investigative work gave rise
to once it was completed.

Research Justification

Chart 3. The Justification of Research

The Theoretical Framework

The theoretical frame of reference is the space of the project intended to

illustrate the reader on the theoretical foundations (paradigms, approaches,
concepts, foundations, etc.) from which the research problem is framed in its
multiple dimensions.

From the moment the research problem is raised, there are a set of ideas
that in some way guided its selection. Only through Theory can the researcher
make the object or phenomenon under study more intelligible.

It is very important and convenient that, in addition to the theoretical

foundations, the researcher makes a review of the work that has been carried out
with respect to the problem that is the object of his research (other projects,
degree works, promotion works, thesis, and in general any research prior to the
one being carried out) since these works constitute the background of the
research; these backgrounds do not necessarily have to be the same as the
problem posed, but may have a direct or indirect relationship with it. It should be
noted that in no case does this point refer to history or historical aspects of the
topic or problem under study. The researcher must relate the background to his
research through analysis and interpretation of the same.

Another aspect that can be considered within the theoretical framework is

the legal bases that support the research (when the problem addressed so
warrants).

The theoretical framework must be closely related to the objectives and

variables of the research. In this sense, it will be structured considering titles and
subtitles that, in hierarchical order, provide the basis for and support the research.
Functions:
In summary, the theoretical framework has the following functions:

1. Develops aspects related to the objectives, through titles and

subtitles linked to the variables and their dimensions.
2. Prevents mistakes made in previous research.

3. Provides guidance on work and aspects that underpin the study.

4. It serves as a source for new research.

5. Guides the researcher through the problem.

6. It serves as a frame of reference for interpreting the results.

Structure:

It is generally developed considering:

1. Background related to the research (documentation related to

other projects, degree works, promotion works and any other type
of research related to the study being carried out).
2. Documentary information extracted from printed, audiovisual or
electronic sources that express concepts or approaches and allow
the construction of the theoretical foundations that support the
research.

3. Legal bases that support the work being done

4. cComments in relation to any of the elements mentioned in the

structure, which express the approach, analysis and position of the
author of the research.
 CHAPTER II
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This Chapter refers to the definition or characterization of the type of

research to be carried out according to the strategy selected for data collection,
considering the level or character (based on the general objective), the variables,
the population and the sample object of the study, the technique(s) and
instrument(s) and processes used to give validity and reliability to the data, also
contemplates the description of the procedure to follow to develop the research.
Types of Research
There are different criteria regarding the types of research; the researcher
must assume the one that allows the placement of the methodology selected by
him in any of the proposed typologies.
The criteria for classifying the most commonly used types of research
include the following:
- According to sources
- According to the strategies
- According to the design
- According to the level
- According to the temporality
According to the sources
Research can be done by taking data from

Y
o

FROM THE
FIELD

Chart 4. Research According to Sources

 Documentary research
Documentary Research is understood as the study of problems
with the purpose of expanding and deepening knowledge of their nature,
supported mainly by bibliographical and documentary sources. The
originality of the study is reflected in the approach, criteria,
conceptualizations, conclusions, recommendations and, in general, in
the author's thinking (Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador,
(UPEI) 1998).
When carrying out a Documentary research, it must be taken into
account not to lose sight of the objectives that can be achieved with this
type of research. It is necessary to highlight that before starting a Field or
Experimental research, a Documentation on the subject is developed, in
this way the researcher reviews all the existing background on the
subject and has a complete vision about it. being able to decide which
aspects are worth investigating (Asti VA 1970). The Documentary type
of research should not be confused with the Documentation
process that must be carried out when starting research in any area
of knowledge.

The search for data or information in documentary research is carried out

from reference sources, these can be classified in the following categories:
1. Articles in periodical publications: specialized and general magazines,
newspapers, catalogs and similar.
2. Books.
3. Technical, informative or research documents or reports.
4. Presentations and publications derived from events: conferences,
conventions, seminars, workshops and similar.
5. Undergraduate works and theses.
6. Unpublished or restricted circulation manuscripts and data.
7. Computer programs, audiovisual material and other non-print sources.
8. Laws, Decrees, Regulations, Standards, Resolutions and other legal-
normative instruments. (UPEL, 1998)
The techniques and instruments or procedures and means most commonly
used in documentary research are:
Table 1. Techniques and Procedures of Documentary Research

TECHNIQUES PROCEDURES/INSTRUMENTS/MEDIA
1. Analysis 1. Analysis Matrices
2. Signing 2. Tokens
3. Underline 3. Main ideas, Secondary ideas
4. Summary 4. Texts and/or Maps
Source prepared by the author
 The research according to:

STRATEGY DESIGN

DOCUMENTARY

FROM THE FIELD

PROJECTS
FEASIBLE NOT EXPERIMENTAL
PROJECTS (There is no manipulation
SPECIALS of variables) EXPERIMENTAL
(There is
Chart 5: Type of manipulation of
Research According to Strategy
or Design variables)

Field Research
Field Research is understood as the systematic analysis of problems with
the purpose of describing them, explaining their causes and effects,
understanding their nature and constituent factors. (LIPEL 1998).
Field studies allow for in situ investigation of the effects of the
interrelationship between different types of variables. (Kerlinger, 1975)
It is important to note that in field research the data is taken from living
sources, in direct contact with the subjects involved with the problem or
situation under study, generally they are carried out in a natural environment
(real space where observations are made), it is also important to make clear
that in this type of studies the researcher does not aim to manipulate the
variables as in experimental research.
Depending on the objectives of the proposed study, Field Research can
be exploratory, descriptive, comparative, analytical, explanatory, predictive,
interactive projective, confirmatory or evaluative, Hurtado de Barrera, (2001).
Experimental Research
Experimental Research aims to test facts and hypotheses, Becerra,
(2002) through verification or testing.
gift of situations in conditions created by the researcher, requires application of
an experiment, is essentially practical (empirical). Unlike Field Research, it
studies phenomena or objects in artificial contexts, this is because the
experimental conditions of the research involve the manipulation of variables
under study by the researcher. The difference between Experimental Research
and other types of research lies in the degree of control of the variables.
Control is expressed in two activities: on the one hand, the control that
the researcher exercises over the independent variable (the researcher
decides how, when and under what conditions to manipulate it); on the other
hand, the control that the researcher has over those variables that are not
subject to research but may influence the dependent variable in some way,
these are known as intervening variables (Ramírez, 1992). To achieve this
degree of control, a series of steps must be followed:
a) Two similar groups are formed according to previously established
characteristics. One of them will be the experimental group, which
must be observed throughout the process.
b) After applying the experimental treatment, both groups must be
compared (the experimental versus the control).
Experimental dissertations are subdivided into:

c) adro 2. Experimental Designs

- PRE-EXPERIMENTAL Test
Post test
Chance does not
intervene
- QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL Pre-test
Post test
Chance does not
intervene
Pre-test
- PURE EXPERIMENTS Test
Post test
The aza intervenes
 Feasible Projects
They consist of the research, elaboration and development of a proposal
for a viable operating model to solve problems, requirements or needs of
organizations or social groups; it may refer to the formulation of policies,
programs, technologies, methods or processes. (UPEL, 1998).
Characteristics:
- Try to propose solutions to a given situation.
- It involves exploring, describing, explaining and proposing
alternatives for change, but not necessarily executing the proposal.
- The project must be supported by documentary or field research or a
design that includes both modalities.
- Projects can be economic, social, educational or technological, etc.
Feasible Projects are also known as Projective Research. This type of
research attempts to propose solutions to a specific situation. It involves
exploring, describing, explaining and proposing alternative changes, but not
necessarily executing the proposal. The term projective refers to a project as a
proposal; however, this project or proposal can be reached through different
paths, methods or specific techniques: perspective, foresight and holistic
planning. (Hurtado de Barrera, J., 2000). It is related to anticipating/visualizing
the future; to carry out this type of research, the following phases must be
covered:
- Diagnosis
- Determination of feasibility
Phase - Design
s - Execution
- Assessment
Chart 6. Phases of a Feasible Project
 Specific objectives are directly linked to the phases.
In addition to feasible projects, UPEL (2003) also considers special
projects as a modality or type of research.
SPECIAL PROJECTS

CREATION
INNOVATION

Does not use one Several

Methodology Methods
special
SCIENTIFIC-
HUMANIST
TECHNOLOGICAL
Chart 7. Special Projects ETC.
Table 3. Research by level.
Level Guy □

- Perceptive - Exploratory
- Descriptive
- Apprehensive
- Comparison
- Analytics
- Comprehensive
- Explanatory - Projective
- Integrative - Integrative
- Confirmatory
- Evaluative

Hurtara de Barrera Fountain. J , (2000).

 RESEARCH ACCORDING TO TEMPORALITY

Chart 8. Research according to Temporality.

Source: Hurtado de Barrera.

Variables and their

Operationalization

A variable is in principle a characteristic, a feature or dimension of an

object, an attribute that can change in one or more ways. Variables can be
defined, according to Bautista (1998), as the characteristic properties and
manifestations of the objects or subjects to be studied in a research situation
that are susceptible to taking different qualitative or quantitative values.
Variable is the opposite of constant.
According to Sierra Bravo (1985), Variable is an aspect that must be
studied in an investigation, which changes according to the questions and
objectives planned in the investigation. According to the regulations for the
preparation of degree works of the Universidad Santa María, USM, (2000), it is
advisable to identify the variables based on the specific objectives.

Types of Variables
1. BY THEIR NATURE they are classified as qualitative and
quantitative.
Qualitative: These are characteristics that have qualities without
numerical values (for example: sex and marital status). They are classified as
Dichotomous (they have two categories) and Polytomic (they have more than
two categories).
Quantitative: These are characteristics that have numerical values.
They are classified as Discrete (they cannot take decimal values, for example
number of people) and Continuous (they take decimal values).
2. BY THE LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION depends on the complexity of
the variables to be observed, they are classified as:
Nominal: (more complex, for example delinquency, aggression,
frustration).'
Intermediate: Begins to define nominal or abstract variables and real
variables.
Indicators: These are empirical variables that can be observed directly
(number of robberies, location where they occur).
3. ACCORDING TO THE POSITION THEY OCCUPY IN THE
RESEARCH,
classified into:
Independent: Factor that affects other variables, presented by levels,
application of a method.
Dependents: Modified by the independent
Interveners: They cannot be controlled by the researcher.
Moderate: They can affect the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables.
Control: It is what is taken into consideration and controlled so that it
does not affect the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables.
4. ACCORDING TO THE OBSERVATION UNITS, according to the
people to be investigated, they are classified as:
Individual: Absolute, they refer to the characteristics of an individual
without taking into account the relationship with other individuals in the group.
Related or Relative: They depend on the group in relation to the
individual.
Comparative: Comparison with specific characteristics of a research
group (the age of the preschool student)
Contextual: Affected by the context in which the individual develops
(Students from private schools have satisfactory economic conditions)
Collective: The relationship of the individual with respect to the
group is taken into account.
Analytics: Statistics or mathematics (% or frequency) are always
used to analyze research data.
Global: These are characteristics of the group in general that do not -
necessarily have to do with individual characteristics (average academic
performance).
Structural: Mathematical processes are used to determine group
cohesion or the acceptance of an individual within the group. It refers to the
formation of the group as such.
Variables and their classification have applications in data analysis and
the development of instruments.
5. ACCORDING TO THE SCALE
Nominal: The order of their importance in terms of frequency or
fashion analysis does not matter; they are of qualitative order (number of -
people of a certain sex).
Ordinals: They give order, but there is no differentiated interval between
them. Likert scale is used in some cases.
Interval: The same distance is presented between one and the other,
all types of statistics are applied. The interval is equal.
Reason: They have all the above characteristics but they have an
absolute point or zero, there is no value.
The variable can be defined from a conceptual point of view or from the
breakdown that makes its observation and recording possible
(operationalization). Depending on the behavior of the individuals who make up
the research. Based on the intrinsic characteristics of the individuals who are
part of the research. Statistical characteristics of an individual (for example a
person's IQ)
The operationalization of variables refers to their definition based on the
study being conducted, to make their use, observation, recording feasible and,
if possible, to measure or quantify them in the research process.
The dimension is given by the degrees or aspects in which the variable
can change or be observed. Concrete evidence of the variables is called
indicators. To facilitate this aspect of the research, it is suggested that a
variable operationalization table be developed, such as the one presented
below (see examples included in Annex C), which breaks down in a practical
way the aspects to be considered in the operationalization of the variables.

Table 4. Operationalization of Variables

Variable Conceptual Definition Dimensions indicators Instrument Item

Source Bautista M., (1998)

Population and Sample

The goal of most scientific research is to make general statements
based on relatively limited and specific observations (Schefler, 1983).
The term population refers to the limited set of individuals, objects,
etc., that belong to the same class because they have similar characteristics.
From a practical point of view, a population is generally a group so large
that direct observations are precluded. Instead, observations are made on a
small segment of the population. This small segment is called a Sample and
conclusions or estimates about the population are derived from observations of
the sample.
It is clear that if the sample is to provide valid data about the population,
the sample itself must constitute a fairly accurate profile of the population. In
other words, it is essential that the sample be representative of the population
from which it was taken.
Samples can be of two fundamental types: Probabilistic and Non-
Probabilistic. Probabilistic sampling is characterized because the probability of
selection of each of the elements that make up the population can be
determined in advance. The selection of the elements must be done through a
random procedure.
The most commonly used Probabilistic samples are:
a) Simple random sampling: consists of selecting, using a simple
procedure, the units that will make up the sample. A code must be assigned to
each member of the population and then the elements of the sample are
randomly selected. This procedure is similar to that of the Lottery or the Bingo
game.
b) Stratified sampling: It consists of dividing the population into
internally homogeneous strata, for example: by sex, by age, by socioeconomic
level, etc. Then, the members of the sample are randomly selected within each
stratum.
c) Systematic Sampling: There must be a record of the elements of the
population, they are assigned a number and chosen at random, the assigned
number will be used to establish the intervals, for example: choose 3 by 3.
d) Cluster sampling: Used in the Social Sciences, the geographic area
is divided into sub-areas, then a predetermined number of areas are randomly
chosen and so on.
 The fundamental feature of non-probability sampling is that the
probability that an element of the population is part of the sample is unknown.
This type of sampling does not ensure representativeness, since not all
members of the population will have the same probability of being part of the
sample.

Non-probability sampling can be

a) By quotas: This consists of forming the sample in such a way that

each of the sectors under study are represented; for this purpose, quotas are
assigned to the interviewers. For example: 10 Professionals, 5 Housewives
and 17 Students. This choice is made arbitrarily.

b) Casual: In this type of sampling, the characteristics of the individuals

to be interviewed are not predetermined, nor are any criteria used, except the
sample size.

c) Intentional: The researcher obtains information from population units

chosen according to pre-established criteria, selecting representatives. For
example: If you want to interview experts in History to find out their opinion on
a fact, you proceed to interview personalities who meet the predetermined
characteristics.

Data Collection

Table 5 - Data Collection According to the Model

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE l

It is based on observation. Uses It is based on observation.

experimental and non- Preferably use field designs.
experimental designs. It is based on the description of
It is based on the measurement features, attributes or qualities of
of characteristics or properties of phenomena or people.
phenomena, things or people.
 - It is about assigning a number to - It refers to the registration of
the observed aspect, not to the the mental formation and how the
object or person as such, therefore investigated subject manifests
it depends on the object. itself, therefore it depends on the
- It facilitates the formation of subject.
concepts about facts or phenomena - It facilitates the formation of
based on measurements, which are concepts about a phenomenon or
then interpreted by the researcher. person, based on the person who
describes it, there is no
interpretation on their part.
from the researcher
Source: Prepared by the author.

Data Collection Techniques

- They are the procedures or activities carried out with the purpose of
collecting the information necessary to achieve the objectives of an
investigation.
- It refers to how to collect the data
- They are related to the operationalization of the variables under study.
The main data collection techniques are: observation, interviews and
surveys (for field or laboratory research) and content analysis (for documentary
research).
The Observation

It consists of the systematic, valid and reliable record of manifest -

behavior or conduct. It can be used to determine a group's acceptance of their
teacher, analyze family conflicts, mass events, the acceptance of a product in a
supermarket, a person's behavior, etc. It includes the selection of the subject or
interest and an exhaustive examination that will probably require the use of -
instruments that allow precision and accuracy.
 PARTICIPANT NON-PARTICIPATING

Used basically in qualitative research. It It owes its name to the fact that
can be NATURAL or ARTIFICIAL. the observer does not interact
with the observed objects.

STRUCTURED OR SYSTEMATIC
UNSTRUCTURED OR NON-SYSTEMATIC

Preparing for observation

1. Determine and define what is to be observed.

2. Establish the necessary observation time.

3. Obtain permission from the person, organization, community or

context to carry out the observation.

4. Explain, if necessary, to the people who are going to be observed

what is going to be done and the reasons for it. In some cases, this step is not
carried out directly with the subjects involved because it can be a factor that
alters what you want to observe.

Driving for observation

1. Familiarize yourself with the physical components of the immediate

observation area.

2. While observing, measure time periodically.

3. Note down what you observe as specifically as possible, avoiding

generalities and vague descriptions.

4. If you are in contact with the people you are observing, you
should refrain from making qualitative comments or comments that
imply a value judgment.
5. Observe the rules of courtesy and safety.
 After observation
1 Formally document and organize notes, impressions, etc.
2 . FReview the results and conclusions with the person observed,
or with the immediate supervisor and possibly with other members
of the organization or community.
The interview
It consists of a conversation between two or more people in which
one is the interviewer and the other or others are the interviewees. -
Interviews are used to collect information verbally, through questions
proposed by the researcher or interviewer. Respondents will provide data.
The researcher may interview people individually or in groups.
Within an investigation, the interview is a significant and productive
technique for collecting data, since it is an exchange of information that
takes place face to face. It is a communication channel between the
researcher and his population or sample under study; it serves to obtain
information about needs and how to satisfy them.
Interview Preparation
1. Determine the position that the future interviewee occupies in the
community, organization, or context where the research is
conducted. Your basic responsibilities, activities, etc. (Research).
2. Prepare the questions to be asked. (E develop the interview script)
3. Set a time limit and prepare the agenda for the interview.
(Psychology).
4. Choose a place where the interview can be conducted with the -
greatest comfort (Psychology).
5. Make the appointment well in advance (Planning).
Conducting the Interview
1. Explain in full the purpose and scope of the study (Honesty).
2. Explain the role of the interviewer within the research and the role
expected to be conferred on the interviewee. (Impartiality).
3. Ask specific questions to get quantitative answers (Facts).
4. Avoid questions that require interested opinions, subjectivity and
similar attitudes (skill).
5. Avoid whispering and meaningless phrases (Clarity). Maintain control
of the interview, avoiding digressions and comments that are off topic.
6. Be polite and restrained, refraining from making value judgments.
(Objectivity).
 7. Listen carefully to what is said, taking care not to anticipate responses
(Communication).
Post Interview
1. Writing the results (Documentation).
2. Provide a copy to the interviewee, requesting confirmation, corrections
or additions. (Professionalism).
3. Archive interview results for later reference and analysis
(Documentation).
The survey
It is a technique to obtain information from a sample of individuals. This
“sample” is usually only a fraction of the population under study. Information is
collected using standardized procedures so that each individual is asked the
same questions in more or less the same way. The intention of the survey is
not to describe the particular individuals who are part of the sample but to
obtain a composite profile of the population. There is no simple rule for sample
size that can be used in all surveys. Much of this depends on the professional
and financial resources available.
Researchers often find that a moderate sample size is statistically
and operationally sufficient. Surveys not only have a wide variety of
purposes, but can also be conducted in many ways, including by
telephone, by mail, or in person. A well-known example is the
measurement of television audiences using devices connected to a
sample of televisions that automatically record the channels being
watched. Surveys provide rapid and inexpensive means of determining
the reality of our economy and people's knowledge, attitudes, beliefs,
expectations and/or behaviors. Questions can be open (“Why do you feel
that way?”) or closed (“Do you approve or disapprove?”). Researchers or
interviewers may ask the participant to evaluate a political candidate or a
product using some scale, or they may ask the participant to rank several
alternatives.
Content Analysis
It is a technique that allows to reduce and systematize any -
information contained in written documents, films, recordings, etc. It is
used when the sources of information are secondary (not live). It allows
the construction of data matrices (also called analysis matrices or content
matrices) that facilitate interpretation and comparisons between different
documents, authors, data from various sources or time periods.
 The steps to follow to carry out a content analysis are generally the
following:
1) Define the variables that intervene in the problem under study
and find verbal or graphic indicators that can be found in the
documents investigated.
2) Conduct an audit of the documents relevant to the investigation.
If there are many units of information detected, it will be
necessary to extract a sample.
3) Conduct a brief review of the content of the materials. The
objective of this is to find the specific aspects that can be
identified with the variables and indicators already defined.
4) Tabulate the information obtained. Finally, the tables prepared
with the data collected will be analyzed to find their trends and
the meaning of the figures or other data found, in order to be able
to produce the general conclusions of the work.
Data Collection Instruments
They are the means that allow us to observe and record
characteristics, behaviors, etc., and in general any data that we wish to
obtain in an educational situation to investigate, evaluate or supervise. It
refers to what? Collect the information. Through an adequate construction
of the data collection instruments, the research achieves the necessary -
correspondence between theory and facts that occur in the reality studied.
The general steps for the development and application of the instrument
are:
- Definition of objectives
- Instrument selection
- Preparation of the specifications or operationalization table1
- Consideration of practical conditions
- Validation
- Pilot Test
- Reliability
- Application
- Observation
Information scripts:
encoding structured/unstructured.
- Interview script:
Preparation structured/unstructured.
of data tables or charts.
- Opinion questionnaires: structured/unstructured.
Table 6. Data Collection Techniques and Instruments.

TECHNIQU INSTRUMENTS
ES (How?) (With what?)

- Observation = See

- Interview = dialogue

- Survey = read

Source Prepared by the Author

OPINION QUESTIONNAIRES

4
ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF
QUESTION-ANSWER

OPEN CLOSED

VARIOUS OPTIONS

DICHOTOMOUS

VERBAL GRAPHICS
(Likert type)

Chart 9. The Opinion Questionnaire

Source Prepared by the Author.
Chart 9. The Opinion Questionnaire
Source Prepared by the Author.
 Validation of the Instrument
It refers to the degree to which an instrument actually measures the
variable it purports to measure. There are various types of validity, the best
known are: content, construct and criterion validity.
Content Validity
It is the presentation of the sample of the content of the measuring
instrument: this validity is given by the question. Every behavior has a theoretical
universe of content made up of everything that can be affirmed or observed about
it. An instrument contains content validity when it covers all the important aspects
that it is intended to measure, after carrying out a prior exhaustive bibliographic
review and consulting experts, presenting them with the behavior that it wishes to
measure.
Construct Validity
It refers to the degree to which a measurement is consistently related to
other measurements according to theoretically derived hypotheses and concerns
the concepts being measured. This allows the subject who answers the
instrument to consider that it is useful and that it measures something specific.
Construct validity is linked to theory; validation is not carried out unless there is a
theoretical framework that supports the variable in relation to other variables. The
more verification and elaboration found in the theoretical framework that supports
the hypothesis, the validation of the construct can shed firmness on the validity of
a measurement instrument.
Validity of Criterion
It is related to the comparison of the presentations of a test with one or
more external variables or criteria that are believed to measure the behavior in
question. The criterion validity of a measuring instrument's criterion by comparing
it with some external criterion must be a standard by which the validity of the
instrument is judged.
Types of Criterion Validity
 - Time test ^predictive criterion (looks into the future).
- Test jointly ^concurrent criterion (set in the present).
The instrument results are correlated with the criterion at the same
moment or point in time.
Table 7. Validation as a research quality control process.

OE THE INVESTIGATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

(IN TERM) (EXTERNAL)

- Adaptation of the structure- - Expert opinions

research project - Contents
- Constructs
- Criteria

Source Prepared by the Author

Reliability
It refers to the degree to which repeated application of the instrument to
the same subject or object produces the same results. It is determined by
various techniques with which the reliability of a measuring instrument is
calculated using formulas that produce reliability coefficients. After reviewing the
validity of the instrument, a pilot test is applied. Reliability is given based on the
accuracy of the measurement performed.
Pilot Test
Application test, verification of the Instrument to determine its reliability, is
carried out by taking 10% of the subjects from the population.

UL
MORE OR LESS SIMILAR RESULTS AT DIFFERENT TIMES
OF APPLICATION (Under similar conditions).
K-ih9d> ”r%
K-richardson Alfa (kr-20/kr-21) Cronbacha

Chart 10. The Pilot Test

Source: Prepared by the Author
 Reliability represents the difference between measurements made of the
same characteristic on different occasions. It is represented by a scale ranging
from 0 to 1, the closer the coefficient obtained is to 1, the more reliable the
instrument will be.

0 1

Not reliable Highly reliable

Chart 11. Representation of Reliability

Table 8. Interpretation of Reliability.

0,81 to 1 = Very high reliability

0,61 to 0,81 = High reliability
0,41 to 0,60 = Moderate reliability
0,21 to 0,40 = Low reliability
0,01 to 0,20 = Very low reliability

Source: Ruiz Bolivar (2002)

Procedure

Description of the Phases for carrying out an investigation

PHASES

Field Documentation Analysis Communication

Yo Yo
Application of
Collection
Techniques and
Selection
Instruments
Reading
Analysis of
Interpretive Statistics Written Oral
Literature
Construction

Gralico 12. Phases of research

Source: I prepared by the Author
Chart 13 When and where of research
Source: Prepared by the Author
 Schedule of Activities
Description of tasks (steps to follow) to achieve the objectives
(development of the research), based on time. For this purpose, the use of the
Gantt Chart is recommended. (Double entry matrix: activities/time)
Table 9. Schedule of Activities

Importance of Selecting
the Methodology

It is common to observe the tendency to carry out documentary

research work, where the bibliographic review is essential, but this is not
enough; the student-researcher must propose new approaches to the problem
being investigated.
For the development of Research Projects, Field Research is
suggested, as this is the most appropriate for solving problems with the
application of methods that give it a scientific character, which constitutes the
essential objective of the inclusion of research projects in programs from the
Third Stage of Basic Education (EB), in those of Diversified and Professional
Secondary Education (EMDP) (Bautista, 1994), as well as in the majority of
higher education courses (at undergraduate and graduate levels).
 It is important to consider some elements when selecting the problem,
as it is vital that the Student Researcher considers his or her concerns and
interests or those of the Community. It is advisable to take into account some
criteria, such as: The contribution of the problem to their preparation and
development for their future studies in Higher Education (when it comes to EB
and/or EMDP students); if it provides a solution to a need to be resolved in the
chosen field of study, its applicability and usefulness, access to information,
time and material and economic resources available.
 CHAPTER III
YOUTH SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Justification of Research Projects

In the Eighth (8th) grade programs of EB (Ministry of Education (ME),

1987) and in the First and Second Sciences of EMDP (ME, 1991) objectives
related to the design, elaboration and execution of Research Projects are
contemplated, where the Student must apply the steps of the Scientific
Method in the solution of a problem of interest related to his community.
(Baptist, 1993)
The presence of these projects in the programs is linked to the general
objectives pursued at these educational levels, such as: Contributing to the
comprehensive training of the student, developing their scientific skills and
abilities, and developing research capacity in each one. The teaching of
Science must be linked to training students in the processes of Science as a
means to encourage in them a positive attitude towards research and
willingness to undertake innovations, scientific criteria and conceptualizations
to analyze a problem, to identify implicit variables in a given situation, in short,
to value scientific activity and see it as an activity accessible to them.
When a person tries to help others learn and does so through discovery
(by collecting and organizing information), we call this Research. When
research includes problem solving involving creativity, we call this Creative
Teaching. Research is man's way of learning. Learn from your discoveries,
from your participation. Discovery is the means, participation is the method
and knowledge is the objective of your search. (Logan and Logan 1980).
 Some institutions, such as the Venezuelan Association for the
Advancement of Science (ASOVAC), the Center for the Improvement of
Science Teaching (CENAMEC). The Ministry of Education (ME) and the
Orinoquia Civil Association (through its Science and Technology clubs),
the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research
(CONICIT), or they are given continuity.
By virtue of the importance of these research projects. It is
necessary to guide EB and EMDP students in carrying out these works,
since there is no specific subject that provides students at these
educational levels with knowledge about Research Methodology.
There are different criteria on the ways of writing, preparing or
presenting Research Projects, so it is convenient to unify criteria in this
regard. Every preliminary project requires a minimum of aspects: stating
the problem, establishing the objectives, formulating the hypothesis (if
necessary) and describing the methodology to address the problem.
This preliminary draft becomes a Project when it has background
information, the methodology has been specified as a result of a
bibliographic review and it includes the initial references. (Bello, D. and
others, 1993)
The project constitutes the complete work plan and is developed
once approved by the Teacher-Advisor or Tutor. Once the work is
completed, the Final Report is prepared and it is no longer referred to as a
Project but rather as a Research Report. (In secondary education, this
research report is usually presented and defended in the last period of
the school year.)
In the case of higher education, once the execution phase has
been developed, it is no longer called a project and is called a degree
project, research project, thesis (in the case of Doctorates), promotion
project or final research report. In this case, the report must include
chapters referring to the presentation and analysis of the results,
conclusions and recommendations, and in those works that deal with
feasible projects, the proposal chapter will also be included.
 CHAPTER IV
RULES FOR THE PREPARATION OF PROJECTS
RESEARCH

This manual is aimed at those who are involved in research and is

the result of a compilation of information from specialized literature on
this subject. In this regard, some basic rules are proposed for the
development of Research Projects:
1. Research projects must include the aspects contemplated in the
following scheme:
CHAPTERS

I. THE PROBLEM
Problem Statement
Questions of the investigation
Research Objectives
General objective
Specific Objectives
Justification
II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Research Background
Theoretical Foundation
Legal Basis of the Investigation (if any)
Hypothesis formulation (optional)
III. METHODOLOGY
Type of Research
Variables and their Operationalization
Population and Sample
Data Collection Techniques and Instruments
Description of the Methodology or Procedure
IV. F FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH
Activity Plan
Available Time
Human Resources
Material Resources
 Bibliographic Resources
Economic Resources
REFERENCES
ANNEXES (OPTIONAL)
2. In addition to the aspects considered in the presented outline,
the Research Projects must include preliminary pages, which
include: The identification page. The table of contents, the lists
of tables and graphs (if any), and the abstract.
3. The identification page 3 must contain: the identification of the
Institute (campus) where the student is conducting his/her
research (at the top of the page and centered), The tentative
title of the research (in the central part of the page, in capital
letters and centered). The name(s) of the author(s) are placed
right-justified towards the bottom of the page and the city and
date of presentation are at the bottom, in the center.
4. The index ; of! Contents consists of a list of the titles of
Chapters and subtitles of the sections of the work, indicating
the page number in each case (see the model of the Table of
Contents of this Manual).
5. A summary must be included within the preliminary pages. It
must be typed in single space and must contain the most
relevant aspects of each chapter, expressed in a single
paragraph of no more than three hundred (300) words (see
appendix E).
6. The text of the project is made up of the Chapters mentioned in
the presented outline. The final report (which is delivered once
the execution phase has finished) will consist of the
modifications of this outline presented in standard No. 22
(inclusion of chapters IV and V or VI, if necessary)
7. The list of references includes? the sources that have been
cited in the work, arranged alphabetically and following the -
instructions (see appendix A).
8. When writing the work, you should use formal, simple and direct
language: trying not to use uncommon or ambiguous
expressions.
9. The writing1must be done3in the third person, avoiding the use
of pronouns: I, you, we, my, our, etc.
 10. Acronyms may be used to refer to organizations, instruments,
or variables frequently used in the text. These acronyms must
be explained when they are used for the first time, writing the
full name, followed by the acronyms in capital letters and within
parentheses, such as: Ministry of Education (ME), Central
University of Venezuela (UCV), National Educational Unit for
Sports Training "Germán Villalobos" (UENFDGV), National
Educational Unit "Edoardo Crema" (UENEC), etc.
11. The paper to be used must be white bond paper, letter size.
Tables and graphs should be the same size as the rest of the
work.
12. All work must be written in the same font, except when computer-
generated graphic material is included, or the scientific names of
species, which may be in italics or in the same font but underlined.
13. Typing will be done in black ink. Signs and marks that cannot be
made by machine shall be drawn with black Chinese ink.
14. The text of the work will be typed in one and a half spaces (1.5). A
single space will be used for the summary, textual quotes of more
than forty words (these should be in a margin of five spaces on
each side, starting from the original image of the text) and
references.
15. When the information is not original to the researcher or research
group, but is taken without modifications or interpretations, some
reference must be indicated at the beginning (According to..see
model in paragraphs of this Manual) or at the end of the
paragraph, indicating the Author and the year in parentheses, (for
example: Bautista, 1998).
16. Three single line spaces will be used after each chapter title and
each subtitle.
17. The margins to be used will be: four (4) cm. On the left side and at
the top and three (3) cm on the right side and at the bottom.
18. Each Chapter must start on a new page.
19. Blank spaces within the same chapter should be avoided.
20. Preliminary pages will be numbered with lowercase Roman
numerals. In the rest of the work the page number will be placed in
the lower central part.
21. Tables and graphs must have their titles and must be incorporated
in the appropriate place in the text and not at the end of each
Chapter or in appendices.
22. After the execution phase has finished, the Final report must be
prepared, which will be made up of the same Chapters of the
project but with some changes, such as: Elimination of Chapter IV
(Feasibility of the research), instead, Chapter IV is developed
(Presentation and Analysis of the Results), Expansion of Chapter II
(Theoretical or Reference Framework) through the review of the
bibliography and Incorporation of Chapters V (Conclusions and
Recommendations) and Expansion of the bibliographic references.
In some cases, such as Feasible Projects, Chapter VI (The
Proposal) is also included.
23. Chapter IV (Presentation and Analysis of Results) refers to the
organization and presentation of the data collected, the
interpretation that the Student-Researcher gives to the results
obtained in the execution phase, and must be based on a
Statistical Analysis of the data, the use of statistical parameters is
given validity to the results; it is also advisable to accompany the
analysis of the data with an author's support that allows to support
the interpretation given. The Analysis of the Results will allow the
postulation of conclusions (See Annex VI).
24. Both the Project and the Final Report must be presented in a
binding that meets the requirements of the department, program or
subprogram that will evaluate the work.
25. In the Final Report, you can incorporate (if desired)
Acknowledgements and Dedication, to recognize those institutions
or people who in some way collaborated with the development of
the Research.
 CHAPTER V
ACTIVITIES

To reinforce knowledge about Research Methodology on the rules to

follow for the development of Research Projects, a series of exercises on the
subject are presented below:
Applicability of the Scientific Method
1. Based on the information provided in Chapter I, E creates a
comparative table of the differences between Science and Common
Sense.
2. Select one of the observations presented below and formulate a title,
state a problem, a hypothesis, design an appropriate experiment that
can accept or reject the hypothesis.
a) There are more traffic accidents at nightfall than at any other time
of the day.
b) The number of criminal incidents is higher on weekends than the
rest of the week.
3. Select an everyday problem and try to solve it, applying the steps of
the Scientific Method.
Variables and their Operationalization
According to what was established in Chapter I, Variables are attributes
of an object, phenomenon or situation that can change.
Below you are presented with a Hypothesis and an Objective, select the
research variables for each one, classify them according to the relationship
between them and then write the operational definition of each one of them.
(You must select the objective variables for the operational definition and then
the hypothesis variables).
HYPOTHESIS: The more harmonious the emotional climate in the
classroom, the more creative the students will be.
OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects produced by the consumption of a
fixed dose of Valium on mice of the Mus Musculus species.
Once the Variables, the objective and the hypothesis have been
identified, proceed to fill out a table like the following for each case (see model
in appendix C).

VARIABLE OPERATIONAL DEFINITION DIMENSION INDICATORS

 From Your Research Project

To guide the completion of your research project, answer the

following questions and activities:
1) What do you want to investigate?
2) Write the Title of your project
3) What specifically do you want to research?
4) Does the Title express the content of your work?
5) What do you want to investigate it for?
6) Write a General Objective for your research
7) Is the overall objective directly related to your title?
8) Write a hypothesis.
9) Describe how you are going to test this hypothesis.
10)What will your sample be and how will you select it?
11) How and with what will you collect data?
12) What statistical analysis will you perform?
13) What is the feasibility of this research?
 RELEVANT BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

Asti V, A (1970) Research Methodology Buenos Aires, Editorial Kapeluz.

Bautista M. E (1993) Proposal for the Creation of a Scientific Information
Center as a means of Support and Updating for Students in the area of
Natural Sciences, specializing in Biology, of the Pedagogical Institute of
Caracas. Master's degree thesis project. Unpublished Libertador
Experimental Pedagogical University, Pedagogical Institute of Caracas,
Caracas.
Bautista M. E (1994) Introduction to Research Methodology for Secondary
Education. (Mimeographed Material). unedited.
Baptist, M.E. (1998) Research Methodology Manual. Lithocenter Graphics.
Caracas.
Baptist, M.E. (2001, June 26) Qualitative research as a new paradigm: an
efficient formula to confront traditional rigorism in research. Daily Economic
Report, special section. p. 17
Becerra, A. (2002) Thesaurus of University Academic Research. Pedagogical
Institute of Caracas.
Bello, D. and others (1993) Operational Manual for the Organization and
Implementation of Scientific and Technological and Youth Activities, ME.-
CENAMEC-ASOVAC., Caracas.
Chavez, L. (1991) How to prepare references according to UPEL standards
“Monseñor Rafael Arias Blanco” Pedagogical Institute, Caracas
(Mimeographed Material).
Felliu, Z de Tineo, A. (1990) Biology II year EMDP Caracas, Editorial Colegial
Bolivariana.
Hurtado de Barrera, J. (2000) Holistic Research Methodology Sypal
Foundation. Caracas.
Kerlinger, F. (1975). Behavioral Research Interamericana Publishing House.
Spain.
Logan, I. and Logan, V. (1980) Strategies for Creative Teaching Barcelona,
Spain Ediciones Oikos.
Ministry of Education National Planning and Budget Office (1987) Biological
Sciences Programs for Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Grades of Basic
Education, Caracas: Author
Ministry of Education, National Planning and Budget Office (1991) EMDP
Articulation Programs Biological Sciences Subject, First and Second Year
of Sciences. Caracas, Author.
Ramirez, T. (1992) How to make a Research Project Editorial Carhel. Caracas.
Ruiz Bolívar, C., (2002) Design of Research Instruments and Educational -
Evaluation. CIDEG Publishing House, Venezuela.
Schefler W. (1983) Biostatistics. Mexico: Inter-American Educational Fund.
Sierra Bravo, R. (1985) Methodology of Social Sciences. Paraninfo Publishing
House, Madrid
Libertador Experimental Pedagogical University, Vice-Rectorate for Research
and Postgraduate Studies. (2003). Manual of Master's Degree Theses and
Doctoral Theses. Caracas: Author
Santa María University, (2000) Standards for the Preparation. Presentation and
Evaluation of the Degree Theses (Master's Degree). Caracas: Author.
 ANNEX A
HOW TO PREPARE REFERENCES
ACCORDING TO UPEL STANDARDS, (2003)
Elements of reference
The reference generally comprises four essential elements: (a) the
author(s), (b) the date, (c) the title, and (d) the publication data. The only group
to which this structure does not apply is legal sources, whose structure
comprises only three elements: (a) the title, (b) the date, and (c) the publication
data.

REFERENCE MATERIALS

Printed Sources
Reference materials are classified
Audiovisual
sources
Electronic
Sources

Mentioned in the work in

Quotes

F3355u18*UG.GiG..........................................2
LIST OF TABLES..............................12
Chart PP.....................................12
PRESENTATION...........................11
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY..........................13
Research: Definition and
Characteristics.................................13
Description of the Stages.................14
The Scientific Method.....................15
Steps of Scientific Research............16
The Problem....................................18
His approach....................................18
Research Questions.........................20
Justification......................................22
The Theoretical Framework............22
Functions:........................................24
Structure:.........................................24
CHAPTER II...................................25
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....25
Types of Research...........................25
According to the sources.................25
Documentary research.....................26
Field Research.................................28
Experimental Research....................28
Feasible Projects..............................30
Characteristics:................................30
Variables and their
Operationalization...........................32
Types of Variables...........................32
3. ACCORDING TO THE
POSITION THEY OCCUPY IN THE
RESEARCH,...................................33
5. ACCORDING TO THE
SCALE............................................34
Population and Sample....................35
The most commonly used
Probabilistic samples are:................36
Non-probability sampling can be....37
QUANTITATIVE...........................37
QUALITATIVE l.......................37
Data Collection Techniques............38
The Observation..............................38
Preparing for observation................39
Driving for observation...................39
After observation.............................40
The interview...................................40
Conducting the Interview................40
Post Interview..................................41
The survey.......................................41
Content Analysis.............................42
 Data Collection Instruments............42
Validation of the Instrument............45
Content Validity..............................45
Construct Validity...........................45
Validity of Criterion........................45
Table 7. Validation as a research
quality control process.....................46
Reliability........................................46
Pilot Test..........................................46
UL...............................................................46
Procedure.........................................47
Schedule of Activities......................49
Importance of Selecting the
Methodology....................................49
CHAPTER III..................................51
Justification of Research Projects....51
CHAPTER IV..................................54
CHAPTER V...................................59
ACTIVITIES...................................59
Applicability of the Scientific Method
.........................................................59
Variables and their Operationalization
.........................................................59
ANNEX A.......................................65
HOW TO PREPARE REFERENCES
ACCORDING TO UPEL
STANDARDS, (2003)....................65
Elements of reference......................65
Making citations and notes..............71
General Reference Citations............72
Criteria for the Ordering of Records72
From a Book, with the name of a city
in more than one country, with a -
translator and year of publication:
(Chávez, L 1991).............................77
From Corporate Author:..................77
From an Encyclopedia without an
Author:.............................................77
From an Encyclopedia with Author:
.........................................................77
Specialized magazine article:..........77
Legal Type Sources:........................77
 Press Article:...................................77
With Author:....................................77
No Author:.......................................78
Presentations and publications derived
from Events:....................................78
(For 2nd year EMDP Science
Students)..........................................79
(VARIABLE
OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE
MODEL)...............................................2
Table X. Operationalization of
Variables...............................................2
ANNEX D...............................................77
Field research...................................77
SUMMARY....................................95
Some examples of the most
commonly used formulas in
Statistical Analysis..........................96
When the area under the curve is
known:.............................................96
xx.........................................................97
When the area under the curve is
 unknown..........................................98
Test procedure T:.............................98
Less than More than 40
40 words words

Source: UPEL, (2003). Prepared by the Author

Making citations and notes

To cite is to give credit to the ideas and findings that belong to others. To
plagiarize is to use the spoken or written words, scientific discoveries,
technological products, audiovisual productions and artistic creations of other
authors, without mentioning the sources, or presenting them as if they were
one's own creation.
Sources can be cited using the following methods: (a) general reference
citations of the authors and their works, (b) textual content citations: direct and
translated, (c) paraphrases and summaries, and (d) citations in notes that cover
what is stated in the text.
General Reference Citations
This form of citation is used to point out the work done by other authors,
comment on their contributions, present chronologies of work on the topic or
refer the reader to complementary sources, among other possible purposes.
The following explains how to register the following cases of authorship.
- The list of references is presented after the last chapter of the work,
on a new page, with the title REFERENCES at the top and center.
- Records are typed single-spaced, with a space and a half between
them, the first line of each record starts at the left margin established
for the text, and the following lines with a French indent of three
spaces to the right.
- A single list must be drawn up, integrating printed, audiovisual and
electronic sources, arranged alphabetically.
Criteria for the Ordering of Records
The fundamental criterion for the preparation of reference lists is
alphabetical, according to the rules set out below:
- The ordering is done by the author's last name or the first author in
 collective works, taking first the segment before the comma, and then
the initials of the name.
- When you have several jobs? a single) individual author. The
references are ordered by year of publication, placing the first term.
- If two or more works by the same author (individual or collective) have
the same year of publication, they will be ordered by the first letter of
the title.
- When two or more authors have the same first surname, the order will
be based on the initials of the name.
- Institutional authorship works are placed where appropriate in
alphabetical order and according to the publication date criteria
described above.
- If the work has no author, the reference begins with the title of the
work and is ordered in the list by the first significant word, ignoring the
articles. Only when the work appears signed with the word:
anonymous, this word is placed opposite the author and is ordered by
the letter a.
- When the work appears signed with a pseudonym or initials, it will be
ordered alphabetically by the first letter.
- References to legal sources are ordered by the first word of the title.
- Work by an Author
The surname and year of publication are written in the text, in the most
appropriate place. If the author's surname appears as part of a narrative, the
year of publication is cited after it in parentheses.
If the name does not appear in the narrative, the surname and year are
placed in parentheses in the most appropriate place.
If the author and the year are mentioned in the speech, parentheses are
not used.
When references are made to the same author and work in successive
paragraphs, the abbreviation for "work cited" (ob cit.) may be placed in
parentheses.
 - Work by two Authors
When the work has two authors, the surnames of both should always be
cited in the order in which they appear in the reference list.
- Work of three to five authors
The surnames of all authors are cited the first time the reference appears
in the text. Then, in the following citations, only the surname of the first author
is written followed by the expression: and others.
- Six or more authors
When the work has six or more authors, only the surname of the first
author is cited in the text, followed by the expression: and others, and the year
of publication.
- Works with Institutional Authorship
Institutional or corporate audit works are cited using the full name of the
organization listed as the author. Acronyms may only be used if they are well-
known, or sufficiently intrusive to guide the location of the work in the list of
references.
- Works without author and with Anonymous Authors
When a work has no author, personnel or institution, the first words of the
bibliographic record are cited (starting significant words with a capital letter)
and the year. If it is a book, the words quoted are written in italics or underlined;
and if it is an article or chapter of a book, they are in quotation marks.
- Authors with the same surname
The citation in the text must include the initials of the names (unless one
of them has a second surname) to avoid confusion in the assignment of
authorship, even when the works are from different years.
- Job appointment with compound date
This case includes the following situations: (a) works published in journal
issues that occur more than one year ago, and (b) works published
published in volumes or tomes in different years. In both situations, the years
corresponding to the reference are recorded in chronological order, but
separated from each other by a hyphen.
- Two or more jobs in the same appointment
In the case of including several works within the same parenthesis, the
following must be met:
1. When the references correspond to the same author (individual,
collective or institutional), the authorship assignment data is written,
then the dates of all the works that you want to cite are placed, the
oldest first (if there is one in print, it is cited at the end). All the data
within the parentheses is separated by a comma. If several works by
the cited author have the same year of publication, they are identified
with the letters a, b, c and if so, these letters must correspond to those
assigned in the reference list, respecting the alphabetical order of the
titles.
2. When multiple authors are cited within the same parentheses, the
authorship assignment data is recorded in alphabetical order, as it
appears in the reference list, regardless of the temporal order of the
works.
- Quote taken from secondary sources
Only different works consulted should appear in the reference list. When
the quote is taken from a secondary source that refers to it, it is the latter that
must appear in this list; however, when citing the reference in the text, both
sources will be mentioned.
- Quote taken from translated sources
In this record, the year of publication of the original version is entered
first, followed by the year of publication of the translated edition. Dates are
separated by a diagonal line.
 - Quote from a source
To cite specific parts of a printed source, in addition to the author (or title)
and date information, the page, chapter, graphic table or aspect that you wish
to mention is indicated. The words pages and chapter should always be
abbreviated (page = pp.; pages = pp. capituIlo=cap.; capí tuIlos=caps.) The
words Cuadro and Gráfico are written in full, with the first letter capitalized.
Preparation of the Reference List
The list of references includes printed, audiovisual and electronic sources
cited in the text of the work or thesis. Each of the sources cited in the text of the
project or work must appear in the reference list.
Form recommendations:
Citations and notes in the text serve to refer to the reference list, where
details of the sources are recorded.
The following steps must be followed:
- The coherence of the reference records with the citations that appear
in the text.
- The accuracy of all the elements necessary for the identification and
search of references by interested readers.
- Consistencies in the use of abbreviations, terms, italics (or underlining
instead), data ordering, assignment of authorship, and other formal
aspects of the reference record.
Some examples
From a Book:
Feliú, Z., Tineo A. (1989) Biology II EMPD aIjo. Caracas: Collegiate
Bolivarian
 From a Book, with the name of a city in more than one country, with
a translator and year of publication: (Chávez, L 1991).
Hayman, J. (1981) Research and Education. (EJ Prieto, Trans.) Barcelona,
Spain: Paidos. (Original work published in 1968)
From Corporate Author:
Ministry of Education, Sectoral Office of Planning and Budget (1982) Current
Study Plans: Year 1982 Caracas: Author
From an Encyclopedia without an Author:
Universal Illustrated Encyclopedia: European-American. (1939) Bilbao: Spain
Calpe.
From an Encyclopedia with Author:
Menendez R. (1969) Great Encyclopedia of the World. (Vols. 1-26) Barcelona
(Spain) Durvan.
Specialized magazine article:
Chadwick, C. (1985) Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies and the use of
microcomputers in Education Planiuc, 4,113-129.
Legal Type Sources:
Constitution. (1983) Official Gazette of the Republic of Venezuela. 3.251
(Extraordinary, contains amendments No. 1 and 2), September 12, 1983.
Organic Law of Education, (1980). Official Gazette of the Republic of
Venezuela 2,635 (Extraordinary), July 28, 1980.
Press Article:
With Author:
Cabesa, M. (1990, May 13) Julio Miranda's rock (Urban Rock Review) El
Nacional: Literary Paper, P 6
Fernandez E. (1990, May 11) Security, Permanent Anguish El Nacional pA-4
Bautista, M. AND. (2001, June 26) Qualitative research as a new paradigm: an
efficient formula to confront traditional rigorism in research. Daily Economic
Report, special section. p. 17
No Author:
Biotechnology guarantees the quality of potatoes. (1991, July 22) Caracas -
Diary, p. 20
Presentations and publications derived from Events:
Briceño, R. LINARES, D., Mata G. And Santa Cruz A. (1994) Does
cerebrospinal fluid density indicate the presence of bacterial meningitis?
(summary) Asovac. Book of summaries of the XXVI Regional Youth
Science Festival, Caracas.
Cherubiní, A., Graterol, M., Hernández G. and Serna, A., (1994) Determination
of Blastocvstis Hominis in waters for mass consumption. from different
origins, (summary) Asovac. Book of summaries of the Regional Youth
Science Festival, Caracas.
 ANNEX B
POSSIBLE RESEARCH TOPICS
(For 2nd year EMDP Science Students)

- OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS IN THE

FACE OF ADVERSE CONDITIONS.
- PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN AQUATIC PLANTS VS. TURBIDITY (-
CONTAMINATION) OF WATER
- IN VITRO DIGESTIBILITY OF RAW AND COOKED FOODS.
- EFFECTS OF SOME ANTIHISTAMINE ON THE MOVEMENT OF
SOME MICROORGANISM.
- DETERMINATION OF BACTERIA PRESENT IN SEVERAL BRANDS
OF MASS CONSUMPTION MINERAL WATER
- DETERMINATION OF THE DEGREE OF POLLUTION OF A RIVER
OR BEACH NEAR THE TOWN.
- TO WHAT EXTENT VARIATIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT (LIGHT,
TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, ETC.) AFFECT PIGMENT PRODUCTION IN A
PARTICULAR PLANT SPECIES.
- WHICH BEHAVIOR PATTERNS UNDERGO CHANGES WHEN
ANIMALS ARE SUBJECTED TO PERIODS OF MALNUTRITION.
- DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF LECTINS FROM LEGUME
EXTRACTS ON THE BLOOD OF SMALL MAMMALS.
- PRODUCTION OF FREQUENTLY USED DEVICES OR OBJECTS
WITH WASTE SUBSTANCES FROM DOMESTIC USE.
- EFFECTS OF IRON CONSUMPTION ON THE APPEARANCE OF
HEART DISEASES.
IN VITRO ACTION OF TINIDAZOLE ON BLASTOCVISTIS HOMINIS
IN POLYXENIC QUALITIES.
- EXTRACTION OF PROTEINS IN THREE TYPES OF MILK.
- EFFECTS OF POISONING BY Botrhos cumanensis VENOM ON
LABORATORY MICE.
- EFFECTS OF GAMES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLS IN
CHILDREN WITH MENTAL RETARDATION.
- DOES CEREBROSPINAL FLUID DENSITY INDICATE THE
PRESENCE OF BACTERIAL MENINGITIS?
- DETERMINATION OF Blastocvstis hominis IN MASS -
CONSUMPTION WATERS, FROM DIFFERENT ORIGINS.
- CONSTRUCTION OF AN AUTOMATED ALUMINUM CAN
SELECTION AND COUNTING SYSTEM.
- DETERMINATION OF THE MOST FREQUENT DISEASES IN A
SPECIFIC AREA.
- SOCIO-HISTORICAL DIAGNOSIS OF NEIGHBORHOOD X, IN -
SECTOR, OF MUNICIPALITY Y.

NOTE: ANY OTHER TOPIC PROPOSED BY THE RESEARCHER OR

RESEARCH GROUP THAT MEETS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM MAY BE ACCEPTED.
 ANNEX C-
1
(VARIABLE OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE MODEL)

General Objective: To end the presence of Blastocvstis hominis in

waters for mass consumption.

OPERATIONAL
VARIABLES DIMENSION INDICATORS
DEFINITION

Place where the - Drinking fountains

INDEPENDENT different water Semi-processed School X
Origin of the waters samples are Highly Processed University X
collected Trademark

Occurrence of
Higher proportion
DEPENDENTS Blastocystis
Lower proportion
Presence of hominis proto- ("*) (") C) (-)
Low proportion
Blastocystis hominis zanes in the
Absent
selected sample

PARTICIPANTS Atmosphere
Characteristics of
Environmental Temperature High
the sample
conditions Humidity
collection
environment
Objective
Conditions of Microscope magnification,
Characteristics of
materials Substances pipettes, capsules.
the instruments
Solutions Lugol
used
Ringer, Boeck
Measurement error Various
Observation Research team
observers
members

Note: This table can be prepared for the operationalization of the

variables of any general objective or any hypothesis.
 ANNEX C-
2
(VARIABLE OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE MODEL)
Table X. Operationalization of Variables

VARIABLE DIMENSION INDICATOR

- Research paradigms
Theorists - Concepts
- Methods
Knowledge of the research
process - Types and designs
Techniques and
Instruments
Methodological
- Steps, structure and
chapters.
- Presentation standards

- Ethnographic
- Phenomenological
- Qualitative Research.
- Biographical
- Hermeneutics

Methodological Model
- Project-based PPP, PPA, PPC
methodologies - Research Projects

- Holistic Approach - Creating models

- Inquiry into the future
- Researcher's Disposition
Personal - Lack of time
- Motivation
- Update
Limitations

- Lack of resources
Institutional - Little institutional support
Libraries more pained

Source: Baptist Format. (1998); Content prepared by the author

 ANNEX D
OUTLINE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INVESTIGATION

Formulation of the topic of the imitation research of the

Problem.
Problem Statement.
Preliminary studies of the corresponding bibliography
PROBLEM
Research objectives
^Justification and importance
Development of the reference framework
Theoretical foundation
Background of the research
Analysis and interpretation of concepts
THEORETICAL Formulation of hypothesis for the completion of the
FRAMEWORK
research variables. Operationalization and definition of the
Indicators.
Selection of the type of research Population description,
sample selection

Field research
Investigation Determining the data collection
Experimental technique.
Description of the Development of instrument
Methodology (opinion questionnaire, interview
DESIGN OF THE Design of the march
INVESTIGATION Analytics script.
Obtaining the ma
Materials
Establishment of Instrument validation
Controls
Experimental Creating a data table or matrix
assembly Compilation of results

Statistical processing and evaluation of results

DATA COLLECTION Graphical Representation
 Technical interpretation of the results
ANALYSIS Analysis of the results
Preparation of conclusion and recommendation.
 ANNEX E
GENERAL INDEX OF CONTENTS
TEMPLATE (In a Documentary Research)

PP

F3355u18*UG.GiG.........................................2
LIST OF TABLES..............................12
Chart PP.....................................12
PRESENTATION...........................11
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY.........................13
Research: Definition and
Characteristics.................................13
Description of the Stages................14
The Scientific Method.....................15
Steps of Scientific Research............16
The Problem....................................18
His approach...................................18
Research Questions.........................20
Justification.....................................22
The Theoretical Framework............22
Functions:........................................24
Structure:.........................................24
CHAPTER II...................................25
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....25
Types of Research...........................25
According to the sources.................25
Documentary research....................26
Field Research.................................28
Experimental Research...................28
Feasible Projects.............................30
Characteristics:................................30
Variables and their
Operationalization...........................32
Types of Variables..........................32
3. ACCORDING TO THE
POSITION THEY OCCUPY IN THE
RESEARCH,...................................33
5. ACCORDING TO THE
SCALE............................................34
Population and Sample...................35
The most commonly used
Probabilistic samples are:...............36
Non-probability sampling can be....37
QUANTITATIVE...........................37
QUALITATIVE l......................37
Data Collection Techniques............38
The Observation..............................38
Preparing for observation................39
Driving for observation...................39
After observation............................40
The interview..................................40
Conducting the Interview................40
Post Interview.................................41
The survey.......................................41
Content Analysis.............................42
 Data Collection Instruments...........42
Validation of the Instrument...........45
Content Validity..............................45
Construct Validity...........................45
Validity of Criterion........................45
Table 7. Validation as a research
quality control process....................46
Reliability........................................46
Pilot Test.........................................46
UL..............................................................46
Procedure........................................47
Schedule of Activities.....................49
Importance of Selecting the
Methodology...................................49
CHAPTER III.................................51
Justification of Research Projects...51
CHAPTER IV.................................54
CHAPTER V..................................59
ACTIVITIES...................................59
Applicability of the Scientific Method
.........................................................59
Variables and their Operationalization
.........................................................59
ANNEX A.......................................65
HOW TO PREPARE REFERENCES
ACCORDING TO UPEL
STANDARDS, (2003)....................65
Elements of reference.....................65
Making citations and notes.............71
General Reference Citations...........72
Criteria for the Ordering of Records
.........................................................72
From a Book, with the name of a city
in more than one country, with a -
translator and year of publication:
(Chávez, L 1991)............................77
From Corporate Author:.................77
 From an Encyclopedia without an
Author:............................................77
From an Encyclopedia with Author:
.........................................................77
Specialized magazine article:..........77
Legal Type Sources:.......................77
Press Article:...................................77
With Author:...................................77
No Author:......................................78
Presentations and publications
derived from Events:.......................78
(For 2nd year EMDP Science
Students).........................................79
(VARIABLE
OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE
MODEL)...............................................2
Table X. Operationalization of
Variables...............................................2
ANNEX D..............................................77
 Field research..................................77
SUMMARY....................................95
Some examples of the most
commonly used formulas in
Statistical Analysis..........................96
When the area under the curve is
known:.............................................96
xx........................................................97
When the area under the curve is
unknown..........................................98
Test procedure T:............................98

Most Common Obstacles You Usually Face

F3355u18*UG.GiG.........................................2
LIST OF TABLES..............................12
Chart PP.....................................12
PRESENTATION...........................11
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY.........................13
Research: Definition and
Characteristics.................................13
Description of the Stages................14
The Scientific Method.....................15
Steps of Scientific Research............16
The Problem....................................18
His approach...................................18
Research Questions.........................20
Justification.....................................22
The Theoretical Framework............22
Functions:........................................24
Structure:.........................................24
CHAPTER II...................................25
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....25
Types of Research...........................25
According to the sources.................25
Documentary research....................26
Field Research.................................28
Experimental Research...................28
Feasible Projects.............................30
Characteristics:................................30
Variables and their
Operationalization...........................32
Types of Variables..........................32
3. ACCORDING TO THE
POSITION THEY OCCUPY IN THE
RESEARCH,...................................33
5. ACCORDING TO THE
SCALE............................................34
Population and Sample...................35
The most commonly used
Probabilistic samples are:...............36
Non-probability sampling can be....37
QUANTITATIVE...........................37
QUALITATIVE l......................37
Data Collection Techniques............38
The Observation..............................38
 Preparing for observation................39
Driving for observation...................39
After observation............................40
The interview..................................40
Conducting the Interview................40
Post Interview.................................41
The survey.......................................41
Content Analysis.............................42
Data Collection Instruments...........42
Validation of the Instrument...........45
Content Validity..............................45
Construct Validity...........................45
Validity of Criterion........................45
Table 7. Validation as a research
quality control process....................46
Reliability........................................46
Pilot Test.........................................46
UL..............................................................46
Procedure........................................47
Schedule of Activities.....................49
Importance of Selecting the
Methodology...................................49
CHAPTER III.................................51
Justification of Research Projects...51
CHAPTER IV.................................54
CHAPTER V..................................59
ACTIVITIES...................................59
Applicability of the Scientific Method
.........................................................59
Variables and their Operationalization
.........................................................59
ANNEX A.......................................65
HOW TO PREPARE REFERENCES
ACCORDING TO UPEL
STANDARDS, (2003)....................65
Elements of reference.....................65
Making citations and notes.............71
General Reference Citations...........72
Criteria for the Ordering of Records
.........................................................72
From a Book, with the name of a city
in more than one country, with a -
translator and year of publication:
(Chávez, L 1991)............................77
From Corporate Author:.................77
From an Encyclopedia without an
Author:............................................77
From an Encyclopedia with Author:
.........................................................77
Specialized magazine article:..........77
Legal Type Sources:.......................77
Press Article:...................................77
With Author:...................................77
No Author:......................................78
Presentations and publications
derived from Events:.......................78
 (For 2nd year EMDP Science
Students).........................................79
(VARIABLE
OPERATIONALIZATION TABLE
MODEL)...............................................2
Table X. Operationalization of
Variables...............................................2
ANNEX D..............................................77
Field research..................................77
SUMMARY....................................95
Some examples of the most
commonly used formulas in
Statistical Analysis..........................96
When the area under the curve is
known:.............................................96
xx........................................................97
When the area under the curve is
unknown..........................................98
Test procedure T:............................98
 ANNEX F -1t

MODEL OF SUMMARY OF A FINAL REPORT

National Educational Unit “Edoardo Crema”
Does cerebrospinal fluid density indicate the presence of bacterial
meningitis?
Authors: Briceño, Rossinbel
Linares Darwin Mata, Gerardo
Santacruz, Ariadna Date: July,
1994
Bacterial meningitis is a disease characterized by inflammation of the
meninges, caused by bacteria, either Haemophilus influenzae. Neisseria
meninoitidis. or Stretococus pneumoniae. This disease presents two types of
symptoms: infectious and neurological; and if not detected in time, it can cause
death. Cerebrospinal fluid circulates through these membranes, and its density
is easy to measure. Any alteration in the fluid will help determine whether the
patient is infected, saving time in diagnosing the disease. 16 samples of the
fluid were analyzed, including cell count, red blood cell count, cellularity, cell
arrangement, morphology, proteins, glucose and density. These analyses were
carried out under professional supervision. Nine samples did not present
infection, the density presented the same value for all samples, the glucose
value exceeded the proteins and they did not present red blood cells. The other
seven liquids showed variation in density value. Protein and red blood cell
values increased, contrary to glucose. Based on the results, a statistical study
was carried out in order to visualize the variations that occurred. It follows from
this that there is a relationship between the density of the cerebrospinal fluid
and the presence of the disease, so this variable could contribute to
establishing a diagnosis.
THIS RESEARCH OBTAINED FIRST PLACE IN THE SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY COMPETITION OF THE ORINOQUIA FOUNDATION, IT ALSO
PARTICIPATED IN THE XXVI YOUTH SCIENCE FESTIVAL, STAGES:
LOCAL, REGIONAL AND NATIONAL (WITH OUTSTANDING
PARTICIPATION).
 ANNEX F-2
SANTA MARIA UNIVERSITY
DEANSHIP OF POSTGRADUATE AND EXTENSION
SPECIALIZATION IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING
USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES THAT ENABLE MEANINGFUL
LEARNING IN VENEZUELAN HIGHER EDUCATION
Author: XXXXXXXX
Year: 200X
SUMMARY
Teaching in Higher Education is carried out by professionals from various areas of
knowledge, most of whom do not have an educational degree, which results in
weaknesses in teaching performance, since pedagogical training is absent in these
professionals who were trained to practice a specific profession, instead of
pedagogically managing knowledge. That is why this research aimed to analyze the
importance of using teaching strategies that allow meaningful learning for those who are
training at the Higher Education level. The main theoretical support was taken from
Adam, F (1987), who says that the educational reality of the adult presents peculiar
characteristics that require an educational system that responds to the andragogical
nature of the learning process and the training of adults. Likewise, the work is based on
the postulates of Beauport (1995), Carpió and Isturiz (1997), Bandler and Grinder
(1995), who maintain that the use of mental structures is essential for the conscious
processing of information. They agree in highlighting the importance of the Neo-Cortex,
Limbic and Reptilian brain for the learning process. The type of research is
documentary: the design is bibliographic; according to its objectives it is descriptive. A
review of bibliographic sources was carried out. It is concluded, based on the objectives
and based on the review and analysis of the consulted literature, that: the development
of mental aptitudes and creative capacity depend largely on the teaching methodology
used by the teacher. The memorization, repetition and reproduction of content
mechanically impoverishes pedagogical actions. Higher education institutions and
teachers at this level must promote the development of skills and abilities for the
development of creativity. A teacher is required who seeks strategies that help the
student achieve learning that is meaningful to him. To this end, it is recommended that
teachers be updated and trained in teaching strategies that facilitate learning and favor
the development of student creativity based on their characteristics.
 ANNEX G
Some examples of the most commonly used
formulas in Statistical Analysis.

The Average: Average centralization (x)

X = i£xn
The Variance: Measure of dispersion1 (S2))

_l_[ : lx<2-£ : f]]

S2= — —
n-1 n
To facilitate the calculation of the variance it is convenient to use
a table like this:
X X2

Ixx EX2

The standard deviation (measure of dispersion) is obtained by

calculating the V of S2.
There are some hypothesis tests that allow a decision to be made
regarding the hypothesis, the z test and the T test. To make the
decision to accept or reject the formulated hypothesis, the following
procedure must be followed.

When the area under the curve is known:

- Formulate Ho and H1
Ho: Null hypothesis Accept it
Reject it
 Ho is written in the negative sense and in statistical terms
refers to U = Uo (U refers to the population measure. Uo refers to
the Sample mean).
H1 refers to the Alternative Hypothesis, it refers to U = Uo.
- Calculate based on sample at Z value:
xx
For the Z test = S

- Look up the tabulated Z (in the statistical tables) and

compare it to the calculated Z.
- Make the decision.

DECISION

Ho ACCEPT DECLINE
TRUE Type 1
Decision error
Correct
FALSE Type 1 error
Decision
Correct
Establish conclusions
To make a decision
= 5%
Z Calculated: probability value or area (0-1)
P (calculated Z) 5% Reject Ho^ Sample
Unlikely
1
Significant Data
 P(calculated Z) 5% accept Ho
Yo

Data
not significant

When the area under the curve is unknown

"Student's T" test depends on % confidence and degrees of freedom.
gl = n-11 For example: n = 15; gl = 14
Test procedure T:
Formulate Ho and H1 Ho: U = üo
H1:U = Uo
Calculate T:
XU
T=Sn
Find the probability value of T, (n -1) df
The % confidence can be 95, = 5%
0,99% = 1%
Make a decision
P (T calculated) 5% ACCEPT Ho
P (calculated T) 5% REJECT Ho.
There are other statistical tests to make decisions regarding the
hypothesis, but due to their degree of difficulty they are not suitable for
application in research carried out in Diversified and Professional Secondary
Education.
It was finished printing
in TALITIP, srl in
June 2009
(3rd Edition)
Caracas - Venezuela
The work presented by Professor María Eugenia Bautista,
Professor at the IPC, in the Research Methodology
department, addresses the research process for the
search for scientific knowledge, in light of the stages that
must be covered in this process.

The author guides the reader in her research work in a

pedagogical, sequential, simple, flexible way,
accompanying her so that she discovers a scenario of
learning from enjoyment in its cognitive and emotional
domains with illustrative examples of the essence of the
researcher's role.

María Eugenia's concern to show this educational material

originates in her career as a teacher and researcher in
different educational fields and levels, when in secondary
and diversified education she guided students in the
formulation of educational projects that would allow them
to obtain the Bachelor's degree in different areas.

The content presented by the author will be very useful for

teachers, students, researchers and the general public
who explore the paths of research indicated by Professor
María Eugenia Bautista, a learning mediator.

Nidya Perora and Marltza Carpio