15.

) Periodic Motion
Tuesday, July 16, 2024 5:30 PM

• Any motion that repeats itself at regular time intervals

• Vibration/oscillation is back and forth periodic motion
• Simple harmonic motion- simplest type of oscillation

15.1) Periodic motion and energy

• The time it takes to complete a full cycle of motion is called the period 𝑇
• The number of cycles completed per second is the frequency, and also 𝑓 =
• Maximum displacement from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude 𝐴 of the periodic motion
• Amplitude is a measure of mechanical energy of the system
• For example when compressing a spring, the greater the initial compression of the spring, the greater the amplitude and
the greater the initial potential energy
• Periodic motion in mechanical systems does not continue indefinitely because some energy is always dissipated
• This is called damping
• Ignoring damping, we find that: periodic motion is characterized by a continuous conversion between potential and
kinetic energy in a closed system
• All systems that exhibit this behaviour have one common feature: a restoring interaction that tends to restore the system
to equilibrium

15.2) Simple Harmonic Motion

• When the amplitude of the motion is not too great, the period is independent of the amplitude
• A system that exhibits equal periods for all amplitudes is called isochronous
• An example of this is when you pluck a guitar string, the pitch of the sound, which is determined by the string's period of
oscillation, is the same regardless of how far back you pull the string
• Individual systems have different periods that are determined by the properties of the system, but any given system has a
period that is essentially independent of amplitude
• The graph of displacement versus time for an isochronous oscillating system is shown below

• The 𝑥(𝑡) for an isochronous oscillation is sinusoidal (shape of sine functions)

• Any periodic motion that yields a sinusoidal 𝑥(𝑡) curve is called simple harmonic motion
• A system that executes that motion is called a simple harmonic oscillator
• (called harmonic because in instruments harmonic motion is responsible for the sound emitted by instruments)
• Because simple harmonic motion is isochronous we can draw the following conclusions:
• Acceleration is greatest at the graph's turning points
• Hence the acceleration of an isochronous object is directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium position
• Acceleration is proportional to the vector sum of forces exerted on it
• This tells us that the restoring force exerted on an oscillating object is also directly proportional to the displacement from
equilibrium position
• An object executing simple harmonic motion is subject to a linear restoring force that tends to restore the object to its
equilibrium position and is linearly proportional to the object's displacement from its equilibrium position

15.3) Fourier's theorem

• Fourier's theorem states that any periodic function can be written as a sum of sinusoidal functions of frequency
 • 𝑓 = where 𝑛 ≥ 1 is an integer and 𝑇 is the period of the function
• Any periodic motion can be treated as a superposition of simple harmonic motions
• Hence we can deal with any period motion by breaking it down into its simple harmonic components
• Implications of Fourier's theorem: the time-dependent motion of any system can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal
functions
• Fundamental frequency/ first harmonic: 𝑓 =
• All other components are called higher harmonics and are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency: 𝑓 = 𝑛𝑓
• Thus we add the first harmonic to the higher harmonics, and the shape is no longer sinusoidal, but the period remains the
same
• By adjusting the amplitude of each harmonic, we can make the sum of the harmonics fit into the original periodic function
• Fourier Analysis: Breaking down of a function into harmonic components
• Fourier Series: the resulting sum of sinusoidal functions
• One way to graphically represent Fourier's series: The amplitudes of all harmonics are plotted against the frequencies of
harmonics
• The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is proportional to the square of the amplitude
• Hence it is customary to plot 𝐴 as a function of frequency
• This plot is called the spectrum of the periodic function
• The spectrum shows the contribution of each harmonic to the original periodic function
• The duration of the slowest component of the function determines the lowest frequency in the spectrum
• The duration of the fastest component of the function determines the highest frequency
• Fourier Analysis Applications: electronic signal processing, chemical analysis, voice recognition
• The ear functions as a Fourier Analyzer because the inner ear breaks down oscillations produced by sound into simple
harmonic components, each producing a nerve impulse proportional to the amplitude of that component
• Fourier Synthesis: the creation of periodic functions by adding sinusoidal functions together

15.4) Restoring Forces in Simple Harmonic Motion

• Periodic motion takes place about a position of translational or rotational equilibrium and requires a restoring force that
tends to return the object to an equilibrium position
• Stable equilibrium: When the ball is displaced in any direction, a restoring force accelerates it back to equilibrium position
• Unstable equilibrium: Forces amplify any disturbance from equilibrium
• Neutral equilibrium: moving in any direction has no affect on its acceleration
• Objects tend to oscillate about stable equilibrium positions
• A consequence of restoring forces about stable equilibrium positions is: in the absence of friction a small displacement of
a system from a position of stable equilibrium causes the system to oscillate
• For sufficiently small displacements away from the equilibrium position, restoring forces are always linearly proportional
to the displacement
• Consequently, for small displacements, objects execute simple harmonic motion about any stable equilibrium position
• Oscillations arrive from an interplay between inertia and a restoring force:
○ When an object subject to a restoring force is displaced from its equilibrium position, the restoring force accelerates
it back towards its equilibrium position
○ Once it gets there, it has a nonzero velocity, and its inertia causes it to overshoot the equilibrium position
○ Hence the greater the mass of the oscillating object, the harder it is to accelerate and so the longer the period
○ The greater the restoring force, the greater the object's acceleration and the shorter the period
○ A stiff spring causes a much more rapid oscillation than a soft, sloppy one
• The above relationship does not hold for a pendulum
• Because for a pendulum, the restoring force and mass are proportional to each other
• Increasing the mass of the pendulum makes it much harder to accelerate, but also increases the restoring force, hence the
two effects cancel each other out
• The period of the pendulum is independent of the mass of the pendulum

15.5) Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

• There is a correspondence between simple harmonic motion and circular motion at a constant speed
•

• Figure 15.22 is a time-dependent function describing some simple harmonic motion, represented by rotating arrow of
length 𝐴, whose tip traces out the circle
• The circle is called a reference circle
• The arrow is called a phasor
• The phasor rotates in a counter-clockwise direction with a constant rotational speed 𝜔
• The vertical component of the phasor varies sinusoidally with time
• If the phasor completes on revolution in a period 𝑇 , its rotational speed is 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
• So the rotational speed (𝜔) of the phasor is greater than the frequency (𝑓) by a factor of 2𝜋
• The reason for this is 𝜔 measures the change in rotational position per unit time, and in one revolution, the rotational
position 𝜗 changes by 2𝜋
• We know frequency measures cycles per unit time
• Therefore one revolution on the reference circle corresponds to one oscillation cycle
• In the context of oscillations, 𝜔 is often called angular frequency, because it has the same unit as frequency (𝑠 )

• The phase of the motion (𝜙(𝑡)): the rotational position of the tip of the phasor relative to the positive horizontal axis
• For constant angular frequency, the phase increases linearly with time 𝜙(𝑡) = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 (where 𝜙 is the initial phase at t=
0)
• The phase 𝜙(𝑡) tells us at what point in the cycle the motion is
• Because rotational position is a unitless number, the phase is unitless too
• You determine the phase by expressing the angle between the phasor and the positive horizontal axis in radians and
dividing by 1 rad
• The vertical component of A can now be written in the form: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙(𝑡)
= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
• The amplitude 𝐴 of the oscillation is equal to the length of the phasor
• The above equation is a general equation for the position of a simple harmonic oscillator, when the equilibrium position is
at x=0
• This could refer to a pendulum bob, an object suspended from a spring, a taunt spring, etc.
• 𝑥(𝑡) has the same value each time the phase increases by 2𝜋 (because the motion is periodic)
• By differentiating the position equation, we can obtain velocity, and after differentiating a second time, we obtain
acceleration
• Velocity of simple harmonic oscillator: 𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
 • Acceleration of simple harmonic oscillator: 𝑎 = −𝜔 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
• If we substitute our position equation into our equation for acceleration we get:
• 𝑎 = −𝜔 𝑥
• This tells us acceleration is directly proportional to displacement
• Since acceleration is the second derivative we can write it as such:
• = −𝜔 𝑥 , known as the simple harmonic oscillator equation
• Any system that satisfies this equation undergoes simple harmonic motion
• Multiplying both sides by the mass gives us : ∑ 𝐹 = −𝑚𝜔 𝑥
• The negative sign tells us that an object in simple harmonic motion is always subject to a force that always points in a
direction opposite the object's displacement x from equilibrium position and is linearly proportional to x
• Hence it is a linear restoring force
• Work done by forces exerted on the oscillating object is the integral of the force equation, from position 𝑥 to 𝑥
• This work causes the kinetic energy of the oscillating object to change
1 1
• ∆𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 − 𝑚𝜔 𝑥
2 2
• The interaction is reversible, thus this change in kinetic energy must be provided by some form of potential energy
• Including the object that causes the oscillation in our system then the system must be closed
• So ∆𝐸 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0
• So ∆𝐾 = −∆𝑈
• If we let potential energy at the equilibrium position be zero, then we get the equation: 𝑈(𝑥) = 𝑚𝜔
• Therefore we get : 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥
• Substituting x and v into the above equation:

• This then reinforces the idea that the mechanical energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is constant and proportional to
the square of the amplitude

15.6) Simple Harmonic Motion and Springs

• Whenever an object undergoes reversible deformation as a result of stretching, compressing, bending or twisting, it exerts
an elastic restoring force
• Consider the spring-cart system
• The spring exerts a force on the oscillating cart 𝐹 = −𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
• But if we let the origin be at the equilibrium position be 𝑥 = 0 , then 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
• The equation of motion for the cart in the horizontal position is ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
• Thus 𝑎 = or
• = 𝑥
• Recall from the section above that = −𝜔 𝑥

• Comparing the two we can tell that: 𝜔 = + (𝜔 is always positive)

• Substituting this into our original position equation we get 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) + 𝜙

15.7) Restoring Torques

• Some simple harmonic oscillators involve rotational rather than translational displacements
•
 •

• When you rotate the disk, the fiber is twisted and elastic potential energy is stored in the fiber
• When the disk is released, it oscillates as energy is converted back and forth between elastic potential energy in the fiber
and the rotational kinetic energy of the disk
• We know translational oscillations are due to an interplay between a restoring force and inertia
• Now we can see that rotational oscillations are due to an interplay between a restoring torque and rotational inertia
• We know ∑ 𝜏 = 𝐼𝑎
• Greater rotational displacements of the disk cause greater torques
• For small rotational displacements, we might expect the relationship between rotational displacement and torque is
linear :
• 𝜏 = −𝜅(𝜗 − 𝜗 )
• The negative sign means the torque is opposite the direction of rotational displacement
• The constant 𝜅 is the torsional constant and it depends on the properties of the material being twisted
• Letting 𝜗 = 0 gives us 𝜏 = −𝜅𝜗
• Thus 𝐼𝑎 = −𝜅𝜗 where 𝑎 =
• Therefore =− 𝜗
• There is a correspondence to the format of translational oscillations and rotational oscillations and we exploit that to find
the formula for rotational position
• 𝜗=𝜗 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
• 𝜔= (where 𝜔 is the angular frequency, not rotational speed)
• The pendulum is another example of a rotational oscillator
• But the restoring torque is not caused by an elastic force, but due to gravity
• 𝜏 = −𝑙(𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜗)
• For small rotational displacements, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜗 = 𝜗
• 𝜏 = −𝑙(𝑚𝑔𝜗)
• This shows that restoring torque is linearly proportional to rotational displacement
• 𝜏 = 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼 , substituted in gives us =− 𝜗

• So the angular frequency of oscillation is 𝜔 =

15.8) Damped Oscillations

• Means slowing down of the system due to energy dissipation
• Thus each object is subject to two forces, a restoring force and a damping force
• The direction of the damping force is always opposite the direction of motion
• Drag forces exerted by air or liquids at low speeds tend to be proportional to the velocity of the object, so 𝐹 = −𝑏𝑣
• Where 𝑏 (𝑖𝑛 ) is the damping coefficient and depends on the shape of the object on which the drag force acts and
the properties of the gas/ liquid exerting the force
• The minus sign tells you that the drag force acts in a direction opposite to that of velocity
• For most oscillators, these type of drag forces are the main cause of energy dissipation
• In the presence of drag the equation of motion becomes: ∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣
• As long as damping is not too great, we get the formula 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 / sin(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )
 𝑘 𝑏
• 𝜔 = −
𝑚 4𝑚
• For light damping the second term in the above equation is negligible
• Damping decreases amplitude, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 / , where 𝑥 is the time-dependent amplitude of the damped
oscillator and 𝐴 is the amplitude of the undamped system
• Overdamped systems: when damping is so large oscillations cease to occur
• Time constant: the ratio 𝜏 ≡ , so we can simplify the decreasing amplitude to be 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 /

• The mechanical energy of the oscillator which is proportional to the square of the amplitude, thus decreases as
•
• Where 𝐸 is the intial mechanical energy
• During each time interval of 𝜏 energy decreases by a factor of 𝑒
• The decay of the oscillation can be characterized by quality factor, defined as : 𝑄 ≡ 𝜔𝜏 = 2𝜋
• The quality factor is a unitless ratio
• If 𝑄 = 1000(2𝜋), it takes 1000 cycles for the energy to decay by factor of 𝑒
• A large 𝑄 imples that 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔
• For mechanical oscillations with low friction, Q can be as large as a few thousand
• A bell with a large Q rings for a longer time interval than one with a small Q