CHAPTER 3

HARDWARE

CPU

Also known as microprocessor or processor

Central to all modern computer systems.

Often installed as in integrated circuit on a single microchip.

Has the responsibility for execution or processing of all instructions and data in computer application

Consists of :

 Control unit (CU)

 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
 Registers and buses

Von-neumann architecture

Concept of ‘stored program computer’

Main feature :

o CPU
o CPU able to access memory directly
o Comp memory store programs + data
o Stored programs  instructions executed in sequential order

COMPONENTS OF CPU

o Control unit (CU)

o Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
o System clock
ALU
Allows required arithmetic and logical operations to be carried out while program is run.
Can have more than one ALU carrying out specific functions.
Multiplication and division
carried out by sequence of
addition and subtraction or
logical left-right shifts.
CU
Reads instructions from
memory.
Address of location where
instruction found = PC
(program counter)
Instruction interpreted
using fetch-decode-execute
 cycle. – signals are generated along control bus to tell other components in computer what
to do.
Allows synchronization of data flow and program instructions throughout the computer.
SYSTEM CLOCK
Produce timing signals on the control bus ensuring vital synchronization taking place.
Comp will crash without it.

RAM holds all data and programs needed to be accessed by CPU. Referred as immediate
access store (IAS). CPU takes data and programs held in backing store and puts in RAM
temporarily.
Why? – read/write operations by RAM are faster than read/write operations to backing
store.
Any key data needed by an application is stored temporarily in RAM to speed up
operations.

REGISTERS
Can be general or special purpose
Special purpose registers :
o Current instruction register (CIR) stores current instruction being decoded and executed
o Accumulator (ACC) used when carrying out ALU calcs. Stores data temporarily during calcs.
o Memory address register (MAR) stores address of memory location currently being read
from or written to
o memory data register/ buffer register (MDR) stores data just been read from memory or
data which is about to be written to memory
o program counter (PC) stores addresses where the next instruction to be read can be found.

SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

MEMORY

Made of number of partitions. Each partition consists of an address and its contents.
 Address uniquely identifies every location in memory and contents will be binary value stored in
each location.

READ OPERATION

o address of location to read is written in MAR (memory address register)

o read signal sent to computer memory
o contents of memory location put into MDR (memory data register)
WRITE OPERATION
o data to be stored is written in MDR (memory data register)
o data has to be written into location with address.
o Address is written into MAR (memory address register)
o Write signal is sent to comp memory and value then written into correct memory location
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
Main method of entering data into and getting data out of comp systems.
Input devices convert external data into form comp understands
Output devices shows results of comp processing in a human understandable form.
SYSTEM BUSES
Used in comp as parallel transmission components.
Each wire transmits one bit of data.
3 common buses –
o Address bus
o Data bus
o Control bus

Address bus

- Unidirectional
- CPU to memory
- Width of the bus is imp as wider bus, more memory locations directly accessed at the same
time

Data bus

- Bidirectional
- CPU to memory and vice versa
- Input to output devices
- Width of the bus : wider bus  larger word length (improves computers overall
performance)
(word : grp of bits regarded as single unit)

Control bus

- Bidirectional
- Carries signals from CU (control unit) to all other comp components.
- Usually 8 bits wide
- Wider bus wont affect since only carries control signals.

FETCH DECODE EXECUTE CYCLE

Carrying out set of instructions require CPU to fetch data and instructions from memory and storing
them in suitable registers.
 Address and data bus used.

Each instruction is decoded and executed.

Fetch

Data and instructions are stored in MDR

Next instruction fetched from memory address currently stored in MAR and instruction is stored in
MDR

Contents of MDR are copied to CIR (current instruction register)

PC incremented so next data can be processed

Decode

Instruction is then decoded to be interpreted

Execute

CPU passes the decoded instruction as set of control signals to appropriate components in comp
system.  allows each instruction to be carried out in its logical sequence.

CORES, CACHE AND INTERNAL CLOCK

Determining the performance of CPU – system clock

Clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all computer operations

Control bus transmits timing signals ensuring full synchronization. Increasing the clock speed
increases processing speed of computer.

Computers overall performance isn’t increased by a higher clock speed, only speed of computer.

For comp overall performance, consider :

- Width of address and data bus

- Overclocking
Clock speed can be changed by accessing the BIOS (basic input/output system) and altering
settings.
Higher clock speed than comp was designed for leads to problems like :
o Execution of instructions outside design limit leads to unsynchronized operations
(instruction unable to complete in time before next one is executed) computer
becomes frequently crashed and unstable
o Serious overheating of CPU leading to unreliable performance
- Use of cache memories
faster data time access (than RAM), stores frequently used instructions and data need that
need fast access.
when CPU wishes to read memory, checks out cache then moves to main memory/RAM.
the larger the cache memory size the better CPU performance
- Use of diff number of cores. One is made of ALU, control unit and registers.
more core alleviates the need to continually increase clock speeds. It reduces the overall
performance.
 INSTRUCTION SET
Instructions – set of operations decoded in sequence.
Each operation instruct ALU and CU. Operation is made up of opcode and operand
Opcode : informs CPU what operation needs to be done.
Operand : data which needs to be acted on or can refer to a register in the memory.
Comp – understand operation to carry out, limited number of opcodes are used 
instruction set
Comp contain set of instructions (converted to binary), uses fetch-decode-execute cycle
(sequence of steps) used by the CPU to process each instruction in sequence.
Instruction set is not the same as program code
Instruction sets are low level language instructions that instruct CPU how to carry out an
operation.
Program code needs interpreters or compilers to convert the code into the instruction set
understood by the computer.
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry out a specific set of
functions. Hardware is electronic,electrical or electromechanical.
Based on :
- Microcontroller : CPU with some RAM and ROM and other peripherals all embedded onto a
single chip (carry out specific task)
- Microprocessor : integrated circuit only having CPU on chip (no RAM, ROM or peripherals)
- System on chips (SoC) : may contain a microcontroller as one component (always include
CPU, memory, input/output ports and secondary storage on a single microchip)

It will have a specific set of task.

User interface Feedback orientated

systems

Analogue and Software and hardware Some form of

digital input on embedded system output

Contain sensor input, Use powerful dual and

mechanical quad CPU and variety of
components, actuators I/O connections leading
and softwares to number of
applications
 1. Device installed
2. Operator input data manually
3. Or data comes from automatic source
4. Sensor input – analogue or digital in nature
5. Output carry out function by sending signal to component being controlled

Depending on device, - programmable – non programmable

Non programmable need to be replaced if software update required.
Programmable permit upgrading by 2 methods
- Connecting device to computer and allowing downloads of updates
- Automatic updates via wifi

BENEFITS :

 Small in size – easy to fit in device

 Low cost to make
 Dedicated to one task – simple interface – no requirement for OS
 Very little power
 Controlled remotely using mobile phone
 Very fast reaction to changing input
 Mass production – reliability

DRAWBACKS :

 Difficult to upgrade
 Troubleshooting faults
 More confusing interface
 Any device accessed over internet open for hackers
 Difficult in upgrading and fault finding – devices thrown away
 Increase in ‘throw away’ society, devices discarded bcz out-of-date

EXAMPLES

- Motor vehicles
- Set up box
 - Security system

security code – ram

alarm activated/deactivated – keypad
data from sensor  controller – checks against values stored on SSD
- Lighting system
- Vending systems

- Washing machines
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES
 Barcode scanner
- series of dark and light parallel lines of varying thickness
- each digit made up of 2 dark and 2 light lines
- width representing each digit is the same
1. Barcode read by red laser/red LED
2. Light reflected back off barcode (dark –reflect less/0 light, allowing bars to be read)
3. Reflected light read by sensors (photo electric cells)
4. Pattern generated, converting into digital data
 Keypad
 Monitor/screen
 Speaker
 Printer
 Card reader
  Touchscreen

Advantages of barcodes to management

- Easier and faster

- Better and more up-to-date
- Reduces time and cost to management
- Allows automatic stock control
- Possible check customers buying habits

Advantages of barcode for customers

- Faster checkout queues

- Errors in charging customers reduced
- Itemized bill
- Cost saving
- Better track of ‘sell by dates’
 QR (quick response) code
made of matrix filled-in dark squares on a light background
hold considerably more information than more conventional barcodes
consists of small squares (light and dark) – pixels
three large squares at corners – alignment
type of barcode

Advantages of QR compared to traditional bar codes

- Hold more info

- Fewer errors
- Higher capacity
- No data redundancy
- Easier to read
- Easy to transmit as text/image
- Possible to encrypt – greater protection

Disadvantages of QR compared to traditional bar codes

- More than 1 QR format available

- Used to transmit malicious code – attagging
-NEW DEVELOPMENT : frame QR code
 Digital camera
- adjust shutter speed
- focus image automatically
- operate flash gun automatically
- adjust aperture size
- adjust size of image
- remove red eye when flash used
Process :
1. Image captured when light passes thru lens onto light-sensitive cell
2. cell made of tiny sensors – photodiodes (CCD – charge couple devices) convert light to
electricity
3. sensor – pixel
4. image converted to tiny electric charges, passing thru analogue to digital converter to
form digital image array
5. ADC converter converts electric charges from each pixel to levels of brightness
6. sensors also measure color – produces another binary pattern
7. no. of pixels determine size of file used to store photograph
8. quality of image depends on recording device (good camera lens and sensor array), no. of
pixels used (more- better image), level of light and how image is stored

 Keyboard
Most common method for data entry
Connected to comp by USB or wireless connection
Tablet or mobile phone – virtual or touch screen technology
Each character has an ASCII value
Each character pressed converted to digital signal – comp interprets
Slow method + prone to errors
Frequent use leads to injuries – repetitive strain injury (RSI)
1. Membrane or circuit in base of key
2. Key pressed completes the circuit
3. CPU determine which key pressed
4. CPU refers to index files to identify which character key press represents
5. Each character on keyboard has corresponding ASCII value
 Microphone
Built in comp or external device connected thru USB or Bluetooth
Current produced is converted to digital format so comp process it or store it

1. Sound causes air to vibrate

2. Diaphragm in mic picks up air vibrations and begins vibrating
 3. Copper Coil wrapped around the cone connected to the diaphragm picks up vibrations
and cone moves in and out causing coil to move backward and forward
4. Forward/backward motion causes coil to cut thru magnetic field around permanent
magnet, inducing electric current
5. Electric current either amplified or sent to recording device. Analogue in nature –
electric current
6. Electric current can be sent to comp where sound card covert into digital signal to be
stored, using ADC converter.
 Optical mouse
Pointing device
Uses tiny cameras to take 1500 images per second
Work virtually on any surface

Red LED used on base

- Bounced red light off surface
- Picked up bby complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
- CMOS generates electric pulses to represent reflected light
- Pulses sent to digital signal processor (DSP)
- Processor works out coordinates of mouse based on changing image patterns
- Comp moves on-screen cursor to coordinates sent by mouse

BENEFITS :

o No moving parts, more reliable

o Dirt cannot be trapped in mechanical components
o No need for any special surfaces

Wired mouse advantages :

- No signal loss as constant signal pathway

- Cheaper to operate (no batteries)
- Fewer environmental issues
 2D and 3D scanners

2D scanner

1. Cover raised
2. Document placed on glass panel
3. Cover closed
4. Bright light illuminates document (xenon lamp or LED producing brig ht white light)
5. Scan head moves across document until whole page scanned
6. Image of document produced which is sent to lens using mirrors
 7. Lens focuses document image
8. Focused image now falls onto charge couple device (CCD)
9. CCD converts light to electric current
10. CCD made of 1000 of light sensitive elements (or pixels)which creates electric charge when
light falls. Meaning scanned image now turned electronic form

Equipped with optical character recognition (OCR), allowing scanned text to convert into text file
format
APPLICATIONS :
airport scanning passport

- Distance between eyes

- Width of nose
- Shape of cheek bones
- Length of jawline
- Shape of eyebrow

3D scanner

Scanners take images at several points along three coordinates (x,y,z)

Digital image represents solid object formed

Scanned images used in computer aided design (CAD)

APPLICATION :

Computed tomographic (CT) scanners

Builds up image of solid object thru a series of very thin ‘slices’

2D slices make up representations of 3D solid

Each slice build up by X-rays, radio frequencies or gamma imaging

Slice stored as digital image in comp memory

  Touch screens
Common input device
Three common technologies :
- Capacitive
- Infrared
- Resistive
Capacitive :
Composed of layer of glass (protective layer), transparent electrode (conductive) and glass
substrate
Human skin – conductor of electricity
Electrostatic field of conductive layer is changed
Installed microcontroller calculates where change took place and determine coordinate of
point of contact.

2 main types :
- Surface
- Projective
 Surface : sensor placed at corner of screen
Small voltage applied at corners creating electric field.
Finger touching screen surface draw current from each corner reducing capacitance
Microcontroller measures decrease in capacitance and determines point of contact.
Only works with bare fingers/stylus
 Projective : transparent conductive layer form X-Y matrix pattern
Creates 3D electrostatic field
When finger touch screen, 3D electrostatic field disturbed allowing microcontroller to
determine coordinates of contact
 Works with bare fingers, stylus and thin surgical/cotton gloves.
Allows multi-touch facility
----------------------------------------ADVANTAGES----------------------------------------
- Better image clarity than resistive, in strong sunlight
- Very durable screens that have high scratch resistance
- Projective capacitive screens allow multitouch
----------------------------------------DISADVANTAGES----------------------------------------
- Surface capacitive screens only work with bare finger/stylus
- Sensitive to electromagnetic radiation (magnetic fields or microwaves)

Infrared touch screen

Use glass screen with an array of sensors and infrared transmitters

Sensors detect infrared radiation

If any beam is broken, infrared reaching sensors is reduced.
Sensor reading are sent to microcontroller that calculates point of contact.
------------------------------------------------------ADVANTAGES--------------------------------------------------
- Allow multi-touch facilities
- Has good screen durability
- Operability isnt affected by scratched or cracked screen
------------------------------------------------------DISADVANTAGES----------------------------------------------
- Screen sensitive to water or moisture
- Possible for accidental activation if beam are disturbed in any way
- Sensitive to light interference

Resistive touch screens

Made of two layers of electrically resistive material with voltage applied across them
Upper layer – flexible polyethylene with resistive coating on one side
Bottom layer – made of glass with resisitive coating (usually indium tin oxide) on one side
Layers separated by air or an inert gas (argon)
When top polyethylene surface toiched, two layers make contact
The resistive material completes a circuit resulting in flow of electricity
 Point of contact is detected by change in voltage

Microcontroller converts voltage (created by two resisitve layers) to digital data sending it to
microprocessor
------------------------ADVANTAGE--------------------
- Good resistance to dust and water
- Used with bare fingers, stylus and gloved hand
----------------------DISADVANTAGE----------------
- Low touch sensitivity
- Doesn’t support multi-touch facility
- Poor visibility in strong sunlight
- Vulnerable to scratches on screen

OUTPUT DEVICES

- ACTUATORS
Solenoid converts electrical signal into magnetic field producing linear mo tion

If plunger placed inside coil

Move when current applied to coil
Allow solenoid to operate a valve or a switch
- LIGHT PROJECTORS
2 types :
- DLP (digital light projector)
- LCD (liquid crystal display projector)
DIGITAL LIGHT PROJECTORS (DLP)
Use of millions of micro mirrors on a small digital micromirror device (DMD chip)
 Number of micromirrors and way of arrangement on DMD chip determines resolution of
digital image
Micromirrors tilt towards light source  ON
Micromirrors tilt away from light source  OFF
This creates light and dark pixel in projection screen
Micromirrors switch on and off several thousand times a second  various grey shades
Micromirror switched on more than switched off  lighter shade of grey  greyscale image
1. Bright white light sources passes thru color filter on way to DMD chip
2. White light split into primary colors (red,green and blue)
3. ON and OFF states of each micromirror are linked with colors from the filter to produce
the coloured image.

DMD chip is microoptoelectromechanical system (MOEMS) that contains several

thousand microscopic mirrors arranged on chip surface.

LIGHT CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LDP) PROJECTOR

Older than DLP

High intensity beam of light passes thru an LCD display and onto screen

1. Powerful beam of white light generated by buld/LED inside projector body

2. Beam of light sent to group of chromatic-coated mirrors (dichromic mirrors)
3. They reflect light back at different wavelengths
4. White light hits these mirrors, reflected lights has wavelengths corresponding to primary
colors
5. Colored light components pass thru 3 LCD screens
6. Each screen  thousand tiny pixels which block light or let it thru  monochromatic image
7. Three diff versions of same image produced
8. Images re-combined using special prism to produce full color image
9. Image passes thru the projector lens onto a screen
 DLP ADVANTAGES :
- Higher contrast ratios
- Higher reliability/longevity
- Quieter running than LCD
- Uses single DMD chip -> no issues lining images
- Smaller and lighter than LCD
- Better suited to dusty/smoky atmospheres
DLP DISADVANTAGES:
- Image tends to suffer from ‘shadows’ (moving image)
- Don’t have grey components in image
- The colour definition is frequently not good due to color saturation (intensity of color) not
good
LCD ADVANTAGES:
- Give sharper image than DLP
- Better color saturation
- More efficient in use of energy (generate less heat)
LCD DISADVANTAGES
- Contrast ratios are not good
- Limited life (longevity not good)
- Organic in nature, tend to degrade with time (screen turn yellow and color degrade over
time)
- INKJET AND LASER PRINTERS
INKJET PRINTERS
Made of:
- Print head (nozzles that spray droplets of ink onto paper)
- Ink cartridge or cartridge
- Stepper motor and belt (moves print head assembly across the page side to side
- Paper feed (automatically feeds printer with pages as required)

2 different techniques :

1. Thermal bubble : tiny resistors create localized heat  ink vaporize ink form tiny bubble
 bubble expand ink ejected from print head to paper  bubble collapses, small vacuum
is created allowing fresh ink to be drawn
2. Piezoelectric : crystal located at back of ink reservoir for each nozzle. Crystal given tiny
electric charge  vibrate  forces ink to be ejected onto paper  more ink drawn for
further printing

PROCESS:

1. Data from document sent to printer driver

2. Printer driver ensures correct format
3. Check made by printer driver ensuring chosen printer available
4. Data is sent to printer and stored in temporary memory  printer buffer
5. Sheet of paper fed into main body
6. Sensor detect if paper available in tray, if out of paper/ jam then error message sent to comp
7. Print head move side to side across paper, 4 ink sprayed in exact amount producing desired
color
8. Paper is advanced slightly allowing next line to be printed
9. More data in printer buffer, whole process carried out again
10. Printer buffer is empty  printer sends interrupt to CPU, request for more data sent to
printer

LASER PRINTER

Use dry powder ink than liquid

Use of static electricity to produce text

Print whole paper in one go

Contain 4 toner cartridge  blue, cyan, magenta and black

PROCESS:

1. Data from doc sent to printer driver

2. Printer driver ensures correct format
3. Check is made by printer driver if chosen printer is available
4. Data sent to printer and saved in printer buffer
5. Printing drum being given positive charge, drum rotates
6. Laser beam scanned across removing positive charge in certain areas
7. Negatively charged areas are left matching text/image to be printed
8. Drum coated with positively charged toner, only sticks to negatively charged parts of drum
9. Toner stics to paper producing exact copy of page
10. Prevent paper sticking to drum, electric charge paper is removed after one rotation of drum
11. Paper finally goes thru a fuser  set of heated rollers
12. Heat melts ink so fixes permanently to paper
13. Discharge lamp removes all electric charge from drum, ready to print next page

APPLICATIONS

INKJET – printing one-off photos/ good quality, color printing required. Small ink cartridges and
small paper trays

LASER – produce high quality printouts and fast for multiple copies. High volume printing (color
and monochrome), has large toner and large paper tray

- 3D PRINTERS
Produce solid objects actually working
Built up layer by layer by powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic
Techonology -> binder 3D printing
FEATURES:
- Various types, range from size of microwave to small car
- Use addictive manufacturing (layer by layer)
- Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology
- Binder 3D printing similer to direct 3D printing, uses two passes for each layer, 1 st sprays dry
powder and second a binder is sprayed
- New tech uses lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers, increases the diversity of
products being made
STEPS :
1. Design made using comp aided design (CAD) software
2. Finalized drawing imported to specual software preparing correct format
 3. Printer set up to allow solid object to be made
4. Solid object built layer by layer, taking several hours depending on thickness of layer,
material used, size of final object
5. Object removed from printer and prepared for use of jelly-like support needed to be
washed away by immersion of water or removal of excess plastic powder, cutting away
of unused material  left to cure for hours

APPLICATIONS :

- Covering prosthetic limbs made to fit limb

- Making items allowing precision reconstructive surgery
- Aerospace, making wings and other parts
- Fashion and art
- Making parts for items no longer in production
- LED AND LCD SCREENS
LED SCREENS:
- Made up of tiny light emitting diodes
- Either green, red, blue
- Varying electric current sent to each LED, brightness can be controlled, range of colors
produced
- Tends to be for large outdoor display due to brilliance of colors
LCD SCREENS:
- Made up of tiny liquid crystals
- Crystals make up array of pixels affectd by changes applied in electric fields
- Don’t produce light, backlit by LED
- Uses cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as backlit method
 LED more popular in backlit method by :
o LED reach maximum brightness almost immediately
o Whiter light that sharpens image and colors appear more vivid (CCFL is slightly yellowish
tint)
o Produce brighter light improving color definition
o Monitors are much thinner than CCFL
o Last indefinitely, more reliable and more consistent product
o Consume very less power, producing less heat and using less energy

OLED (organic light emitting diode)

Use organic materials (carbon compounds) to create semi-conductors that are flexible

Films sandwiched between two charged electrodes (one – metallic cathode and other – glass anode)

Electric field applied to electrodes, giving off light. No more backlighting required

Very thin screens =. No longer need of LCD tech

- Bend screens to any shape
ADVANTAGES comparing to LED and LCD:
- Plastic, organic layers are thinner, lighter and more flexible than crystal structures of LED
and LCD
- Light emitting layers are lighter (OLED), can be made from plastic rather than glass (LED/LCD)
- Brighter light
- Don’t require backlighting, generate own light
- Less power use
- Made into large, thin sheets
- Large field of view
- LOUDSPEAKERS
Produce sound as output
Digitized sound stored on file needs to converted to sound :
1. Digital data passed thru digital to analogue converter (DAC) changed to electric current
2. Passed thru amplifier, creates current large enough to drive speaker
3. Electric current fed into speaker where converted to sound

1. Electric current flows through coil of wire wrapped around iron core
 2. Core becomes temporary electromagnet
3. A permanent magnet positioned very close to the electromagnet
4. Electric current in coil varies, induced magnetic field in iron core also varies
5. Causing iron core to be attracted towards permanent magnet
6. As current varies, iron core vibrates
7. As iron core attached to cone, cone vibrates, producing sound waves
SENSORS
Input devices which read or measure physical properties from surroundings
Real data is analogue (Constantly changing)
Analogue data needs some form of interpretation by user
Data needs to be converted to digital format in order to be understood
Done by ADC (analogue to digital converter)

Sensor reading may cause microprocessor to alter valve/motor changing next

reading
Output from microprocessor impact next input as it attempts to bring system within
desired parameters  feedback
SENSORS USED
 TEMPERATURE
Description : measure temp of surrounding by sending signal
application : control central heating system, chemical process, temp in greenhouse
 MOISTURE
Description : measure water levels
application : control/monitor levels in soil in greenhouse, moisture levels in food processing
factory
 HUMIDITY
Description : measure amount of water vapor
application : monitor levels in building, factory, manufacturing microchips, air in greenhouse
 LIGHT
Description : use photoelectric cells to produce output depending on brightness of light
application : switching streetlights on or off depending on light levels, car headlights
automatically when dark
 INFRARED [active]
Description : invisible beam of radiation picked up by detector
application : turn on car windscreen wipers detecting rain, security alarm
 INFRARED [passive]
Description : measure heat radiation given off by object
application : security alarm system
 PRESSURE
Description : transducer and generate different electric currents depending on pressure
applied
application : weighing of lorries, measure gas pressure in nuclear reactor
 ACOUSTIC/SOUND
Description : microphones that convert detected sound into electrical signals
application : picks up noise of footsteps in security alarm, detect sound of liquid dripping in
faulty pipe joint
 GAS
Description :detect gas being monitored and produce outputs varying w gas level present
application : monitor pollution levels in air at airport, gas level in greenhouse, oxygen level in
car exhaust
 pH
Description : mesasure acidity through changes in voltage
application : monitor/control acidity lkevelk in soil in greenhouse, in chemical process
 MAGNETIC FIELD
Description : measure change in magnetic field
application : detect magnetic field changes, used in anti-lock braking system in car
 ACCELEROMETER
Description : measure acceleration and motion of application
application : measure rapid deceleration and apply air bags in crash, moile phones to change
between landscape and portrait mode
 PROXIMITY
Description : detect presence of nearby object
application : detect when face is close to mobile phone screen
 FLOW [RATE]
Description : measure flow rate of moving liquid or gas
application : respiratory devices and inhalers in hospitals, measure gas flow in pipes
 LEVEL
Description : use ultrasonics to detect changing liquid levels
application : monitor levels in petrol tank in car, pharmaceutical process where powder
levels decrease, leak detection in refrigerator
MONITORING APPLICATIONS :

- Security systems

CONTROLLING APPLICATIONS:

- Street lights
- Central heating systems

- Greenhouse environment control

DATA STORAGE
(primary) Memory – internal devices used to store data that computer can access directly
temporarily stored.
Storage devices allow users to store applications, data and files. Permanently stored.
Storage needs to be larger than internal memory.
Also needs to be removable to allow data to be transferred between computers. Also allow
data to be stored in different location in case of data loss.
 PRIMARY MEMORY
Computer memory directly accessed from CPU
- RAM (random access memory)
- ROM (read only memory)
 Allows CPU to access applications and services temporarily stored in memory locations.

RAM

Any memory location can be accessed independent of which memory location was last used.

- Data retrieved from secondary storage is temporarily stored in ram

- Access time to locate data is faster
- Can be written to or read from
- Data can be changed by user
- Used to store data/files/part of application/ part of OS currently in use
- Volatile memory contents are lost when powering off computer
- Larger size of ram  faster comp operates
- Nevers run out of memory
- Two types :
o DRAM (dynamic RAM)
o SRAM (static RAM)
DRAM
- Consists of transistors and capacitors
- Capacitor: holds bits of information
- Transistor: acts like a switch, allows chip control circuitry to read capacitor or change value
- Needs to be constantly refreshed
- Much less expensive to manufacture (than SRAM)
- Consume less power (than SRAM)
- Higher memory capacity (than SRAM)
- Main memory is constructed from DRAM
SRAM
- Doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed
- Make use of flip flops, holding each bit of memory
- Much faster (than DRAM) in accessing data
- CPU memory cache makes use of SRAM
ROM
- It cannot be changed or written to
- Non volatile (not lost after poweroff)
- Permanent memories (cannot be changed/written to)
- Can only be read
- Used to store data comp needs to access when powering up for first time (BIOS)/ startup
instructions/ bootstrap

SECONDARY AND OFF-LINE STORAGE

o Storage not directly addressable by CPU

o Non volatile devices allowing data to be stored as long as required
o Store more data
o Data access time is longer
o Three types :
- Magnetic
- Solid state
- Optical
MAGNETIC STORAGE
- Stored in digital format on magnetic surface of disks (or platters)
- Read-write heads consists of electromagnets used to read data or write to platters
- Platters made of aluminium, glass or ceramic
- Number of read write heads can access all surface used to store data
- Read write heads move very quickly
- Data stored on surface in sectors and tracks
- Sector is given track containing fixed number of bytes
- HDD very slow data access time
- Effect of latency significant  large number of head movements’  time taken for
specific block of data on track to rotate around to read-write head.
- File or data in HDD, required number of sectors needed to store data will be
allocated.
- HDD undergoes numerous deletions and editing which leads to sectors becoming
fragmented gradual deterioration of performance (defragmentation softwares
improve)
- Data in given sector is read in order
- Removable hard disk drives used as a backup
device or transferring between computers.
SOLID STATE DRIVE
- No moving parts
- Data retrieved at same rate
- Latency not an issue
- Don’t rely on magnetic properties
- Store data by controlling movement of electrons within NAND or NOR chips
- Data stored as 0s and 1s in tiny transistors (each junction one called floating gate
and other is control gate)
- Produces non volatile rewritable memory
- Floating and control gate transistors use CMOS (complementary metal oxide semi-
conductor) NAND tech
- Flash memories use matrix at each intersection

- Dielectric coating separates both transistors, allowing floating gate to retain charge
(memory  non volatile)
- Floating gate transistor has value 1 when charged and 0 when isn’t
- Programing ‘intersection cells’ voltage applied to control gate and electrons from
electron source are attracted, due to dielectric coating, electrons trapped in floatin
gate
- After 12 hours, charge can leak away. SSD used atleast once a year to retain memory
- BENEFITS :
o More reliable
o Considerable lighter
o Don’t get up to speed before working properly
o Lower power consumption
o Run cooler than HDD
o No moving parts  thin
o Data access is faster than HDD
- DRAWBACK : longevity. SSD endurance: total guaranteed number of times data can
be written to or read from a solid state drive in usable life cycle
- Memory sticks/ flash memories
- Connect to computer using USB port.
- Use SSD tech
- Small, lightweight
- Suitable for transferring files
- Small backup devices for music/photo
- Complex/expensive software use as dongle – contains additional files needed to run
software
- Dongle prevents illegal or unauthorized use of software and copying of software as
without dongle, its useless.
OPTICAL MEDIA
- Cd/dvd disks
- Optical storage devices
- Laser light used to read and write data to and from surface of disk
- Use thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store data
- Both use single, spiral track running from centre of disk to edge
- Disk spin, optical head moves to point where laser beam contacts disk surface and
follows spiral track from centre outward
- Divided in sectors, direct
access of data
- Outer part of disk runs
fasrer than inner part
- Data stored in ‘pits’ and
‘lands’ on spiral track
- Red laser used to read
and write data
- Diff between CD and DVD  dual-layering in DVD, increasing storage capacity.
- DVD have large storage capacity than CD as pit size and track width are smaller
- Shorter the wavelength of laser light, greater the storage capacity of the medium
-
- Blu-ray discs
- Difference from DVD as :
o Blue laser, not red
o Pits and lands much smaller
o Same thickness
o Automatically come with secure encryption system preventing piracy and
copyright infringement
o Data transfer rate is higher
- Comparison of capacity and interactivity of blu-ray and DVD
o Dual layer DVD – 4.7 Gb and 2 hour standard definition movie
o Single layer blu-ray – 27GB and 2 hour high definition movie or 13 hour
standard definition movie
o Dual layer blu-ray – 50 GB and 4.5 hiours of high definition movies or 20
hours of standard definition movie
- Record high definition tv programs
- Skip quickly to any part of disc
- Create playlists of recorded movies and