Surveying (312339)

Unit - II Cross staff and Compass Surveying

2.1 Linear Measurement Instruments: Metric Chain, Tapes, Arrow, Ranging rod, Open cross
staff (IKS)
2.2 Chain survey Station, Base line, Check line, Tie line, Offset, Tie station, Types of le offsets:
Perpendicular and Oblique
2.3 Ranging: Direct and Indirect Ranging.
2.4 Area Calculations of field by cross staff(Numerical problems)
2.5 Compass Traversing: open, closed.
2.6 Technical Terms: Geographic/True Magnetic and Arbitrary Meridians and Bearings,
Meridian and Bearing,
2.7 Whole Circle Bearing System and Reduced Bearing System. Numerical on conversion of
given bearing to another bearing (from one form to another), Fore Bearing and Back Bearing,
2.8 Calculation of internal and external angles from bearings at a station.
2.9 Components of Prismatic Compass and etc. their Functions (No sketch) Temporary
adjustments and observing bearings
2.10 Local attraction, Methods of correction of observed bearings-Correction at station and
correction to included angles
2.11 Methods of plotting a traverse and closing error, Graphical adjustment of closing error.

2.1 Linear Measurement Instruments: Metric Chain, Tapes, Arrow, Ranging rod, Open cross
staff (IKS)
Chains - A chain is prepared with 100 or 150 pieces of galvanised mild steel wire of diameter 4
mm. The ends of the pieces are bent to form loops. Then the pieces are connected together with
the help of three oval rings, which make the chain flexible. Two brass handles are provided at the
two ends of the chain. Tallies are provided at every 10 or 25 links for facility of counting. 'One
link' means the distance between the centres of adjacent middle rings.
The following are the different types of chains:
(a) Metric chain,
(b) Steel band,
(c) Engineers' chain,
(d) Gunter's chain, and
(e) Revenue chain
Metric Chain Metric chains are available in lengths of 20 m and 30 m The 20 m chain is
divided into 100 links, each of 0.2 m. Tallies are provided after every 5 m and brass rings after
every 1m. This chain is suitable for measuring distances along fairly level ground. The
arrangement of tallies is shown in Figure. The 30 m chain is divided into 150 links. So, each link
is of 0.2 m. The tallies are provided after every 25 links (5 m). A round brass ring is fixed after
every metre. This chain is heavy and is also suitable for measuring distances along fairly level
ground. Here the central tally has three teeth

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Tapes –
The following are the different types of tapes
(a) Cloth or linen tape,
(b) Metallic tape,
(c) Steel tape, and
(d) Invar tape

(a) Cloth or Linen Tape. Such a tape is made of closely woven linen and is varnished to resist
moisture. It is 15 mm wide and available in lengths of 10 and 15 m. This tape is generally used
for measuring offsets and for ordinary works.

(b) Metallic Tape: When linen tape is reinforced with brass or copper wires to make it durable,
then it is called a metallic tape. This tape is available in lengths of 15, 20 and 30 m. It is wound
on a leather case with a brass handle at the end. It is commonly used for all survey works.

(c) Steel Tape: The steel tape is made of steel ribbon of width varying from 6 to 16 mm. The
commonly available lengths are 10, 15, 20, 30 and 50 m. It is graduated in metres, decimetres
and centimetres. It is not used in the field, but chiefly for standardizing chains and for
measurements in constructional works.

(d) Invar Tape: Invar tape is made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%) Its thermal
coefficient is very low. Therefore, it is not affected by change of temperature. It is made in the
form of a ribbon of width 6 mm and is available in lengths of 30, 50 and 100 m. It is used at
places where maximum precision is required. It is generally used in the triangulation survey
conducted by the Survey of India department.
Arrows -
Arrows are made of tempered steel wire of diameter 4 mm. One end of the arrow is bent into a
ring of diameter 50 mm and the other end is pointed. Its overall length is 400 mm. Arrows are
used for counting the number of chains while measuring a chain line.

Ranging rods -
Rods which are used for ranging (i.e. the process of making a line straight) a line are known as
ranging rods. Such rods are made of seasoned timber or seasoned bamboo. Sometimes GI pipes
of 25 mm diameter are also used as ranging rods. They are generally circular in section, of

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diameter 25 mm and length 2 m. Sometimes wooden ranging rods are square in section. The rod
is divided into equal parts of 20 cm each and the divisions are painted black and white or red and
white alternately so that the rod is visible from a long distance. The lower end of the rod is
pointed or provided with an iron shoe.

Cross-staff
The cross-staff is a simple instrument for setting out right angles. There are three types of cross-
staves
1. Open
2. French
3. Adjustable
The open cross-staff is commonly used.
Open cross-staff
The open cross-staff consists of four metal arms with vertical slits. The two pairs of arms (AB
and BC) are at right angles to each other. The vertical slits are meant for sighting the object and
the ranging rods. The cross staff is mounted on a wooden pole of length 1.5 m and diameter 2.5
cm. The pole is fitted with an iron shoe.
Setting out a perpendicular on a chain line, the cross-staff is held vertically at the approximate
position. Suppose slits A and B are directed to the ranging rods (R. R₁ ) fixed at the end stations
Slits C and D are directed to the object (O) Looking through slits A and B, the ranging rods are
bisected. At the same time, looking through slits C and D. the object o is also bisected. To bisect
the object and the ranging rods simultaneously, the cross staff may be moved forward or
backward along the chain line.

2.2 Chain survey Station, Base line, Check line, Tie line, Offset, Tie station, Types of le offsets:
Perpendicular and Oblique
Survey Stations
Survey stations are the points at the beginning and the end of a chain line. They may also occur
at any convenient points on the chain line. Such stations may be:
1. Main stations
2. Subsidiary stations and
3. Tie stations
1. Main stations- Stations taken along the boundary of an area as controlling points are known as
'main stations". The lines joining the main stations are called 'main survey lines". The main
survey lines should cover the whole area to be surveyed. The main stations are denoted by 'A'
with letters A, B, C, D, etc. The chain lines are denoted by "
2. Subsidiary stations- Stations which are on the main survey lines or any other survey lines are
known as "subsidiary stations". These stations are taken to run subsidiary lines for dividing the
area into triangles, for checking the accuracy of triangles and for locating interior details. These
stations are denoted by with letters S1, S2, S3, etc.

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3. Tie stations- These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines. Lines joining
the tie stations are known as tie lines. Tie lines are mainly taken to fix the directions of adjacent
sides of the chain survey map. These are also as chain angles in chain traversing when
triangulation is not possible. lines are takes to ( The aim se denoted by with letters T... T (chain
angles are decribed in Chapter 31. Sometimes tie

B. Base Line
The line on which the framework of the survey is built is known as the he is the most important
line of the survey. Generally, the longest of t main survey lines is considered the base line. This
line should be taken through fairly level ground, and should be measured very carefully and
accurately The magnetic bearings of the base line are taken to fix the north line of the map.

Check Line
The line joining the apex point of a triangle to some fixed by its he The as the check line li is
taken to check the accuracy of the tra Sometimes this line helps to locate interior details.

D. Offset
The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known Offset. The O ffsets are
taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line they may be of two kinds-perpendicular
and oblique.

1. Perpendicular offsets -When the lateral measurements are taken perpendicular to, the chain
line, they are known as perpendicular offsets.
2. Oblique offsets Any offset not perpendicular to the chain line is said to be oblique. Oblique
offsets are taken when the objects are at a long distance from the cha in line or when it is not
possible to set up a right angle due to some difficulties.

2.3 Ranging: Direct and Indirect Ranging.

Ranging
The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two end points is
known as ranging. Ranging must be done before a survey line is chained. Ranging may be done
by direct observation by the naked eye or by line ranger or by theodolite Generally, ranging is
done by the naked eye with the help of three ranging rods.
Ranging may be of two kinds
1 Direct, and
2. Indirect or reciprocal
1. Direct ranging

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When intermediate ranging rods are fixed on a straight line by direct observation from end
stations, the process is known as direct ranging. Direct ranging is possible when the end stations
are intervisible.
The following procedure is adopted for direct ranging-
Assume that A and B are two end stations of a chain line, where two ranging rods are already
fixed. Suppose it is required to fix a ranging rod at the intermediate point P on the chain line in
such a way that the points A. P and B are in the same straight line. The surveyor stands about 2
m behind the ranging rod at A by looking towards the line AB. The assistant holds a ranging rod
at P vertically at arm's length. The rod should be held lightly by the thumb and forefinger. Now,
the surveyor directs the assistant to move the ranging rod to the left or right until the three
ranging rods come exactly in the same straight line. To check the non-verticality of the rods, the
surveyor bends down and looks through the bottom of the rods, The ranging will be perfect,
when the three ranging rods coincide and appear as a single rod. When the surveyor is satisfied
that the ranging is perfect. He signals the assistant to fix the ranging rod on the ground by
waving both his hands up and down. Following the same procedure, the other ranging rods may
be fixed on the line.
Codes of signal used in Direct ranging
Sr. No. Signal given by surveyor Meaning of signal for the assistant

1 Rapid sweep with Right hand move considerably to your left

2 Slow sweep with Right hand move slowly to your left

3 Right arm extended continue to move to your left

4 Right arm up & moved to the right plumb the rod to your left

5 Rapid sweep with Left hand move considerably to your right

6 Slow sweep with Left hand move slowly to your right

7 Left arm extended continue to move to your right

8 Right arm up & moved to the Left plumb the rod to your right

9 Both hand above head &then brought down Ranging is correct

Both arm extended forward horizontally &hands

10 Fix the ranging rod
brought down quickly

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2. Indirect or reciprocal ranging

Reciprocal ranging is done when ends of survey line are not intervisible due to hill intervening or
ends of survey line are at far distance apart.
Step wise procedure reciprocal ranging:
1. Let A and B be two survey station. They are not mutually visible due to high ground between
them.
2. It is required to measure the distance between A and B. Let two chain-men stands at M1 and
N1 as shown in fig.
3. The Chain-man at M1 can see both the ranging rods at N1 and B. The chain-men at ‘N1’ can
see the ranging at M1 and A.
4. The two chain-men then direct each other alternately. The chain-man at ‘N1’ directs the chain-
man at M1 to come in line with AN1 to occupy position M2
5. Then the chain-man at M2 directs the chain-man at N1 to come in line with M2 B to occupy
position N2.
6. By successively directing each other, they finally occupy position ‘M’ and ‘N’ on line AB.
Now, AMNB are exactly in the same line.
7. Other intermediate points can be fixed by direct ranging and the distance AB can be chained.
8. This method can also be used in ranging a line across a valley. 2.5 Compass Traversing: open,
closed.

TRAVERSING
Surveying which involves a series of connected lines is known as 'traversing." The sides of the
traverse are known as 'traverse legs'. In traversing, the lengths of the lines are measured by chain
and the directions are fixed by compass or theodolite or by forming angles with chain and tape.
Traverse may be of two types-

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1. Closed traverse
2. Open traverse
1. Closed traverse - When a series of A connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the
finishing point coincides with the starting point of a survey, it is called a closed traverse'. Closed
traverse is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds, forests, estates, etc.
2. Open trave rse- When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and
does not return to the starting point it is known as open traverse of unclosed traverse .

2.6 Technical Terms: Geographic/True Magnetic and Arbitrary Meridians and Bearings,
Meridian and Bearing
1. True meridian - The line or plane passing through the geographical north pole, geographical
south pole and any point on the surface of the earth, is known as the true meridian' or
'geographical meridian". The true meridian at a station is constant. The true meridians passing
through different points on the earth's surface are not parallel, but converge towards the poles.
But for surveys in small areas, the true meridians passing through different points are assumed
parallel. The angle between the true meridian and a line is known as 'true bearing' of the line. It is
also known as the 'azimuth'.

2. Magnetic meridian - When a magnetic needle is suspended freely and balanced properly,
unaffected by magnetic substances, it indicates a direction. This direction is known as the
'magnetic meridian'.

The angle between the magnetic meridian and a line is known as the 'magnetic bearing or simply
the 'bearing' of the line.

3. Arbitrary meridian - Sometimes for the survey of a small area, a convenient direction is
assumed as a meridian, known as the 'arbitrary meridian'. Sometimes the starting line of a survey
is taken as the arbitrary meridian. The angle between the arbitrary meridian and a line is known
as the 'arbitrary bearing of the line.

4. Grid me ridian- Sometimes, for preparing a map some state agencies assume several lines
parallel to the true meridian for a particular zone. These lines are termed as 'grid lines' and the
central line the 'grid meridian". The bearing of a line with respect to the grid meridian is known
as the 'grid bearing of the line.

2.7 Whole Circle Bearing System and Reduced Bearing System. Nume rical on conversion
of given bearing to another bearing (from one form to another), Fore Bearing and Back
Bearing
Magnetic bearings are designated by two systems
(i) Whole circle bearing (WCB), and

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(ii) Quadrantal bearing (QB).

(a) Whole Circle Bearing (WCB) - The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise from
the North Pole towards the line, is known as the 'whole circle bearing, of that line. Such a
bearing may have any value between 0° and 360°. The whole circle bearing of a line is obtained
by prismatic compass.
(b) Quadrantal Bearing (QB)- The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise or
counterclockwise from the North Pole or South Pole (whichever is nearer the line) towards the
East or West, is known as the 'quadrantal bearing' of the line. This s ystem consists of four
quadrants NE, SE, SW and NW. The value of a quadrantal bearing lies between 0° and 90°, but
the quadrants should always be mentioned. Quadrantal bearings are obtained by the surveyor's
compass.

2.9 Components of Pris matic Compass and etc. their Functions (No sketch) Temporary
adjustments and observing bearings
The Prismatic compass-
In this compass, the readings are taken with the help of a prism. The following are the essential
parts of this compass-
(a) Compass Box - The compass box is a circular metallic box (the metal should be non-
magnetic) of diameter 8 to 10 cm. A pivot with a sharp point is provided at the centre of the box.

(b) Magnetic Needle and Graduated Ring - The magnetic needle is made of a broad, magnetised
iron bar. The bar is pointed at both ends. The magnetic needle is attached to a graduated
aluminium ring.
The ring is graduated from 0° to 360° clockwise, and the graduations begin from the south end of
the needle. Thus 0° is marked at the south, 90° at the west. 180° at the north and 270° at the east.
The degrees are again subdivided into half- degrees. The figures are written upside down. The
arrangement of the needle anvi ring contains an agate cap pivoted on the central pivot point. A
rider of brass or silver coil is provided with the needle to counterbalance its dip.

(c) Sight Vane and Prism - The sight vane and the reflecting prism are fixed diametrically
opposite to the box. The sight vane is hinged with the metal box and consists of a horsehair at the
centre. The prism consists of a sighting slit at the top and two small circular holes, one at the
bottom of the prism and the other at the side of the observer's eye.

(d) Dark Glasses- Two dark glasses are provided with the prism. The red glass is meant for
sighting luminous objects at night and the blue glass for reducing the strain on the observer's eye
in bright daylight.

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(e) Adjustable Mirror- A mirror is provided with the sight vane. The mirror can be lowered or
raised, and can also be inclined. If any object is too low or too high with respect to the line of
sight, the mirror can be adjusted to observe it through reflection.

(f) Brake Pin - A brake pin is provided just at the base of the sight vane. If pressed gently, it
stops the oscillations of the ring.

(g) Lifting Pin - A lifting pin is provided just below the sight vane. When the sight vane is
folded, it presses the lifting pin. The lifting pin then lifts the magnetic needle out of the pivot
point to prevent damage to the pivot head.

(h) Glass Cover - A glass cover is provided on top of the box to protect the aluminium ring from
dust.

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENT OF PRISMATIC COMPASS (FIELD PROCEDURE OF

OBSERVING BEARING)
The following procedure should be adopted while measuring the bearing by prismatic compass.
1. Fixing the compass with tripod stand –
The tripod stand is placed at the required station with its legs well apart. Then the prismatic
compass is held by the left hand and placed over the threaded top of the stand. After this, the
compass box is turned clockwise by the right hand. Thus the threaded base of the compass
box is fixed with the threaded top of the stand.
2. Centering-
Normally, the compass is centred by dropping a piece of stone from the bottom of the
compass box. Centring may also be done with the aid of a plumb bob held centrally
below the compass box.
3. Levelling- Levelling is done with the help of a ball-and-socket arrangement provided on
top of tripod stand. This arrangement is loosened and the box is placed in such a way that
the graduated ring rotates freely without touching either the bottom of box or the glass
cover on top.
4. Adjustment of prism- The prism is moved up and down till the figures on the graduated
ring are seen sharp and clear
5. Observation of bearing- After centring and levelling the compass box over the station,
the ranging rod at the required station is bisected perfectly by sighting through the slit of
the prism and horsehair at the sight vane. At this time the graduated ring may rotate
rapidly. The brake pin is pressed very gently to stop this rotation. When the ring comes to
rest, the box is struck very lightly to verify the horizontality of the ring and the frictional
effect on the pivot point. Then the reading is taken from the graduated ring through the
hole in the prism. This reading will be the magnetic bearing of the line.

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2.10 Local attraction, Methods of correction of observed bearings-Correction at station and

correction to included angles
Local attraction-
A magnetic needle indicates the north direction when freely suspended or pivoted. But if the
needle comes near some magnetic substances, such as iron ore, steel structures, electric cables
conveying current, etc. it is found to be deflected from its true direction, and does not show the
actual north. This disturbing influence of magnetic substances is known as 'local attraction'
To detect the presence of local attraction, the fore and back bearings of a line should be taken. If
the difference of the fore and back bearings of the line is exactly 180°, then there is no local
attraction.
If the FB and BB of a line do not differ by 180°, then the needle is said to be affected by local
attraction, provided there is no instrumental error. To compensate for the effect of local
attraction, the amount of error is found out and is equally distributed between the fore and back
bearings of the line.

13. Method of application of correction

(a) First Method- The interior angles of a traverse are calculated from the observed bearings.
Then an angular check is applied. The sum of the interior angles should be equal to (2n-
4)* 900 (n = being the number of sides of the traverse). If it is not so, the total error is
equally distributed among all the angles of the traverse Then, starting from the unaffected
line, the bearings of all the lines may be corrected by using the corrected interior angles.
This method is very laborious and is not generally employed.
(b) Second Method - In this method, the interior angles are not calculated. From the given
table, the unaffected line is first detected. Then, commencing from the unaffected line,
the bearings of the other affected lines are corrected by finding the amount of correction
at each station. This is an easy method, and one which is generally employed.
Note: If all the lines of a traverse are found to be affected by local attraction, the line with
minimum error is identified. The FB and BB of this line are adjusted by distributing the
error equally. Then, starting from this adjusted line, the fore and back bearings of other
lines are corrected

2.11 Methods of plotting a traverse and closing error, Graphical adjustment of closing error.
PLOTTING OF COMPASS TRAVERSE
The following are the various methods of plotting compass traverse
(a) By parallel meridian through each station –
The starting point A is suitably selected on the paper and a line representing the north
line. The bearing of the line AB is plotted by protractor and its length is plotted to any
suitable scale. At station B, the north line is drawn parallel to the north line which was
drawn at A. Then the bearing of the line BC is plotted and its length marked according to

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the previous scale. Similarly, all the traverse legs are plotted In case of closed traverse,
there may be a closing error which should be adjusted graphically.

(b) By considering included angles-

The starting station A is suitably selected on the sheet. A line representing the north line
is drawn through station A. The bearing of the line is plotted by protractor and the
distance AB marked to a suitable scale. At station B the angle B is plotted a nd the
distance BC marked according to the previous scale. Angle C is plotted at station C and
the distance CD marked. This process is continued until all the lines have been plotted. In
this case there may be a closing error which has to be adjusted graphically.

(c) By considering the central meridian

A suitable point O is selected at the centre of the drawing sheet. A line representing the
magnetic meridian is drawn through this point. Then a protractor is placed at O and all
the lines, namely ab, bc, cd and da, are drawn according to their bearings. Then a starting
point A is suitably selected on the sheet. A line AB is drawn parallel to ab, and the length
AB is plotted to a suitable scale. Again from B. a line BC is drawn parallel to the line be
and the distance BC is plotted to the previous scale. The process is continued until all the
lines have been drawn. In this case also there may be a closing error is adjusted
graphically.

ADJUSTMENT OF CLOSING ERROR

Compass Traverse Bowditch Rule

Explanation:
1. To distribute the closing error AA1 (Fig. a), draw one horizontal line of length equal to
perimeter of traverse with some reduced scale.
2. Now mark the survey stations on it proportionally (Fig. b) and transfer closing error of same
length using roller scale to point a.
3. Join the point A and A1 with straight line. Also draw parallel lines at point b, c, d and e.
4. Transfer B1 b, C1 c, D1 d and E1 e to point B1 , C1 , D1 and E1 respectively in compass traverse.
5. Finally join new points to get corrected traverse ABCDEA after graphical adjustment of
closing error.

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