Complex Analysis, Probability and

Sampling Distribution(18MAT41)

Module II
Conformal Transformation and Complex
Integration

Department of Mathematics

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 Transformation in the Complex plane
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a non-constant complex function of a complex variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 defined in a region D in the
complex plane.
Let us put 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) …………… (1)
We have noted that a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 determines a point 𝑃(𝑥,𝑦) in the complex plane; this point is
referred to as the point z. For each z in the region D, expression (1) determines a unique complex number w. If
we set 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, then w is represented by a point 𝑄(𝑢,𝑣) in the complex plane. Thus, expression (1)
represents a transformation or mapping that transforms a point 𝑃(𝑥,𝑦) in the region D of the complex plane to a
unique point 𝑄(𝑢,𝑣) in the complex plane. We say that the point 𝑤 = 𝑄(𝑢,𝑣) is the image of the point 𝑧 = 𝑃(𝑥,𝑦)
under the transformation (1).

As the point P varies over the region D, the point Q varies over some region in the complex plane. In particular,
as the point P varies over a curve C, the point Q varies over a curve C’. Here, we say that the transformation (1)
2
transforms the curve C to the curve C’.
Department of Mathematics, AIT
The part of the complex plane where points represented by z are marked is referred to as the z-plane and
part of the complex plane where points represented by w are marked is referred to as the w-plane

Conformal transformation

Let 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 be any two continuous curves in the z-plane intersecting at a point 𝑃 = 𝑧0 . Suppose that
the transformation (1) transforms the curves 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 to the curves 𝑐′1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐′2 which intersect at a point
𝑄 = 𝑤0 = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) in the w-plane. Then the transformation (1) is called conformal transformation at the
point 𝑧0 if the angle between 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 is equal to the angle between 𝑐′1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐′2 at 𝑤0 in both
magnitude and sense.

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Discussion of the conformal Transformations:

1. Discussion of 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
2
i.e. 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑢 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 (1)

Case (1): let us consider x = 𝑐1 , 𝑐1 is a constant.

The set of equations (1) become 𝑢 = 𝑐1 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 2𝑐1 𝑦

𝑣
Now 𝑦 = 2𝑐 and substituting in 𝑢 we get
1

𝑣 2
2
𝑢 = 𝑐1 − Implies 𝑣 2 = −4𝑐1 2 𝑢 − 𝑐1 2 this is a parabola in the w-plane symmetrical about the real
2𝑐1

axis with its vertex at (𝑐1 2 , 0) and focus at the origin. It may be observed that the line 𝑥 = −𝑐1 is also
transformed into the same parabola. 4

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Case (2): let us consider 𝑦 = 𝑐2 , 𝑐2 is a constant.

The set of equations (1) become 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑐2 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑐2

𝑣
Now 𝑥 = and substituting in 𝑢 we get
2𝑐2

𝑣 2
𝑢= − 𝑐2 2 Implies 𝑣 2 = 4𝑐2 2 𝑢 + 𝑐2 2 this is a parabola in the w-plane symmetrical about the real
2𝑐2

axis with its vertex at (−𝑐2 2 , 0) and focus at the origin. It may be observed that the line 𝑦 = −𝑐2 is also
transformed into the same parabola.

Hence from these two cases we conclude that the straight lines parallel to the co-ordinate axes in the z-plane
map onto parabolas in the w-plane.

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Case (3): let us consider a circle with centre origin r in the z-plane.

𝑧 =𝑟 ∴ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

Hence 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ (say) so that 𝑅 = 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅ = 2𝜃

This is also a circle in the w-plane having radius 𝑟 2 and subtending an angle 2𝜃 at the origin.

Hence we conclude that a circle with centre origin and radius r in the z-plane maps onto a circle with centre
origin and radius 𝑟 2 in the w-plane.

Department of Mathematics, AIT

2. Discussion of 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛

Consider 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)

∴ 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 ……….. (1)

We shall find the image in the w-plane corresponding to the straight lines parallel to the co-ordinate axes in the
z-plane. That is x = constant and y = constant.

Let us eliminate x and y separately from (1)

𝑣
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑥 ………..(2) and = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 ……… (3)
𝑢

Case (1): let us consider x = 𝑐1 , 𝑐1 is a constant

𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑐1 = 𝑟 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

7
This represents a circle with centre origin and radius r in the w-plane.
Department of Mathematics, AIT
Case (2): let us consider 𝑦 = 𝑐2 , 𝑐2 is a constant

𝑣
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐2 = 𝑚 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑢

𝑣 = 𝑚𝑢

This represents a straight line passing through the origin in the w-plane.

Conclusion: the straight line parallel to the x-axis (𝑦 = 𝑐2 ) in the z-plane maps onto a straight line
passing through the origin in the w-plane. The straight line parallel to the y-axis (𝑥 = 𝑐1 ) in the z-plane
maps onto a circle with centre origin and radius r where 𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑐1 in the w-plane. 8

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝒂𝟐 𝟏
3. Discussion of 𝒘 = 𝒛 + and 𝒘 = 𝒛 + 𝒛 , 𝒛 ≠ 𝟎.
𝒛

𝑎2
Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 +
𝑧

𝑎2 −𝑖𝜃 𝑎2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑟

𝑎2 𝑎2
∴𝑢= 𝑟+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣= 𝑟− 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)
𝑟 𝑟

Let us eliminate r and 𝜃 separately from (1)

𝑢 𝑣
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎2
𝑟+ 𝑟−
𝑟 𝑟

Squaring and adding we obtain

𝑢2 𝑣2
2 + 2 = 1, 𝑟 ≠ 𝑎 (2)
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑟+ 𝑟−
𝑟 𝑟
9

Department of Mathematics, AIT

To eliminate r let us put (1) in the form,

𝑎2 𝑢 𝑎2 𝑣
𝑟+ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟− = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟

Squaring and subtracting we obtain,

2 2
𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑎2 𝑎2
− = 𝑟 + 𝑟 − 𝑟− = 4𝑎2
cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 𝑟

𝑢2 𝑣2
− =1 …………… (3)
2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2

Since 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧 = 𝜃

𝑧 =𝑟

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2

This represents a circle with centre origin and radius r in the z-plane when r is a constant.
10

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑦 𝑦
𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑧 = 𝜃 ⇒ tan−1 =𝜃 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 .
𝑥 𝑥

This represents a straight line in the z-plane when 𝜃 is a constant.

Case (1): let r is a constant.

Equation (2) is of the form

𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑎2 𝑎2
+ = 1 Where 𝐴= 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑟−
𝐴2 𝐵2 𝑟

This represents an ellipse in the w-plane with foci ± 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 , 0 = ±2𝑎, 0

Hence, we conclude that the circle 𝑧 = 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 in the z-plane maps onto an ellipse in the w-plane
with foci ±2𝑎, 0 .

11
Department of Mathematics, AIT
Case (2): let 𝜃 is a constant.

Equation (3) is of the form

𝑢2 𝑣2
− = 1 Where 𝐴 = 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐵 = 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴2 𝐵2

This represents an hyperbola in the w-plane with foci ± 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 , 0 = ±2𝑎, 0

Hence, we conclude that the straight line passing through the origin in the z-plane maps onto a hyperbola in the
w-plane with foci ±2𝑎, 0 .

Since both these conics (ellipse and hyperbola) have the same foci independent of r, 𝜃 they are called confocal conics.

12

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝟏
4. Discussion of 𝒘 = 𝒛 + 𝒛 , 𝒛 ≠ 𝟎.

1
Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑧

1 1
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑟 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 1
∴ 𝑢 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)

Let us eliminate r and 𝜃 separately from (1)

𝑢 𝑣
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1
𝑟+𝑟 𝑟−𝑟

Squaring and adding we obtain

𝑢2 𝑣2
1 2
+ 1 2
= 1, 𝑟 ≠ 1 (2)
𝑟+𝑟 𝑟−𝑟 13

Department of Mathematics, AIT

To eliminate r let us put (1) in the form,

1 𝑢 1 𝑣
𝑟 + 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 − 𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Squaring and subtracting we obtain,

𝑢2 𝑣2 1 2 1 2
− = 𝑟 +𝑟 − 𝑟− =4
cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 𝑟

𝑢2 𝑣2
− =1 (3)
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2

Since 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧 = 𝜃

𝑧 =𝑟

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2

This represents a circle with centre origin and radius r in the z-plane when r is a constant.
Department of Mathematics, AIT 14
 𝑦 𝑦
𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑧 = 𝜃 ⇒ tan−1 =𝜃 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 .
𝑥 𝑥

This represents a straight line in the z-plane when 𝜃 is a constant.

Case (1): let r is a constant.

Equation (2) is of the form

𝑢2 𝑣2 1 1
𝐴2
+ 𝐵2 = 1 where 𝐴= 𝑟+𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑟−𝑟

This represents an ellipse in the w-plane with foci ± 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 , 0 = ±2,0

Hence, we conclude that the circle 𝑧 = 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 in the z-plane maps onto an ellipse in the w-plane
with foci ±2,0 .

Department of Mathematics, AIT 15

Case (2): let 𝜃 is a constant.

Equation (3) is of the form

𝑢2 𝑣2
− = 1 where 𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐵 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴2 𝐵2

This represents an hyperbola in the w-plane with foci ± 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 , 0 = ±2,0

Hence, we conclude that the straight line passing through the origin in the z-plane maps onto a hyperbola in the w-
plane with foci ±2,0 .

Since both these conics (ellipse and hyperbola) have the same foci independent of r , 𝜃 they are called confocal
conics.

16

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Bilinear Transformations

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 be complex constants such that 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0. Then the transformation defined by

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
𝑤= (1)
𝑐𝑧+𝑑

Is called a bilinear transformation.

𝑏−𝑤𝑑
From (1), we find 𝑤 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 𝑐𝑤 − 𝑎 = 𝑏 − 𝑤𝑑, 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = (2)
𝑐𝑤−𝑎

𝑑
The transformation (1) assigns to each point z (except 𝑧 = − 𝑐 , 𝑐 ≠ 0) a unique point w. On the other hand,
𝑎
the expression (2) assigns to each point w (except the point 𝑤 = 𝑐 , 𝑐 ≠ 0) a unique point z. Thus, the

transformation (1) establishes a one to one correspondence between the points in the z- and w-planes.

We note that the transformation (1) transforms a point z to itself whenever 𝑤 = 𝑧, that is whenever 𝑧
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
= 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑧 2 + 𝑑 − 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑏 = 0 ……….(3)
17

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Thus, under the transformation (1), a point z transforms into itself if z satisfies equation (3), since (3) is a
quadratic equation, there exist exactly two points which transform to them-selves. These are called the fixed
points or invariant points of the transformation.

Property (1): There exists a unique bilinear transformation that maps three given distinct points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 onto
three given distinct points 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 respectively.

𝑤−𝑤1 (𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧−𝑧1 (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )

=
𝑤−𝑤3 (𝑤2 −𝑤1 ) 𝑧−𝑧3 (𝑧2 −𝑧1 )

PROBLEMS:

1. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points

𝑧1 = 0, 𝑧2 = −𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1, 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤1 = 𝑖, 𝑤2 = 1, 𝑤3 = 0 .

Solution: Given 𝑧1 = 0, 𝑧2 = −𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1 , 𝑤1 = 𝑖, 𝑤2 = 1, 𝑤3 = 0

Let w be the image of z under the bilinear transformation.

18

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑤−𝑤1 (𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧−𝑧1 (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )
Then we have =
𝑤−𝑤3 (𝑤2 −𝑤1 ) 𝑧−𝑧3 (𝑧2 −𝑧1 )

𝑤 − 𝑖 (1 − 0) 𝑧 − 0 (−𝑖 + 1)
=
𝑤 − 0 (1 − 𝑖) 𝑧 + 1 (−𝑖 − 0)

𝑤−𝑖 𝑧 (1 − 𝑖)(1 − 𝑖)
=
𝑤 𝑧 + 1 (−𝑖)

𝑤 − 𝑖 𝑧 + 1 = 2𝑤𝑧

𝑤 𝑧 + 1 − 2𝑧 = 𝑖(𝑧 + 1)

𝑖 𝑧+1
𝑤=
1−𝑧

𝑖 𝑧+1
𝑤= 19
−𝑧 + 1
Department of Mathematics, AIT
2. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points
𝑧 = −1, 𝑖, 1 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤 = 1, 𝑖, −1. Find the invariant points.
Solution: Given 𝑧1 = −1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = 1 , 𝑤1 = 1, 𝑤2 = 𝑖, 𝑤3 = −1
Let w be the image of z under the bilinear transformation.

𝑤−𝑤1 (𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧−𝑧1 (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )

Then we have =
𝑤−𝑤3 (𝑤2 −𝑤1 ) 𝑧−𝑧3 (𝑧2 −𝑧1 )

𝑤 − 1 (𝑖 + 1) 𝑧 + 1 (𝑖 − 1)
=
𝑤 + 1 (𝑖 − 1) 𝑧 − 1 (𝑖 + 1)

2
𝑤−1 𝑧+1 𝑖−1
= 2
𝑤+1 𝑧−1 𝑖+1

𝑤 − 1 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑧 + 1 (𝑤 + 1) = 0

𝑤 𝑧−1 + 𝑧+1 − 𝑧 − 1 + (𝑧 + 1) = 0
20

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 2𝑤𝑧 + 2 = 0

1
𝑤=−
𝑧

To find the invariant point put w=z

1
𝑧=− 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 2 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = ±𝑖
𝑧

Thus 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑖 are the required invariant points.

3. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points

𝑧 = 𝑖, 1, −1 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤 = 1,0, ∞

Solution: Given 𝑧1 = 𝑖, 𝑧2 = 1, 𝑧3 = −1 , 𝑤1 = 1, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = ∞

Let w be the image of z under the bilinear transformation. 21

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑤−𝑤1 (𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧−𝑧1 (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )
Then we have =
𝑤−𝑤3 (𝑤2 −𝑤1 ) 𝑧−𝑧3 (𝑧2 −𝑧1 )

𝑤
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤3 (𝑤2 − 1) 𝑧 − 𝑧1 (𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
3
=
𝑤 𝑧 − 𝑧3 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
𝑤3 𝑤 − 1 (𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )
3

𝑤 − 1 (−1) 𝑧 − 𝑖 (1 + 1)
=
−1 (0 − 1) 𝑧 + 1 (1 − 𝑖)

𝑤−1 𝑧 − 𝑖 (2)
=
−1 𝑧 + 1 (1 − 𝑖)

𝑤 − 1 𝑧 + 1 1 − 𝑖 = −2 𝑧 − 𝑖

1−𝑧
𝑤=𝑖
1+𝑧 22

Department of Mathematics, AIT

4. Find the bilinear transformation which map the points 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤 = 𝑖, 0, −1
Solution : Given 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1 , 𝑤1 = 𝑖, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = −𝑖
Let w be the image of z under the bilinear transformation.

Then we have 𝑤 − 𝑤1 (𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) 𝑧 − 𝑧1 (𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )

=
𝑤 − 𝑤3 (𝑤2 − 𝑤1 ) 𝑧 − 𝑧3 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

𝑤 − 𝑖 (0 + 𝑖) 𝑧 − 1 (𝑖 + 1)
=
𝑤 + 𝑖 (0 − 𝑖) 𝑧 + 1 (𝑖 − 1)

(𝑤 − 𝑖) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)
=
−(𝑤 + 𝑖) −(𝑧 + 1)(1 − 𝑖)

𝑤−𝑖 1−𝑖 𝑧+1 = 𝑤+𝑖 𝑧−1 1+𝑖

2𝑤 − 2𝑤𝑧𝑖 = 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑤 1 − 𝑧𝑖 = (𝑖𝑧 + 1)
23
1+𝑧𝑖
⟹ 𝑤= is the required bilinear transformation.
1−𝑧𝑖
Department of Mathematics, AIT
5. Find the bilinear transformation which map the points 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤 = 2, 𝑖, −2
Also find the invariant points of the transformation.
Solution : Given 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1 , 𝑤1 = 2, 𝑤2 = 𝑖, 𝑤3 = −2
Let w be the image of z under the bilinear transformation.

𝑤−𝑤1 (𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧−𝑧1 (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )

Then we have =
𝑤−𝑤3 (𝑤2 −𝑤1 ) 𝑧−𝑧3 (𝑧2 −𝑧1 )

(𝑤 − 2)(𝑖 + 2) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)
=
(𝑤 + 2)(𝑖 − 2) (𝑧 + 1)(𝑖 − 1)

𝑤 − 2 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)(2 − 𝑖)
=
𝑤 + 2 (1 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑧)(𝑖 + 2)

𝑤 − 2 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 3)
⟹ =
𝑤 + 2 (𝑧 + 1)(3 − 𝑖)
24

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑤 − 2 𝑧 + 1 3 − 𝑖 = (𝑤 + 2)(𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 3)

6𝑧 − 2𝑖
𝑤= (𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
−𝑖𝑧 + 3

Further the invariant points of this transformation are obtained by taking 𝑤 = 𝑧

6𝑧 − 2𝑖
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑧= ⟹ −𝑖𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 − 6𝑧 + 2𝑖 = 0
−𝑖𝑧 + 3

3± 9−8
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑧=
−2𝑖

3±1 4 2 −2 −1
𝑧= = 𝑜𝑟 = , = 2𝑖 , 𝑖 .
−2𝑖 −2𝑖 −2𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑧 = 2𝑖, 𝑖 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠.

25
Department of Mathematics, AIT
6. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 0, 𝑖, ∞, 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤 = 1, −𝑖, −1 respectively.
Solution : Given 𝑧1 = 0, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = ∞ , 𝑤1 = 1, 𝑤2 = −𝑖, 𝑤3 = −1
Let w be the image of z under the bilinear transformation.

𝑤−𝑤1 (𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧−𝑧1 (𝑧2 −𝑧3 )

Then we have =
𝑤−𝑤3 (𝑤2 −𝑤1 ) 𝑧−𝑧3 (𝑧2 −𝑧1 )

𝑧2
𝑤 − 𝑤1 (𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) 𝑧 − 𝑧1 3 𝑧 − 1)
𝑧 (
3
=
𝑤 − 𝑤3 (𝑤2 − 𝑤1 ) 𝑧 𝑧 − 1 (𝑧 − 𝑧 )
3 𝑧 2 1
3

Substituting the values we get,

𝑤 − 1 −𝑖 + 1 = 𝑧 − 0 0 − 1
𝑤 + 1 −𝑖 − 1 0−1 𝑖−0

26

Department of Mathematics, AIT

𝑤−1 1+𝑖 𝑧 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)2 𝑖(2𝑖)
= = .𝑧 = 𝑧 = −𝑧
𝑤 + 1 1 − 𝑖 𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)(1 − 𝑖) 2

𝑤 − 1 = −𝑧 𝑤 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 − 1 + 𝑧𝑤 + 𝑧 = 0

1−𝑧
𝑤 1 + 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑤=
1+𝑧

This is the required bilinear transformation.

27

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 Complex integration

Complex line integral:

Consider a continuous function 𝑓(𝑧) of the complex variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 defined at all points of a
curve C extending from P to Q. Divide the curve C into n parts by arbitrarily taking points P= P(z0),
P1(z1), P2(z2), ----,Pk-1(zk-1), Pk(zk), Pk+1(zk+1),----, Pn(zn)=Q on the curve C. Let 𝛼𝑘 be any point on
the arc of the curve from Pk-1 to Pk and let 𝛿𝑧𝑘 = 𝑧𝑘 − 𝑧𝑘−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛.

28

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Then lim σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝛼𝑘 )𝛿𝑧𝑘 where 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛿𝑧𝑘 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞ is defined as the complex line integral along
𝑛→∞

the path C usually denoted by ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬.

If C is a simple closed curve the notation ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐ׯ‬is also used.

Properties of complex integral:

(i) If C denotes the curve traversed from Q to P then

‫׬‬−𝑐 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = − ‫𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬

(ii) If C is split into a number of parts 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , then

න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ⋯
𝑐 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
29

Department of Mathematics, AIT

(iii) If a and b are constants then ,

න 𝑎𝑓1 𝑧 ± 𝑏𝑓2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎 න 𝑓1 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ± 𝑏 න 𝑓2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

Line integral of a complex valued function:

Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be a complex valued function defined over a region R and C be a curve in
the region. Then

න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝑐 𝑐

i.e. ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑢( 𝑐׬ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬− 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑣( 𝑐׬‬+ 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

30

Department of Mathematics, AIT

This shows that the evaluation of a line integral of a complex valued function is nothing but the evaluation of
line integrals of real valued functions.

PROBLEMS

1. Evaluate ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 i) along the straight line from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖

ii) along the curve made up of two line segments, one from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 and another from 𝑧 = 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑧
= 3 + 𝑖.

Solution:

3+𝑖 2
i) ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫׬‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Here z varies from 0 to 3+i means that (𝑥, 𝑦) varies from 0,0 𝑡𝑜 (3,1). The equation of the line joining
0,0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3,1) is given by
31

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑦−0 1−0 𝑥 Y

= 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 =
𝑥−0 3−0 3 B(3+i)

X
O

Further 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

(3,1)

න 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 {𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦}

𝑐 (0,0)

(3,1) (3,1)

න 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 න 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦

𝑐 (0,0) (0,0)

𝑥
We have 𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3𝑦 and we shall convert these integrals into the variable y and integrate 32
3

w.r.t. y from 0 to 1.
Department of Mathematics, AIT
 1 1

න 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = න 9𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 3𝑑𝑦 − 6𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 න 18𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + (9𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦

𝑐 𝑦=0 𝑦=0

1 1

= න 18𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 න 26𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑦=0

1 1
18𝑦 3 26𝑦 3 26
= ቉ +𝑖 ቉ =6+ 𝑖
3 0 3 0 3

26
Thus ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = 6 + 𝑖 along the given path
3

ii)Segments from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 and then from 𝑧 = 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖 means that (𝑥, 𝑦) varies from

0,0 𝑡𝑜 3,0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 3,0 𝑡𝑜 (3,1)as shown in the following figure.
33

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 Y

B(3,1)

‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 …….. (1)

1 2

X
O

Now along 𝑐1 : 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 3. 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥.

Also along 𝑐2 : 𝑥 = 3 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1. 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 (3 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑖𝑑𝑦.

Therefore equation (1) becomes,

3 1
‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫=𝑥׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ‫=𝑦׬‬0(3 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦

3 1
= ‫=𝑥׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ‫=𝑦׬‬0(9 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖6𝑦)𝑑𝑦
34

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 3 1
𝑥3 𝑦3 2
= ቃ + 𝑖(9𝑦 − + 3𝑖𝑦 )ቃ
3 0 3 0

1
= 9 + 𝑖(9 − 3 + 3𝑖)

26
‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = 6 + 3
𝑖 .

2. Evaluate ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 where C is a square with the following vertices 0,0 1,0 1,1 0,1 .

Solution:
The curve C as shown in the following figure.

35

Department of Mathematics, AIT

‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 ...(1)
1 2 3 4

We have 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

Along OP(𝑐1 ): 𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑦 = 0. 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

Along PQ(𝑐2 ): 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 0. 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 1 + 𝑦 2 𝑖𝑑𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1

Along QR(𝑐3 ): 𝑦 = 1 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑦 = 0. 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0

Along RO(𝑐4 ): 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑦 = 0. 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑦 2 𝑖𝑑𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 0 .

Using these in (1) we obtain

1 1 0 0
‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫=𝑥׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ‫=𝑦׬‬0 1 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + ‫=𝑥׬‬1(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ‫=𝑦׬‬1 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

1 1 0 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑥3 𝑦3
= ቃ + 𝑖(𝑦 + )ቃ + + 𝑥ቃ + 𝑖 3ቃ
3 0 3 0 3 1 1

36
2 𝑑𝑧
‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬ = −1 + 𝑖
Department of Mathematics, AIT
 (2,4)
3. Evaluate ‫(׬‬0,3) 2𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 along the following paths.

a) the parabola 𝑥 = 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 3

b) the straight line from 0,3 𝑡𝑜 (2,4)

Solution:

𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 2𝑡 = 0, ∴ 𝑡 = 0
a) x varies from 0 to 2 and hence ൠ → 𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2, 2𝑡 = 2, ∴ 𝑡 = 1

(2,4)
𝐼 = ‫(׬‬0,3) 2𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

1
𝐼 = ‫=𝑡׬‬0 2(𝑡 2 +3) + 4𝑡 2 2𝑑𝑡 + 3(2𝑡) − (𝑡 2 +3) 2𝑡𝑑𝑡

1
𝐼 = ‫=𝑡׬‬0(24𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 + 12)𝑑𝑡

1 1 1
𝑡3 𝑡4 𝑡2
𝐼= 24 3 ቃ − 2 4ቃ − 6 2ቃ + 12𝑡ሿ10
0 0 0 37

33
𝐼= Department of Mathematics, AIT
2
b) Equation of the straight line joining 0,3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2,4) is given by

𝑦−3 4−3
= 2−0
𝑥−0

𝑦−3 1
=2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 6. ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑦
𝑥

4 2
Now 𝐼 = ‫=𝑦׬‬3 2𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 6 2𝑑𝑦 + 3 2𝑦 − 6 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

4
𝐼 = ‫=𝑦׬‬3(8𝑦 2 − 39𝑦 + 54)𝑑𝑦

4 4
𝑦3 𝑦2
𝐼= 8 3ቃ − 39 2 ቃ + 54𝑦ሿ43
3 3

97
𝐼= 6
38

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Cauchy’s theorem

Statement: if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed curve C then ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0.

Proof:

Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 then

‫ 𝑢 𝑐׬ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬+ 𝑖𝑣 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑢 𝑐׬ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬− 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑣 𝑐׬‬+ 𝑢𝑑𝑦 ...(1)

We have green’s theorem in a plane stating that if 𝑀 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) are two real valued functions
having continuous first order partial derivatives in a region R bounded by the curve C then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
න 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ඵ − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑐 39

Department of Mathematics, AIT

applying this theorem to the two line integrals in the RHS of (1) we obtain,

−𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
‫𝑅׭ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬ 𝜕𝑥
−
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ‫𝑅׭‬
𝜕𝑥
−
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytical, we have Cauchy-Riemann equations:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜕𝑦 , = − 𝜕𝑦 and hence we have,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
‫𝑅׭ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬ 𝜕𝑦
− 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ‫𝑅׭‬ 𝜕𝑦
− 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0

Consequences of Cauchy’s theorem

𝑄
1. Statement: If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic in a region R and if P and Q are any two points in it then ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑃׬‬is
𝑄 40
independent of the path joining P and Q. That is ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑃׬‬is same for all curves joining P and Q.

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Proof:

Let 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 be two simple curves joining P and Q such that both the curves lie in the region R. Then their
union PAQBP as in the following figure below becomes a simple closed curve C in the region R.

Now by Cauchy’s theorem ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0

i.e. ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑄𝐴𝑃׬‬+ ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑃𝐵𝑄׬‬0

i.e. ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑄𝐴𝑃׬‬− ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑄𝐵𝑃׬‬0

i.e. ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬− ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0

1 2

41

that implies ‫𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬

1 2
Department of Mathematics, AIT
2. Statement: if 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 are two simple closed curves such that 𝑐2 lies entirely within 𝑐1 and if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic
on 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and in the region bounded by 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ( known as angular region) then,

‫𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬.
1 2

Proof:

Let us introduce a cross cut in the form of a line segment PQ with the point
P on 𝑐1 and Q on 𝑐2 . Then the curve PRSPQUQP as shown in the figure is a
simple closed curve and 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on the boundary of C.

Hence by Cauchy’s theorem ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0

Since C is the union of the arcs PRSP, PQ, QUQ and QP, the theorem

becomes ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬+ ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑄𝑃׬‬+ ‫׬‬−𝑐 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑃𝑄׬‬0

1 2
42

Department of Mathematics, AIT

i.e. ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬+ ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑄𝑃׬‬− ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬− ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑄𝑃׬‬0
1 2

i.e. ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬− ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0

1 2

that implies ‫𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬

1 2

Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C then ,
1 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓 𝑎 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 𝑧−𝑎

Proof:

Since ‘a’ is a point within C, we shall enclose it by a circle 𝑐1 with 𝑧 = 𝑎 as centre and r as radius such
that 𝑐1 lies entirely within C.

43

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑓 𝑧
The function 𝑧−𝑎 is analytic inside and on the

boundary of the annular region between C and 𝐶1 .

Now, as a consequence of Cauchy’s theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 = ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 ....(1)
𝑧−𝑎 1 𝑧−𝑎

The equation of 𝑐1 ( circle with centre a and radius r ) can be written in the form 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟
i.e. 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Using these in the RHS of (1) we have,

𝑓 𝑧 2𝜋 𝑓 𝑎+𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬−𝑎 𝑑𝑧 = ‫𝜃׬‬ 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

𝑓 𝑧 2𝜋
‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ‫ 𝑎 𝑓 𝜃׬‬+ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎
44

Department of Mathematics, AIT

This is true for any 𝑟 > 0 however small. Hence as 𝑟 → 0 we get,

𝑓 𝑧 2𝜋 2𝜋
‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ‫𝜃 𝑎 𝑓𝑖 = 𝜃𝑑 𝑎 𝑓 𝜃׬‬ 0 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)
𝑧−𝑎

1 𝑓 𝑧
Thus 𝑓 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎

Generalized Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C then ,
𝑛! 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎 𝑛+1

Proof: We have Cauchy’s integral formula,

1 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑧−𝑎
𝑑𝑧

Applying Leibnitz rule for differentiation under the integral sign we have,
45
1 −2 . −1
𝑓′ 𝑎 = ‫׬‬ 𝑓 𝑧 . −1. 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 Department of Mathematics, AIT
 1! 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓′ 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎 2

Applying Leibnitz rule once again we get,

1 −3
𝑓′′ 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 ‫ 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬. −2. 𝑧 − 𝑎 . −1 𝑑𝑧

2! 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓′′ 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎 3

Continue this process n times we get,

𝑛! 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓𝑛 𝑎 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛+1

46

Department of Mathematics, AIT

Problems:

1. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 where C is the square having vertices
0,0 , 1,0 , 1,1 , 0,1 .

Solution:

C is the square OABC and we have by Cauchy’s theorem

‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝑐׬‬0 .

Therefore, we have to show that,

‫ 𝑧 𝐴𝑂׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝐵𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝐶𝐵׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝑂𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = 0

Along OA, 𝑦 = 0, ∴ 𝑑𝑦 = 0; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
47

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 1
1 𝑥3 1
∴ ‫𝐴𝑂׬‬ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫=𝑥׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = =
3 0 3

Along AB, 𝑥 = 1, ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1

𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦 = (1 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦

1
2 1 2 𝑦3 2 2𝑖
∴ ‫= 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝐵𝐴׬‬ 𝑖 ‫=𝑦׬‬0(1 + 𝑖𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑖 𝑦 − + 𝑖𝑦 = −1 +
3 0 3

Along BC, 𝑦 = 1, ∴ 𝑑𝑦 = 0; 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0

𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑖)2 𝑑𝑥

0
0 𝑥3 2
∴ ‫𝐶𝐵׬‬ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ‫=𝑥׬‬1(𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑖𝑥 2 −𝑥 =3−𝑖
3 1

Along CO, 𝑥 = 0, ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 0

𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦 = (𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦 48

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 1
0 𝑦3 𝑖
∴ ‫𝑂𝐶׬‬ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑖 ‫=𝑦׬‬1(𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑖 =3
3 0

∴ ‫ 𝑧 𝐴𝑂׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝐵𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝐶𝐵׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 + ‫ 𝑧 𝑂𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = 0

∴ ‫ 𝑧 𝑐׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = 0

2. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 over the unit circle with origin as the centre.

Solution : We have to evaluate ‫ 𝑒𝑧 𝑐׬‬−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ,where C is the circle 𝑧 = 1

∴ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 , 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 𝑖𝜃 2𝜋 𝑖𝜃
‫ 𝑒𝑧 𝑐׬‬−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −𝑒 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖 ‫׬‬0 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −𝑒 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑡 ∴ 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝑡

49

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝑡 = 𝑒 0 = 1 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 2𝜋 ⟹ 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 = 1

1 1
𝑑𝑡
න 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 න 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡 = න 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑡
𝑐 𝑡=1 1

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑐׬‬0. Hence the theorem verified.

𝑒𝑧 𝜋
3. Evaluate ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬+𝑖𝜋 𝑑𝑧 over each of the following contours C: a) 𝑧 = 2𝜋 b) 𝑧 = 2
c) 𝑧 − 1 = 1

Solution:

𝑒𝑧
We have to evaluate the integral which can be written in the form ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬−(−𝑖𝜋) 𝑑𝑧 which is of the form

𝑓(𝑧)
‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎

Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 , 𝑎 = −𝑖𝜋
50

Department of Mathematics, AIT

a) 𝑧 = 2𝜋 is a circle with centre origin and radius 2𝜋 .

The point 𝑧 = 𝑎 = −𝑖𝜋 is the point 𝑃(0, −𝜋) lies within the circle 𝑧
= 2𝜋 .

We have Cauchy’s integral formula

𝑓 𝑧
‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)
𝑧−𝑎

We have 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 , 𝑎 = −𝑖𝜋

𝑒𝑧
∴ ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬+𝑖𝜋 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 −𝑖𝜋 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑒 −𝑖𝜋 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = −2𝜋𝑖

𝑒𝑧
Thus ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬+𝑖𝜋 𝑑𝑧 = −2𝜋𝑖

51

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝜋 𝜋
b) 𝑧 = is a circle with centre origin and radius .
2 2

𝜋 𝑒𝑧 𝜋
The point 𝑃(0, −𝜋) lies outside the circle 𝑧 = and is analytic inside and on the circle 𝑧 = .
2 𝑧+𝑖𝜋 2

We have by Cauchy’s theorem

𝑒𝑧
‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬+𝑖𝜋 𝑑𝑧 =0

c) 𝑧 − 1 = 1 is a circle with centre at z=a=1 and radius 1 .

𝑒𝑧
The point 𝑃(0, −𝜋) lies outside the circle 𝑧 − 1 = 1 and is analytic inside and on the circle 𝑧 − 1 = 1 .
𝑧+𝑖𝜋

𝑒𝑧
We have by Cauchy’s theorem ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 =0
𝑧+𝑖𝜋

52

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑑𝑧
4. Evaluate ‫𝑐׬‬ over the curves : a) 𝑧 = 1 b) 𝑧 + 2 = 1
𝑧 2 −4

1 1
Solution : Consider, = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑧 2 −4 𝑧−2 𝑧+2

1 𝐴 𝐵
= + 𝑖. 𝑒 , 1 = 𝐴 𝑧 + 2 + 𝐵(𝑧 − 2)
(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 + 2) 𝑧 − 2 𝑧 + 2

1 1
𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑧 = 2 ∶ 1 = 4𝐴 ∴𝐴= ; 𝑧 = −2 ∶ 1 = −4𝐵 ∴𝐵=−
4 4
1 1 1 1 1
Hence = 4 𝑧−2 − 4 𝑧+2
(𝑧−2)(𝑧+2)

𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧
‫𝑐׬‬ = ‫𝑐׬‬ − ‫𝑐׬‬
𝑧 2 −4 4 𝑧−2 4 𝑧−(−2)

𝑎) 𝐶 ∶ 𝑧 = 1 ;
𝑧 = 𝑎 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑎 = −2 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 1
𝑑𝑧
And hence by Cauchy’s theorem ‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑧 2 −4
= 0 where 𝑐 ∶ 𝑧 = 1
53

Department of Mathematics, AIT

b) 𝐶 ∶ 𝑧 + 2 = 1 This is a circle with centre (-2,0) and radius 1
𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧
We have ‫𝑐׬‬ = 4 ‫𝑐׬‬ − ‫׬‬ … … … . (1)
𝑧 2 −4 𝑧−2 4 𝑐 𝑧− −2

The point a=2 lies outside the circle and the point a=-2 lies inside the circle
𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑏𝑦 Cauchy’s theorem ‫𝑐׬‬ = 0 and by Cauchy’s Integral formula
𝑧−2

𝑑𝑧
න = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 −2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 −2 = 1
𝑧 − −2
𝑐
= 2 𝜋𝑖 1
= 2 𝜋𝑖
𝑑𝑧 1 1
Substituting these in RHS of (1) we get ‫𝑐׬‬ = 4 . 0 − 4 . 2 𝜋𝑖
𝑧 2 −4

𝜋𝑖
=−
2

54

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
5. Evaluate ‫𝑧( 𝑐׬‬−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐: 𝑧 = 3

Solution : The circle 𝑐: 𝑧 = 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 3.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
Let 𝐹 𝑧 = is analytic everywhere except at z=1 and z=2 . These points are inside the circle c.
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)

1 𝐴 𝐵 1 1
Consider = 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2 = − 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2 ( by partial fractions )
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)

∴ න 𝑑𝑧 = − න 𝑑𝑧 + න 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2

𝑓 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = −1
𝑓 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 = 1

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
∴ න 𝑑𝑧 = −2𝜋𝑖 −1 + 2𝜋𝑖 1
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝑐
= 4𝜋𝑖
55

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑧 2 −𝑧+1 1
6. Evaluate ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬−1 𝑑𝑧 where c is the circle 𝑎) 𝑧 = 1 𝑏) 𝑧 =2

Solution : Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + 1
a) Here 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑐

′ 𝑧 2 −𝑧+1
∴ 𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑦 𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬−1 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 1 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 1 = 1

𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 1
𝑖. 𝑒 , න 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧−1
𝑐
1
b) 𝑐 ∶ 𝑧 = , in this case a=1 lies outside the circle
2

𝑧 2 −𝑧+1
So is analytic everywhere within c.
𝑧−1

𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 1
∴ 𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 , න 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧−1 56
𝑐

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑒 2𝑧
7. Evaluate ‫𝑐׬‬ (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 where c is the circle 𝑧 =3

Solution : Here both a=-1 and a=2 , both inside the circle 𝑧 = 3
1
Resolving into partial fractions
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)

1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) 𝑧+1 𝑧−2

1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑧 + 1) …………………(1)

1
Put 𝑧 = −1 𝑖𝑛 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 1 = −3𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = − 3
1
Put 𝑧 = 2 𝑖𝑛 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 1 = 3𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 3

1 1 1 1 1
Hence = −3 +
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) 𝑧+1 3 𝑧−2

𝑒 2𝑧 1 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
∴ = − 𝑧+1
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) 3 𝑧−2
57

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 𝑒 2𝑧 1 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
‫𝑧( 𝑐׬‬+1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 = 3
‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬−2 𝑑𝑧 − ‫𝑧 𝑐׬‬+1 𝑑𝑧

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎,

𝑓 𝑧
‫𝑐׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 𝑎
𝑧−𝑎

𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧
𝑒 2𝑧
‫𝑧( 𝑐׬‬−2) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 2 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑒 4

𝑒 2𝑧 2𝜋𝑖
And ‫𝑧( 𝑐׬‬+1) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 −1 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑒 −2 =
𝑒2

𝑒 2𝑧 1 2𝜋𝑖
‫𝑧( 𝑐׬‬+1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 = 3 2𝜋𝑖𝑒 4 − 𝑒2

𝑒 2𝑧 2𝜋𝑖 1
𝑖. 𝑒 , ‫𝑧( 𝑐׬‬+1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 = 3
𝑒4 − 𝑒2

58

Department of Mathematics, AIT

 59

Department of Mathematics, AIT