Chp 3 - Meeting Life Challenges

 Stress - The pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and
exceeds a person’s ability to cope.
 Eustress -A term used to describe the level of stress that is good for us and is one of a person’s best assets
for achieving peak performance and managing minor crisis.
 The reaction to external stressors is called strain.

Cognitive appraisal - Lazarus.

Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisals, i.e. primary and secondary.
A. Primary appraisal (HTC)
1. Refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as positive, neutral or negative in its
consequences.
2. Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge.
3. Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done by an event.
4. Threat is the assessment of possible future damage that may be brought about by the event.
5. Challenge appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to cope with the
stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the event.
B. Secondary appraisal
1. When we perceive an event as stressful, we are likely to make a secondary appraisal.
2. It is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet
the harm, threat or challenge of the event.
3. These resources may be mental, physical, personal or social.
4. If one thinks one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social support to deal with the crises s/he will
feel less stressed.

 The stresses which people experience also vary in terms of (Cue: PIC D)
1. intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity)
2. duration (short-term vs. long term)
3. complexity (less complex vs. more complex)
4. predictability (unexpected vs. predictable)

What are the different types of stress? (Cue: PEPS)

The different types of stress are –
Physical and Environmental
Psychological
Social
(See Pg. 55 to elaborate)
The three major types of stress which may be interrelated -
1. Physical and Environmental Stress:
2. Psychological Stress:
3. Social Stress:
(Elaborate these points from the book Pg.55)

Tahir is unable to decide whether to study dance or music as he likes both. Is he frustrated or facing a conflict
Explain very briefly.
1. Tahir is facing a conflict between studying music or dance.
2. Conflict occurs between two or more incompatible needs or motives.
 3. Frustration on the other hand results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or someone that
hinders us from achieving a desired goal.
Differentiate between social pressure and social stress. Give examples.
1. Social pressures may be brought about from people who make excessive demands on us.
2. This can cause even greater pressure when we have to work with them.
3. Also, there are people with whom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘a personality clash’ of sorts.
4. E.g. A teacher asking us to present our projects in a very short period of time or putting up with our
neighbour with whom we don’t get along are examples of social pressure.
1. Social Stresses are induced externally and result from our interaction with other people.
2. Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, trouble with neighbours are some
examples of social stresses.
3. These social stresses vary widely from person to person.
4. E.g. Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home while an
outgoing person may find staying at home in the evenings stressful.

 Internal pressures stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to ourselves such as, ‘I must do
everything perfectly’. It involves achieving unrealistically high standards in achieving our goals.

Hassles

1. These are the personal stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings in our daily life,
such as noisy surroundings, commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, electricity and water shortage,
traffic snarls etc.
2. These daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual who is often
the one coping alone with them as others may not even be aware of them as outsiders.
3. The more stress people report as a result of daily hassles, the poorer is their psychological well-
being.

Latika worked for a multinational company. She was shifting houses due in frequent transfers. During this time,
she also lost her father to a major heart ailment. This caused a lot of stress. Explain this particular source of stress
that Latika faced.
1. The stress that Latika faced is pertaining to life events.
2. These include changes, big and small, sudden and gradual.
3. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful, because they disturb
our routine and cause upheaval.
4. If these life events that are planned (e.g. shifting houses due to frequent transfers) or unpredicted (e.g. death
of her father) occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more
prone to the symptoms of stress.

Effects of stress on psychological functioning and health. (Cue: PEB C)

A. Emotional Effects:
1. People suffering from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings, and show erratic behaviour that
may alienate them from family and friends.
2. In some cases, this can start a vicious circle of decreasing confidence, leading to more serious emotional
problems.
3. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological
tension and mood swings.
B. Physiological Effects: (Very Imp)
1. When the human body is placed under physical or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain
hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol.
 2. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical
activity.
3. Although, this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for
short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects.
4. Examples of physiological effects are release of epinephrine and nor - epinephrine, slowing down of the
digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate, and constriction of blood
vessels.
C. Cognitive Effects:
1. If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental overload.
2. This suffering from high level of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound
decisions.
3. Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or
even loss of job.
4. Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration, and reduced short-term memory capacity.
D. Behavioural Effects:
1. Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing intake of stimulants such as
caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc.
2. Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination, and
dizziness.
3. Some of the typical behavioural effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism,
and reduced work performance.

What is burn-out? Explain any one cause of burnout.

1. Burnout is a state of mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion caused by chronic stress that has not been
managed well.
2. It can be caused by a number of factors, including work related stress, personal and environmental stressors,
values, etc.
3. E.g. The accumulation of work-related stress over time can lead to burnout.
4. This can happen when someone works too hard, too much, or for too long without getting any breaks in
between.

Describe Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). State the criticisms of this model.
1. Hans Selye, the father of modern stress research, defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to
any demand”
2. He studied stress by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays and insulin
injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time.
3. He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals.
4. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them.
5. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
6. According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion (Hint: ARE)
i. Alarm reaction stage: The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal
pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. Now the
individual is ready for fight or flight.
ii. Resistance stage: If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The parasympathetic nervous system
calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as
through confrontation.
iii. Exhaustion stage: Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its
resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and
 resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure
becomes more likely.
Criticism –
1. Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress.
2. Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of
stress.
3. How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities and biological
constitutions.

Explain the relationship between stress and illness. How does stress affect the immune system?
1. Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system.
2. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside.
3. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system.
4. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system.
5. The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens)
such as viruses.
6. It also leads to the production of antibodies.
7. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase immunological activity.
8. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing
Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
9. B cells produce antibodies.
10. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses and tumours.
11. Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defence against various
infections and cancer.
12. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed,
including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons, and those who are severely depressed.
13. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support.
14. Also, changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems
are already weakened.
15. Negative emotions, release of stress hormones which lead to weakening of the immune system, thereby
affecting mental and physical health.
16. Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions and associated behaviours, including depression,
hostility, anger and aggression.
17. People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias, and may
experience fits of depression, anger and irritability.
18. These negative emotions appear to be related to the function of the immune system.
(Imp: For long answer, draw the figure given below)
  Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and quality of
life.
 Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing
physical illness.
 Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful
situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress.

Endler and Parker conceptualisation of the different ways to cope with stress.
Individuals show consistent individual differences in the coping strategies they use to handle stressful situations.
These can include both overt and covert activities.
A. Task-oriented Strategy:
1. Involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and
their probable outcome.
2. It also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation.
3. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I have solved similar problems.
B. Emotion-oriented Strategy:
1. This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions.
2. It can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to
change things.
3. For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do.
C. Avoidance-oriented Strategy:
1. A coping style that involves avoiding stressful situations, thoughts, or feelings instead of dealing directly
with them.
2. It also involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation.
3. It may also include conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective
thoughts.
4. Examples could be watching TV, phone up a friend, listening to music, or trying to be with other making
excuses to avoid social gatherings.

Lazarus and Folkman’s conceptualisation of coping

1. Lazarus and Folkman have conceptualised coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual trait.
2. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the
internal or external demands that are created by the stressful transaction.
1. Problem-focused
i. Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to
alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments.
ii. They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping
options.
iii. They can act to reduce the threat value of the event.
iv. For example, “I made a plan of action and followed it”
2. Emotion focused
 i. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of
emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself.
ii. For example, “I did some things to let it out of my system”.

How can stress be managed? Explain any three stress management techniques. (Hint: REM CCB) (You can choose
other ones from the book; Pg.62)
I. Cognitive Behavioural Techniques (CBT)
1. They aim to inoculate people against stress.
2. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum.
3. The essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and rational ones.
4. There are three main phases in this:
i. assessment,
ii. stress reduction techniques,
iii. and application and follow through.
5. Assessment involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from the viewpoint of the client.
6. Stress reduction involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as relaxation and self-instruction.

II. Biofeedback:
1. It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by providing feedback about
current physiological activity.
2. It is often accompanied by relaxation training.
3. Biofeedback training involves three stages:
i. developing an awareness of the particular physiological response, e.g. heart rate,
ii. learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions;
iii. transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life.

III. Creative Visualisation:

1. It is an effective technique for dealing with stress.
2. It is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination.
3. Before visualising one must set oneself a realistic goal, as it helps build confidence.
4. It is easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet, body relaxed and eyes are closed.
5. This reduces the risk of interference from unbidden thoughts and provides the creative energy needed
for turning an imagined scene into reality.

Stress resistant personality OR Hardiness.

Studies conducted by Kobasa have shown that people with high levels of stress but low levels of illness share three
characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness.
1. It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge.
2. Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact. It takes shape as a sense of
personal commitment to what we are doing, a sense of control over our life, and a feeling of challenge.
3. Stress resistant personalities have
i. control which is a sense of purpose and direction in life;
ii. commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life;
iii. and challenge, that is, they see changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat.
4. Everyone does not have these characteristics, many of us have to relearn specific life skills in areas such as
rational thinking, and assertiveness to equip ourselves better to cope with the demands of everyday life, etc.

 Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with
the demands and challenges of everyday life.
  Assertiveness
1. Assertiveness is a behaviour or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs,
wants, and thoughts.
2. It is the ability to say no to a request, to state an opinion without being self-conscious, or to express
emotions such as love, anger, etc. openly.
3. If we are assertive, we feel confident, and have high self-esteem and a solid sense of our own identity.

 Overcoming Unhelpful Habits:

1. Perfectionists are persons who have to get everything just right.
2. They have difficulty in varying standards according to factors such as time available, consequences of not
being able to stop work, and the effort needed.
3. They are more likely to feel tense and find it difficult to relax, are critical of self and others, and may become
inclined to avoid challenges.

 Avoidance is to put the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept or face it.
 Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do. People who procrastinate are deliberately
avoiding confronting their fears of failure or rejection.
 Positive health comprises the following constructs: “a healthy body; high quality of personal relationships; a
sense of purpose in life; self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks; and resilience to stress, trauma, and change”.

How can social support lead to positive health and well-being? Discuss

1. Social support is defined as the existence and availability of people on whom we can rely upon, people who
let us know that they care about, value, and love us.
 perceived support, i.e. the quality of social support is positively related to health and wellbeing.
 social network, i.e. the quantity of social support is unrelated to well-being, because it is very time
consuming and demanding to maintain a large social network.
2. Social support can help to provide protection against stress.
3. People with high levels of social support from family and friends may experience less stress and they may
cope with it more successfully.
4. Social support may be in the form of:
 tangible support or assistance involving material aid, such as money, goods, services, etc. For example, a
child gives notes to her/his friend, since he was absent from school due to sickness.
 family and friends also provide informational support about stressful events. For example, a student facing
difficulty in board examination, if provided information by a friend who has faced a similar one, would not
only be able to identify the exact procedures involved, but also it would facilitate in determining what
resources and coping strategies could be useful to successfully pass the examination.
5. During times of stress, one may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss of self-esteem.
6. Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the individual that he is loved, valued,
and cared for.
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