2.

4 MICROWAVE FILTERS
A filter is a two-port network used to control the frequency response at a certain point in
an RF or microwave system by providing transmission at frequencies within the passband of the
filter and attenuation in the stopband of the filter. Typical frequency responses include low-pass,
high-pass, bandpass, and band-reject characteristics. Applications can be found in virtually any
type of RF or microwave communication, radar, or test and measurement system. Filters
designed using the image parameter method consist of a cascade of simpler twoport filter
sections to provide the desired cutoff frequencies and attenuation characteristics but do not allow
the specification of a particular frequency response over the complete operating range. Thus,
although the procedure is relatively simple, the design of filters by the image parameter method
often must be iterated many times to achieve the desired results.
A more modern procedure, called the insertion loss method, uses network synthesis
techniques to design filters with a completely specified frequency response. The design is
simplified by beginning with low-pass filter prototypes that are normalized in terms of
impedance and frequency. Transformations are then applied to convert the prototype designs to
the desired frequency range and impedance level.

FILTER DESIGN BY THE IMAGE PARAMETER METHOD

The image parameter method of filter design involves the specification of passband and
stopband characteristics for a cascade of simple two-port networks, and so is related in concept
to the periodic structures. The method is relatively simple but has the disadvantage that an
arbitrary frequency response cannot be incorporated into the design. This is in contrast to the
insertion loss method, which is the subject of the following section. Nevertheless, the image
parameter method is useful for simple filters, and it provides a link between infinite periodic
structures and practical filter design. The image parameter method also finds application in solid-
state traveling-wave amplifier design.

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Image Impedances and Transfer Functions for Two-Port Networks
Consider the arbitrary two-port network shown in Figure 8.7, where the network is
specified by its ABCD parameters. Note that the reference direction for the current at port 2 has
been chosen according to the convention for ABCD parameters. The image impedances, Zi1 and
Zi2, are defined for this network as follows: Zi1 = input impedance at port 1 when port 2 is
terminated with Zi2 = input impedance at port 2 when port 1 is terminated with Zi1. Thus both
ports are matched when terminated in their image impedances. We can derive expressions for the
image impedances in terms of the ABCD parameters of the network.

Figure 2.10 A two port network terminated in its image impedance

The port voltages and currents are related as

The input impedance at port 1, with port 2 terminated in Zi2, is

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since V2 = Zi2 I2. Now solving for V2, I2 by inverting the ABCD matrix. Since AD − BC = 1
for a reciprocal network, we obtain

Then the input impedance at port 2, with port 1 terminated in Zi1, can be found as

since V1 = −Zi1 I1 in figure 2.10 .We desire that Zin1 = Zi1 and Zin2 = Zi2, so (8.23) and (8.25)
give two equations for the image impedances:

Solving for Zi1 and Zi2 gives

with Zi2 = DZi1/A. If the network is symmetric, then A = D and Zi1 = Zi2 as expected. Now
consider the voltage transfer function for a two-port network terminated in its image impedances.
With reference to Figure 2.11 and , the output voltage at port 2 can be expressed as

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Figure 2.11 A two-port network terminated in its image impedances and driven with a
voltage generator.
(since we now have V1 = I1Zi1), so the voltage ratio is

Similarly, the current ratio is

The factor √D/A occurs in reciprocal positions in (8.29a) and (8.29b), and so can be interpreted
as a transformer turns ratio. Apart from this factor, we can define a propagation factor for the
network as

with γ = α + jβ as usual. Since

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Two important types of two-port networks are the T and π circuits, which can be made in
symmetric form. Table 8.1 lists the image impedances and propagation factors, along with other
useful parameters, for these two networks.

FILTER DESIGN BY THE INSERTION LOSS METHOD

A perfect filter would have zero insertion loss in the passband, in the passband, infinite
attenuation in the stopband, and a linear phase response (to avoid signal distortion) in the
passband. Of course, such filters do not exist in practice, so compromises must be made; herein
lies the art of filter design. The image parameter method of the previous section may yield a
usable filter response for some applications, but there is no methodical way of improving the
design. The insertion loss method, however, allows a high degree of control over the passband
and stopband amplitude and phase characteristics, with a systematic way to synthesize a desired
response. The necessary design trade-offs can be evaluated to best meet the application
requirements. If, for example, a minimum insertion loss is most important, a binomial response
could be used; a Chebyshev response would satisfy a requirement for the sharpest cutoff. If it is
possible to sacrifice the attenuation rate, a better phase response can be obtained by using a
linear phase filter design. In addition, in all cases, the insertion loss method allows filter
performance to be improved in a straightforward manner, at the expense of a higher order filter.
For the filter prototypes to be discussed below, the order of the filter is equal to the number of
reactive elements.
Characterization by Power Loss Ratio In the insertion loss method a filter response is defined
by its insertion loss, or power loss ratio, PLR:

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Observe that this quantity is the reciprocal of |S12| 2 if both load and source are matched. The
insertion loss (IL) in dB is

we know that | (ω)| 2 is an even function of ω; therefore it can be

expressed as a polynomial in ω2. Thus we can write

where M and N are real polynomials in ω2. Substituting this form in (8.49) gives the following:

For a filter to be physically realizable its power loss ratio must be of the form in (8.52). Notice
that specifying the power loss ratio simultaneously constrains the magnitude of the reflection
coefficient, | (ω)|. We now discuss some practical filter responses. Maximally flat: This
characteristic is also called the binomial or Butterworth response, and is optimum in the sense
that it provides the flattest possible passband response for a given filter complexity, or order. For
a low-pass filter, it is specified by

where N is the order of the filter and ωc is the cutoff frequency. The passband extends from ω =
0 to ω = ωc; at the band edge the power loss ratio is 1 + k2. If we choose this as the −3 dB point,
as is common, we have k = 1, which we will assume from now on. For ω>ωc, the attenuation
increases monotonically with frequency, as shown in Figure 2.12. For ω ωc, PLR
k2(ω/ωc)2N , which shows that the insertion loss increases at the rate of 20N dB/decade. Like
the binomial response for multisection quarter-wave matching transformers, the first (2N − 1)
derivatives of are zero at ω = 0.
Equal ripple: If a Chebyshev polynomial is used to specify the insertion loss of an Nthorder low-
pass filter as
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Figure 2.12 Maximally flat and equal-ripple low-pass filter responses (N = 3).

then a sharper cutoff will result, although the passband response will have ripples of amplitude 1
+ k2, as shown in Figure 2.12, since TN (x) oscillates between ±1 for |x| 21. Thus, k2 determines
the passband ripple level. For large x, TN (x)
1 2 (2x)N, so for ω ωc the insertion loss becomes

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 Figure 2.13 Elliptic function low-pass filter response.

which also increases at the rate of 20N dB/decade. However, the insertion loss for the Chebyshev
case is (22N )/4 greater than the binomial response at any given frequency where ω ωc. Elliptic
function: The maximally flat and equal-ripple responses both have monotonically increasing
attenuation in the stopband. In many applications it is adequate to specify a minimum stopband
attenuation, in which case a better cutoff rate can be obtained. Such filters are called elliptic
function filters , and they have equal-ripple responses in the passband as well as in the stopband,
as shown in Figure 2.13. The maximum attenuation in the passband, Amax, can be specified, as
well as the minimum attenuation in the stopband, Amin. Elliptic function filters are difficult to
synthesize, so we will not consider them further; the interested reader is referred to reference
Linear phase: The above filters specify the amplitude response, but in some applications
(such as multiplexing filters for communication systems) it is important to have a linear phase
response in the passband to avoid signal distortion. Since a sharp-cutoff response is generally
incompatible with a good phase response, the phase response of a filter must be deliberately
synthesized, usually resulting in an inferior attenuation characteristic. A linear phase
characteristic can be achieved with the following phase response:

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where φ(ω) is the phase of the voltage transfer function of the filter, and p is a constant. A related
quantity is the group delay, defined as

which shows that the group delay for a linear phase filter is a maximally flat function. More
general filter specifications can be obtained, but the above cases are the most common. We will
next discuss the design of low-pass filter prototypes that are normalized in terms of impedance
and frequency; this normalization simplifies the design of filters

Figure 2.14 The process of filter design by the insertion loss method.

for arbitrary frequency, impedance, and type (low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, or bandstop). The
low-pass prototypes are then scaled to the desired frequency and impedance, and the lumped-
element components replaced with distributed circuit elements for implementation at microwave
frequencies. This design process is illustrated in Figure 2.14.

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 TEXT BOOK / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. David M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
2. Samuel Y Liao, “Microwave Devices & Circuits”, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall of India,
2008.
3. Kulkarni M., "Microwave and Radar Engineering", 4th Edition, Umesh Publication, 2010.
4. Annapurna Das and Sisir K Das, “Microwave Engineering”, 2nd Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.
5. M.M.Radmanesh, “RF & Microwave Electronics Illustrated”, Pearson Education, 2007.
6. Robert E.Colin, “Foundations for Microwave Engineering”, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill,
2001.

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