Module-7

Microprocessors
Dr. Debarun Sengupta
Assistant Professor

Contact: [email protected]

Department of Electrical Engineering

School of Engineering

Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence (Deemed to be University), Delhi-NCR

 Before we begin

Let’s have a look at some typical modern computers

HP Z840 workstation Alienware gaming PC

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 Before we begin

Let’s have a look at some more COMPUTERS!

Also, a computer, in fact a supercomputer

Delft Blue Supercomputer Our own HPC: Magus at SNIoE

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 Before we begin

What’s inside a computer: You mean the CPU??

The mother board

What’s this?

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 Before we begin

So, what’s inside a computer?

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 Microprocessor
(Common terms used in a microprocessor)

Bus: A bus is a set of conductors intended to transmit data, address, or control information to different
elements in a microprocessor.
Usually, a microprocessor will have three types of buses: Data bus, control bus, and address bus.

Instruction set: Instruction set is the group of commands that a microprocessor can understand. (Assembly
language)

Word length: It is the number of bits a processor can process at a time.

Clock speed: Microprocessor uses a clock signal to control the rate at which instructions are executed,
synchronize other internal components, and to control the data transfer between them. So clock speed refers to
the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions.

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 Microprocessor
(Common terms used in a microprocessor)

Machine language: It is a lowest-level language comprised of binary digits.

Assembly language: It is a low-level programming language in which there is a very strong correspondence
between the instructions in the language and architecture ‘s machine code instructions.

Assembly language includes human-readable commands, such as mov, add, and sub, while machine language
does not contain any words or even letters
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 Microprocessor
(Common terms used in a microprocessor)

Mnemonic: English word MNEMONIC means “A pattern of letters, ideas, or associations that assists in
remembering something.". So, it's usually used by assembly language programmers to remember the
"OPERATIONS" a machine can do, like "ADD" and "MUL" and "MOV" etc.

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 Microprocessor
(Definition)
What is microprocessor?

Microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) which incorporates core functions of a computer’s central
processing unit (CPU).
It is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip, clock driven, register based, accepts binary data as input and
provides output after processing it as per the instructions stored in the memory.

Microprocessor

ALU

Control Unit

Register Array

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 Microprocessor
(What lies within)
What are the underlying components of a microprocessor?
• Registers: Store data and instructions temporarily
• Arithmetic and logic unit: When we perform some operation, the data is fetched from the memory and placed inside
the registers. The operations that we are supposed to perform on the data are carried out in the Arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU).
• Timing and control unit: Timing unit takes care of the sequence of execution of instructions in a code and the required
components necessary to execute the instructions are activated using the control unit.
• Interface: helps the microprocessor in interfacing with the different components of the computer system.
 Microprocessor
(What lies within)
Before we dive deep into the world of microprocessors, let us take a moment to appreciate the importance of logic
gates that we learnt throughout the course:
• Remember the basic blocks of a µ-processor ?
• All the components of the µ-processor discussed so far are built using the logic gates; reason why logic gates are called
the basic building blocks of digital computers.

ALU
Addition
Subtraction Some more
AND combinational
OR Registers circuits
XOR Sequential circuits Decoder
Comparison made by Flip-flops MUX
. and latches DeMUX
. Priority encoder
. Control Logic
.
.
 Microprocessor
(Evolution of microprocessors)
Let’s take the case of Intel
• Jean Hoerni and Robert Noyce in 1959: Invention of the planar process with Al metallization at Fairchild semiconductor
paved the way for mass production of ICs.
• IC technology witnessed a rapid progress.
• Gordon Earle Moore (then at Fairchild semiconductor; later the co-founder and CEO of Intel) predicted that the number
of transistors on a silicon chip would increase from 50 - 65000 within a decade (1965 – 75).
• Moore’s Law: The number of transistors in an IC will double about every two years.

Robert Noyce
1927 -1990

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 Microprocessor
(Generations of microprocessors)
1st Generation (1971 to 1973) (4-bit microprocessor)

• INTEL created the first microprocessor 4004 that would run at a clock speed of 108 KHz.

• With only 4 bits as the word size, the 4004 could only represent signed numbers in the range -8 to +7, which is indeed
very small.

• Uses: calculator, toys, and RF/IR wireless market.

Examples of 4-bit Microprocessors

Intel 4040 Fairchild 4700

Intel 4004 Motorola 10800

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 Microprocessor
(Generations of microprocessors)

2nd Generation (1973 to 1978) (8-bit microprocessor)

• INTEL created the first 8-bit microprocessor 8008. Intel 8080 was commercially popular.

• With 8 bits as the word size, it could represent signed numbers in the range of −128 to +127.

• Uses: calculator and control applications.

Examples of 8-bit microprocessors

Intel 8080 Motorola 6800 Zilog Z-80

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 Microprocessor
(Generations of microprocessors)
3rd Generation (1979 to 1980) (16-bit microprocessor)

• Around 1978, Intel released 8086, the first 16-bit microprocessor.

• With 16-bit word size, it was possible to represent signed numbers in the range of −32,768 to +32,767, which is quite a
decent range for performing arithmetic calculations.

• Uses: can run any software written for MS-DOS.

Examples of 16-bit microprocessors

Intel 8086 Motorola 68000 Zilog Z-80

Motorola 68010
Intel 80186

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 Microprocessor
(Generations of microprocessors)
4th Generation (1981 to 1995) (32-bit microprocessor)

• In the early 80s, Intel released the 32-bit processor, the Intel 80386, by using HCMOS fabrication.

• With 32-bit word size, it was possible to represent signed numbers in the range ±2×109, which is quite a large range for
performing arithmetic calculations.

• In the early 90s, Intel released 80586 by the name Pentium processor.

• The Pentium 4 released in 2000 has 42 Million transistors worked with a clock frequency of 1.5 GHz and is rated for 1500
MIPS (Million instructions per second).

• Uses: can run any software written for MS-DOS, windows, and Linux.

Examples of 32-bit microprocessors

Intel 80386 Motorola 68020 Motorola 68030

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 Microprocessor
(Generations of microprocessors)
5th Generation (1995 till now) (64-bit microprocessor)

• From 1995 to until now this generation has been bringing out high-performance and high-speed processors that make use
of 64-bit processors.

• Uses: can run any software written for MS-DOS, windows, and Linux.

Examples of 64-bit microprocessors

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 Introduction to 8085 µP

Before we begin, let us understand the concept of word length:

• Simply, it means the size of data a microprocessor can handle at once.

• Remember the example of Intel 4004 µP: 4-bit µP which implies

• Unsigned representation range – 0 to 24 – 1.
• Signed representation range – 2(4-1) to 2(4-1) – 1.

• For Intel 8085 µP: it is an 8-bit µP which implies

• Unsigned representation range – 0 to 28 – 1.
• Signed representation range – 2(8-1) to 2(8-1) – 1.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

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 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• 8085 is designed as 40-pin Dual Inline package IC

• Pins 1 and 2: an external oscillator can be connected between the pins X1 and X2 to drive the
internal clock logic. Usually, we connect a piezoelectric crystal (typically quartz based).
• The quartz crystal oscillator produces a train of continuous square wave pulses whose
fundamental frequency is controlled by the crystal itself. This fundamental frequency regulates the
flow of instructions that controls the processor.
• Specifically for 8085, we use a 6.25 MHz quartz oscillator which is twice the operating frequency
of 8085.
• Note: The input frequency of the clock should be twice the operating frequency. Thus, to obtain
320 ns clock (3.125 MHz frequency) the input clock frequency should be 6.250 MHz.

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 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 3 and 36: Reset OUT & IN

• Reset OUT: This pin (3) is used to reset the peripherals connected to the microprocessor.
• Reset IN: This is an active low pin. This is an input pin used for resetting the microprocessor. It
sets the program counter to 0 and clears the buses (channels through which the µP communicates
with other peripherals).
• Should be held at low for at least 0.5 µs.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 4 and 5: SOD (4) & SID (5)

• Serial Input Data (SID)
• Serial Output Data (SOD)
• The data transfer between the µP and the memory or I/O devices can happen either serially or
parallelly.
• In the case of serial data transfer, SOD (Pin 4) is used for the output.
• Pin 5 is an input pin and is used for serial data input.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 6 - 11: Interrupt Pins

• What is an interrupt?
• A signal or an event that temporarily halts the execution of the current program to address an
immediate task or respond to an external or internal event. Once the interrupt is handled, the
processor resumes its previous task. Interrupts are fundamental to efficient multitasking and real-
time systems.

• TRAP (Pin 6): Non-maskable interrupt;

• When the TRAP line is ‘High’ the µP must attend to it
even if it must terminate the current process.
• Used for critical situations like power failure or hardware
malfunction.
• The vector address is 0024H.
• The instructions for situation when TRAP is ‘HIGH’ can
be found at the address location 0024H.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 7, 8, and 9: RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5.

• Maskable interrupts: The µP does not have to immediately respond to these interrupts (unlike TRAP).
• Generated by software instructions.
• Order of priority: RST 7.5 > 6.5 > 5.5.
• Why the name RST?
• Restart or in short RST: When interrupts are generated via these pins, the main execution is
going to restart after the µP has dealt with the interrupt and hence the name.

• What do the numbers 7.5, 6.5 and 5.5 mean?

 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pin 10: INTR.

• Maskable interrupt with lowest priority.
• Generated by external devices like keyboard and mouse.

• Pin 11: INTA (interrupt acknowledgement)

• Apart from TRAP, in case of all the maskable interrupts the µP at first will have to generate
INTA i.e., the µP has to acknowledge the interrupt and then only the interrupt can be serviced.
This is an active low output.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 12 to 19: Data bus.

• Remember that 8085 is an 8-bit processor.
• It can transfer 8-bits of data, and it can operate on 8-bits of data.
• AD0, AD1, AD2, AD3,……, AD7
• Orientation: AD7 (MSB) and AD0 (LSB)
• These are bidirectional pins:
• Can be used for receiving program code from memory.
• 8085 can either receive or send the data to memory or I/O port through which I/O devices are
connected to the µP.
• That’s the reason why these pins can be used for receiving a Data Byte from an input port or memory.
• Can also be used for sending out a data Byte to an output port or to memory.
• But, how can the same pins be used for both receiving and sending out data??
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 31 and 32: WR and RD.

• These are active low pins.
• These two pins dictate the functions of the pins 12-19.
• How?
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 20 and 40: Vss and Vcc.

• Pin 40 (Vcc ): +5v dc power supply
• Pin 20 (Vss ): ground
• These two pins are crucial for powering the IC.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 21 to 28: A8 to A15

• These are unidirectional pins.
• 8085 has 16-bit address bus. Therefore, the pins 28 to 21 along with the pins
19 to 12 comprise the address bus of the 8085 µP.
• How the µP lets the peripherals know whether the AD0 to AD7 are carrying
data or the address (lower order byte)?
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pin 30: ALE

• This is an output pin through which the µP lets the peripherals know whether
AD0 to AD7 are carrying data or lower order byte of the address.
• Address latch enable.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pin 34: IO/M

• The µP communicates with both the I/O and memory devices. However, for
communicating with the I/O devices the µP is going to use the I/O ports.
• The data bus can be used to fetch program codes from the memory (as we can
store the codes inside the memory).
• When it comes to data, the data can be either retrieved from the memory of can
also be written to the memory. Additionally, the µP can also receive data from
the input port as well as it can produce data to the output port.
• This is where the Pin 34 which is an output line comes in handy.
• This signal helps external hardware like decoders or multiplexers to distinguish
whether the address on the address/data bus belongs to a memory or an I/O
device.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 29 and 33: S0 and S1

• Output pins: status signals
• Indicates phases of instruction cycle.
• The µP indicates the different phases via these two lines.
• The instructions are stored inside the memory. But when we are executing those
instructions, we can involve both memory and I/O port.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pin 35: Ready

• Input pin
• Indicates whether an I/O device is ready to send or receive data.
• Ensures efficient communication between the µP and the slow peripherals
preventing data loss or synchronization issues.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pin 37: CLK (out)

• Output pin
• The CLK (out) provides a timing reference for various components which are
connected to the µP.
 Introduction to 8085 µP
(Pins of 8085)

• Pins 38 and 39: HLDA and HOLD

• HLDA (output pin)
• HOLD (Input pin)
• Together they are called direct memory access signa (DMA)
• When Hold is generated by an external device, it is requesting the µP to
relinquish access of the address and data bus.
• If the µP decides to release the buses for the device to use, it generated HLDA.
• HLDA acknowledges the hold request.