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Conservation in complementary physics

Nuclear and particle physics (University of Calicut)

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CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

Conservation laws are the laws of nature arising from the symmetry
of nature. They play an important role in the development of physical theories and in
the solution of numerical problems. During a process if there is a quantity whose value
remains unchanged it is said to be conserved.

Work done by a force(F)

a)Constant force.
Let a constant force F acts on a particle and the particle moves a distance d in the
direction of force. Then work done by the force W=F×d.
Now if the motion of particle is not in the direction of F then W= Fcosθ×d.

Where Fcosθ is the component of force along the direction of motion.

So W= Fcosθ×d. or W=𝐅⃑ .𝐝⃑

b)Variable force.
Consider a particle of mass m moving along a curve under the action of a
variable force F. Let dr be the small displacement at any instant during which the force
is assumed to be a constant.

Then the small amount of work done in displacing the mass through dr is given by
dW= F.dr
Then the total work done in displacing the particle from A to B is
𝑩
W=∫𝑨 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓

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Problem1. If a force F = 4𝑖̂+7𝑗̂-2𝑘̂ acts on a particle and moves it from point (6,9,3) to
(12,5,7) find the work done by the force.

Sol:

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Work-Energy principle
The energy of a particle is defined as the capacity for doing work. The energy
due to speed of a particle is called its Kinetic Energy K .
The amount of work done on the particle when it is taken from point A to point B is

𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
W=∫𝐴 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = ∫𝐴 𝑚𝑎. 𝑑𝑟 = ∫𝐴 𝑚 . 𝑑𝑟 because F= ma = m 𝑑𝑡 So
𝑑𝑡

𝐵 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑟
W= ∫𝐴 m 𝑣𝑑𝑡 because dr = dt = vdt.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Thus W = KB - KA
ie, work done by a force on a particle is equal to the change in its kinetic energy. This is
known as work-energy theorem.

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Conservative & Nonconservative forces

A force is said to be conservative if the work done by the force in

moving a body from one point to another depends only upon the end points and not
on the path followed.
Suppose a particle moves from A to B under the action of a conservative force F.

Along A1B

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That is work done by a conservative force on a particle that moves along a closed curve
is zero.
Applying Stoke’s theorem

That is curl of a conservative force is always zero. This is the necessary condition for a
force to be conservative. It means conservative force is irrotational.

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Curl of a force F is determined as shown below.

Examples for conservative force are central forces such as gravitational

force,electrostatic force,elastic force,etc.
The region in which a particle experience a conservative force is called conservative
force field.

Non conservative forces

If the work done by the force in moving a particle from one point to
another depends upon the path then the force is non conservative. eg; frictional
force,viscous force,etc.
For conservative forces the total mechanical energy(K.E + P.E) is a constant but for non
conservative forces the total mechanical energy is not a constant. However the total
energy is always a constant.

Problem3: Determine whether the force F =(2xy+z2)𝑖̂ + x2𝑗 + 3xz2𝑘̂ is conservative or

not?
Sol: If F is conservative, then ⃑∇⃑ × ⃑F⃑ = 0

≠ 0 So F is nonconservative

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Problem4:

Potential energy
The potential energy U of a particle is defined as the energy stored in it due to its
position. It is measured as the amount of work that the body can do when it moves
from the present position(r) to a standard position(r0).
That is

The standard position is the one at which the force acting on the body and hence its
potential energy can be taken as zero. In the case of gravitation and electrostatic forces
the potential energy is zero at infinity. Therefore

𝒓
Or 𝑭. ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
U(r) = - ∫∞ ⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝒅𝒓
That is potential energy of a particle at appoint r is given by the amount of work done
in moving it from infinity to that point.

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Conservative force as the negative gradient of potential energy.

𝒓
We have ⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
U(r) = - ∫∞ 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓

That is conservative force is the negative gradient of potential energy.

Also this relation implies that work done against the conservative force
increases the potential energy.

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Conservation of energy of a particle:

Consider a particle of mass m moving from A to B under the action of a
conservative force F. The work done is given by
𝑩
W=∫𝑨 𝑭. 𝒅𝒓
By work-energy theorem

If UA & UB are the potential energy at A & B respectively

This means that total energy E = K + U is a constant.

This is known as the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
E is called Energy function.

Potential Energy Curve.

In a conservative force field potential energy is a function of position. A graph
representing the variation of potential energy w.r.t position is known as the potential
energy curve.

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𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑈
If the particle is constrained to move in one dimension then F = - , where is the
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
slope of the graph.
For sections AB & CD slope of the graph is positive and so force F is
negative. That is the force is acting along negative X direction. For sections GA & BC
slope is negative and so F is positive. That is the force is acting along positive X
direction. At A,B,C & D slope =0 . So F=0. These points where the particle experiences
zero force are known as positions of equilibrium.
The A & C are the points of minimum potential energy. If a particle
situated at A or C is slightly displaced then a force immediately comes to act on the
particle. This force tries to bring the particle back to the equilibrium position. A & C are
therefore known as points of stable equilibrium. eg: a ball placed in a concave surface.
Points B & D corresponds to points of maximum potential energy. A
particle situated at B or D when displaced slightly tends to move away from the
equilibrium position. So points B & D are known as points of unstable equilibrium. eg:
a ball placed on a convex surface.
𝑑𝑈
If potential energy U is constant in a region then slope = 0. So F=0.
𝑑𝑥
Potential energy curve will be a straight line parallel to the X axis. A particle placed at
any point in such a region will experience zero force. In such a region if a particle is
displaced from one point it neither moves away from the point nor tends to move
towards the point. These are positions of neutral equilibrium. eg: a ball placed on a
horizontal surface.

Potential Well.
Consider the point of stable equilibrium A on the potential energy
curve. Assume that a particle situated at A is displaced slightly giving some energy E to
the particle. The dotted straight line on the graph indicates this energy.

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When the particle is at P its kinetic energy is zero and potential

𝑑𝑈
energy is maximum(U=E). The restoring force F = - causes the particle to move
𝑑𝑥
towards A and its potential energy decreases gradually and kinetic energy increases. At
A the particle possess minimum potential energy and maximum kinetic energy. The
particle then moves towards Q. At Q potential energy is maximum(U=E) and kinetic
𝑑𝑈
energy is zero. Again due to restoring force F = - the particle moves towards A.
𝑑𝑥
Thus the particle oscillates with a certain period T between the turning points P and Q
and is confined in the region between these points. Such a region is called bounded
region or potential well. The difference of potential energy corresponding to the top and
bottom of the potential well is the binding energy for that potential well.

Problem:4. A particle moves in a potential energy field Ax3 – Bx2. Find the expression
for force. At what point does the force vanish.
Sol
U = Ax3 – Bx2
𝑑𝑈 𝑑
F = - = - (Ax3 – Bx2 ) = -(3Ax2 – 2Bx) = 2Bx- 3Ax2.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

F = 0 => 2Bx- 3Ax2 = 0

𝟐𝑩
Or 2Bx = 3Ax2 or 2B 3Ax So x =
𝟑𝑨

Problem:5. The potential energy function for the force between two atoms in a diatomic
𝑎 𝑏
molecule can be expressed approximately as U(x) = 12 - 6 where a and b are
𝑥 𝑥
constants and x is the distance between atoms.
a)At what values of x, U(x)=0
b)Determine the force between the atoms.
Sol: a)

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
U(x) = 0 . ie, - =0 or =
𝑥 12 𝑥6 𝑥 12 𝑥6

𝑎 𝒂
𝑏
= x6. So x= (
𝒃
)(1/6).
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 𝟏𝟐 𝟔𝒃
b) F = - =- (ax-12 – bx-6) = - [-12ax-13 - -6bx-7] = 12ax-13 - 6b x-7 = -
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝒙𝟏𝟑 𝒙𝟕

Conservation of linear momentum

If a force F is acting on a particle of mass m, then by Newton’s second law
𝑑𝑝 𝑑
of motion F = = (mv) . p = mv is the linear momentum of the particle.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝
If the external force acting on the particle is 0 then F = = 0 or p = mv is a constant.
𝑑𝑡
Thus in the absence of an external force the linear momentum of a particle remains
constant.

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Now for a system of particles the total linear momentum is the algebraic sum of
momentum of individual particle.
⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 𝑝
ie, 𝑃 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
1 +𝑝 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑3 + …….
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑2 + 𝑝

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2 𝑑𝑝
So Fext = = + + 𝑑𝑡3 + …..
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
=
𝑑𝑡
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
(𝑝 1 +𝑝 𝑝3 + …)
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑2 + ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑑𝑃 𝑑
Now if Fext =0 then
𝑑𝑡
= 0 that is ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
(𝑝 1 + ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝3 + …) = 0
𝑝2 + ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑑𝑡

Or ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝1 + ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑3 + …is a constant
𝑝2 + 𝑝

Thus if the resultant external force acting on a system of particles is zero, the total
linear momentum of the system remains a constant. This is the law of conservation of
linear momentum for a system of particles.

Application of law of conservation of linear momentum:

Rocket
Rockets and jet planes are working on the principle of jet propulsion. A high
velocity stream of fluid is issued out through a small nozzle. The principle of jet
propulsion depends on the law of conservation of linear momentum.

Rocket consists of a combustion chamber in which liquid or solid fuel is burnt.

The heat of combustion raises the pressure of the fluid and the hot gases are expelled
through the nozzle with very high exhaust velocity. The momentum of the hot gases
will be very high and they impart equal momentum on the rocket in the opposite
direction. As a result rocket rushes in the forward direction.

Equation of Motion
Let the mass of the rocket at any time t be M and its velocity in the laboratory
frame be V. If a mass m of the hot gases emerges out per second with exhaust velocity v
relative to the rocket then the rate of change of mass of the rocket is

dM
= - m ------------(1)
dt
-ve sign indicates that mass of the rocket decreases with time.
The velocity of the gases in the laboratory frame will be - v + V
So the momentum of the burnt fuel ejected per second = m (- v + V )
Therefore force on the rocket exerted by the ejected gases, F = - m (- v + V ) ---------(2)
dM
Substituting equation(1) in equation (2) F= (- v + V )
dt
The weight of the rocket(Mg) is in the downward direction.
𝑑𝑀
Therefore the net force acting on the rocket is F = 𝑑𝑡 (- v + V ) - Mg ------ (3)
𝑑
From Newton’s second law of motion the force acting on the rocket F= (MV) ------(4)
𝑑𝑡

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From equations (3) & (4)

𝑑 𝑑𝑀
(MV) = (- v + V ) - Mg
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑀 dM dM
M +V =-v +V – Mg
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 dt dt

𝒅𝑽 𝐝𝐌
Or M = -v – Mg -------------(5)
𝒅𝒕 𝐝𝐭
Equation (5) gives the instantaneous force on the rocket.
dV dM
If gravity is neglected M = - v
dt dt
Multiplying equation(5) by dt and dividing by M

dM
dV = - v – gdt
M
Integrating V = - v logeM –gt + C ----------(6)

To determine constant of integration(c)

At time t =0 mass of the rocket M = M0 and initial velocity V = V0
V0 = - v logeM0 + C
So C = V0 + v logeM0
Substituting for C in equation (6)
𝑀
V = - v logeM –gt + V0 + v logeM0 = V0 + v loge 0 –gt
𝑀

𝑴𝟎
ie V = V0 + v loge –gt
𝑴
𝑀0
or V= V0 + v loge , when g is neglected.
𝑀

M M
The ratio Mo has a practical upper limit. If Mo = 10 and v = 2 km/s then V = 4.6 km/s.
This velocity is much less than the escape velocity(11.2km/s) from earth. In order to
attain higher final velocities the rockets are designed in multi stages.

In a multi stage rocket the first stage rocket is used first and when its fuel is
burnt it gets detached and is discarded. Now the second stage rocket starts on with the
initial velocity V0 imparted to it by the first stage and thus final velocity can be
increased.
Problem 6 . A 5000Kg rocket is set for vertical firing. If the exhaust speed is 500m/s
how much gas must be ejected per second to supply the thrust needed
1)to overcome the weight of the rocket.
2)to give the rocket an initial upward acceleration of 19.6 m/s2.
Solution : At any instant the net upward force on the rocket is
𝑑𝑉 dM
F= M 𝑑𝑡 = - v dt – Mg
1)To just overcome the weight of the rocket the net force F = 0.

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dM
So 0 = - v – Mg
dt
dM
v
dt
= – Mg
dM −Mg
= = -( 5000 × 9.8)/500 = - 98 Kg/s.
dt v
dV dM
2) F= M =Ma= - v – Mg
dt dt
dM
-v = Ma + Mg = M(a+g)
dt

dM 𝑀(𝑎+𝑔) 5000(19.6+9.8)
=- =- = - 294 Kg/s.
dt 𝑣 500

Problem 7.A rocket of mass 2000Kg ejects mass at constant rate of 10 Kg/s at constant
relative speed 5km/s. Calculate the force exerted on the rocket. Also find the
acceleration of the rocket one minute after blast.

dV dM
F=M = -v – Mg
dt dt
dM
F = - v - Mg
dt
= (5 × 103 × 10) - (2000×9.8) =3.04 ×104N
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐞𝐭
Acceleration of the rocket 1 minute after blast =
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐞𝐭 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞

Mass of the rocket after 1 minute = 2000-(60×10) = 1400Kg

𝟑.𝟎𝟒 ×𝟏𝟎𝟒
So acceleration = = 21.71m/s2.
1400
Problem 8. A rocket consumes 60kg/s fuel per second exhausting with a speed of 5
km/s. What is the thrust on the rocket? Find the speed of the rocket when its mass
1
becomes of the initial mass. Neglect gravitational force and assume initial velocity to
10
be zero.
dM
Solution : Thrust F= - v – Mg
dt
dM
=-v
dt
= 5 × 103 × 60 = 3 × 105 N
𝑀
V = V0 + v loge 0 –gt
𝑀
𝑀0
or V= V0 + v loge , when g is neglected.
𝑀
𝑀0
= 0+ 5×103 loge
𝑀
𝑀 𝑀
= 5×103
loge10 because M= 100 . So 𝑀0 = 10
= 5×103 ×2.303×1
= 1.15 × 104 m/s.
Problem 9. A rocket fired vertically from rest burns its fuel in 30 seconds. If the exhaust
𝑀
velocity of the gases relative to the rocket is 3000m/s, what must be the ratio 𝑀0 for a
final velocity of 8×103m/s.

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M0
Solution V= V0 + v loge - gt
M
8 × 103 = 0 + 3× 103 × 2.303 log10( 𝑀0
𝑀
) – (9.8×30)
𝑀 8294
So log10( 𝑀0 )= = 1.2005
3000×2.303
𝑴
Therefore 𝟎 = 15.8672
𝑴
Centre of Mass:
Centre of mass of a body or a system of bodies or particles is the point that
moves as though all of the mass were concentrated there and all external forces were
applied there. The concept of centre of mass simplifies the description of motion of
systems particularly in the case of complicated systems such as collision of particles. For
a two particle system with masses m1 & m2 and position vectors 𝑟⃑⃑⃑⃑1 & ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑟2 respectively
the position vector of centre of mass is given by

Therefore momentum of centre of mass MVCM = m1v1 + m2v2 = P

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If no external forces are acting on the system the total linear momentum remains
constant. That is MVCM = a constant. Or VCM = a constant.
That is velocity of centre of mass of a system remains constant if no external forces are
applied to it.
Example: Suppose a shell moving with uniform velocity suddenly explodes, the
constituent pieces of the shell move in different directions with different velocities but
the centre of mass continues to move with the same uniform velocity.

Centre of Mass frame of reference:

A frame of reference attached to the centre of mass of a system of particles is
called centre of mass frame of reference or C-frame. In the C-frame centre of mass is at
rest.
If no external forces are acting on the system, Vcm = a constant. In such a situation the
frame is an inertial frame. If external forces are acting on the system the centre of mass
will be accelerated and C-frame become non inertial.
Problem10: Two masses 59Kg and 73Kg are located at the ends of a rod 3.5m long. At
what distance from the first mass is the centre of mass of the system located?
Solution:

Angular Momentum(L) :
Angular momentum is the rotational analogue of linear momentum. The
angular momentum L of a particle about a point is defined by
⃑⃑ = r⃑ × P
L ⃑⃑ = r⃑ × mV = m( r⃑ × V
⃑⃑ ) , where 𝑟⃑ is the vector distance of the particle
from that point and P= mV is the linear momentum.

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𝒅𝑳
If τ = 0 then =0 or L= a constant.
𝒅𝒕
Thus if the resultant external torque acting on a system of particles is zero then the
total angular momentum of the system remains a constant. This is the law of
conservation of angular momentum.

Motion under central force

Central force is a force which is always directed towards or away from a
fixed point. The magnitude of central force is a function of distance from the fixed
point. A central force is represented by
𝐅⃑ = f(r)𝐫̂
𝑟⃑
f(r) is the scalar function of r and r̂ = |𝑟|

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⃑r⃑ r⃑⃑
Now τ = r⃑ × F = r⃑ × f(r)r̂ = r⃑ × f(r) = f(r) r⃑ × |r| = 0
|r|
dL
So τ = = 0 or L = a constant.
dt
That is angular momentum of a particle moving under central force is conserved.
Examples for central force: Gravitational force, electrostatic force , elastic force,etc.

Areal velocity

Consider a particle moving under the influence of a central force. Let ‘O’ be the centre
of force and r is the position vector from ‘O’ to the particle.
Assume that the particle is moved from P to Q in a time dt.
1
Then area traced by the radius vector dA = r × dr.
2
𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑟 1
Therefore areal velocity = 𝑑𝑡 = r = rv -------------(1)
2 𝑑𝑡 2
But L= r × P = r × mv = mvr
𝐿
So vr = .
𝑚
Substituting in equation (1)
𝑑𝐴 𝐿
= = a constant because L and m are constants.
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
ie, areal velocity of a particle moving under central force is constant.

Examples of Conservation of Angular momentum

1 . Planetary motion
In the case of a planet moving around the sun in elliptical orbit with sun at
one focus, the gravitational force acting on the planet is a central force. As a result the
angular momentum L = mvr of the planet about the sun is a constant.
If r1 and r2 are the position vectors of the planet at two points and v 1 & v2 the
corresponding velocities then mv1r1 = mv2r2 or v1r1 = v2r2.
That is when the planet comes close to the sun its velocity increases and vice versa.
2. Man on a rotating platform.
Imagine a man standing on a turn table holding his arms extended with dumb-
bells in each hand. Suppose that the table is set into rotation. When the man holds his
hands close to his body moment of inertia decreases. To keep angular momentum
conserved the speed of rotation increases. When the man hold his hands with dumb-

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bells extended moment of inertia increases followed by a corresponding decrease in the

speed of rotation, so as to keep angular momentum L =I 𝜔 conserved.

Problem11. The maximum and minimum distances of a planet from the sun are 2 ×
1012m and 8 × 1010m respectively. If the speed of the planet at the nearest point is
60km/s, calculate the speed at the farthest point.

Solution: Given r1 = 2 × 1012m r2 = 8 × 1010m

V1 = ? , V2 = 60000m/s
v1r1 = v2r2.
V1 = (r2 v2)/r1 = ( 8 ×1010× 60000 )/( 2 × 1012) = 2400m/s

Problem 12. Calculate the angular momentum of the electron in the hydrogen atom
about its own nucleus. Mass of the electron = 9.11× 10-31Kg. Radius of the electron orbit
= 0.58× 10-10m.

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