ARREY AWO 674687750 FORM 3 BIOLOGY NOTES

FORM THREE (3) BIOLOGY

1.1 introduction (Review of the concept of the cell)

✗ what is a cell ?
✗ What are the characteristics of a cell?
✗ Name the types of cells you know.
✗ Differences between plants and animal cells
✗ with what can we view a cell?

1.2 What is water? (Definition and properties).

Definition: water in nature is a liquid consisting of the elements hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2:1.

Introduction
Water is the most abundant constituent in the universe. It is called a universal solvent because it can dissolve
most of the solutes. Water forms the main constituent of living organisms, making up about 2/3 (60%) of man’s
fresh weight.

Nature Of Water
Water is made up of two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen. The chemical formula of water is
H2O. Water is mostly liquid in nature, but it can also exist as solid e.g. ice and gas e.g. water vapour in the
atmosphere and cloud.

The Water Cycle

• At the surfaces of water bodies such as lakes and rivers, evaporation constantly takes place, producing
water vapour. Animals and plants also give up water vapour through respiration and transpiration
respectively. All of which goes to the atmosphere.
• At a certain level, the water vapour in the atmosphere to heavy to be supported.
• The water vapour condenses, producing different forms of precipitations such as rain, hail stones, dew
which falls back into the lakes, rivers, etc.
• Some water are taken up by plants for use in transpiration and photosynthesis

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• Some animals drink it, takes it in eaten foods and it serves as habitats for these organisms.
• Water again is sent to the atmosphere by evaporation from water bodies, respiration from animals and
transpiration from plants and the circle continues.

Properties Of Water And Their Biological Significance

• water is a liquid at room temperature and pressure.
• Water is a universal solvent, dissolves more solutes than any other solvent.
• Water has surface tension.
• It adheres making it stick on the walls of containers.
• Water has a very high specific heat capacity.
• Water has a high latent heat of vaporisation.
• Water is difficult to compress.
• Water has a neutral pH of 7, it is neither basic nor acidic.
• Water freezes at 0oC (freezing point) and boils at 100oC (boiling point).
• Pure water does not conduct electricity.
• Water is found in all physical states, Solid, Liquid, and Gas.
• Water combines with many organic molecules to form hydrated molecules.
• Water takes part in may chemical reactions.

1.3 Importance of water to living organisms including its uses to man.

Water is biologically importance for two broad reasons; as a vital chemical constituent of living cells, and
as habitat for aquatic organisms

I- Importance of water TO PLANTS

• Water forms the protoplasm of plant cells, where metabolic reaction takes place.
• Water helps the male gametes to swim and meet the female gamete for fertilization.
• Serves as a raw material during photosynthesis in plants during.
• Water helps brings cooling in plant cells as it evaporates after transpiration
• It dissolves mineral salts in the soil and transports them into the plant through absorption.
• It serves as a medium for the translocation of food materials from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
• It provides turgor pressure to support plants which do not have supporting tissues.
• Water helps break down stored foods before germination.
• Water helps in seed and spore dispersal.
• Water helps in the distribution of gases that diffuses into the leaves through the stomata.
• Water helps in the activation of enzymes.
• Water serves as a natural habitat for aquatic plants.

II- Importance of water TO ANIMALS

• Water serves as a natural habitat to aquatic animals like fish, Amoeba
• Water is dense enough to provide support to animals without skeletons e.g. earth warms.
• It helps in extracellular digestion in saprophytes.
• Evaporation of water in the form of sweat brings cooling in mammals.
• Water has a high heat capacity to maintain a fairly constant body temperature in mammals.
• Water is very important during digestion of foods
• It helps in the elimination of wastes products, such as in urine and sweat
• It helps as a medium of secretion

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• Serves as a medium for easy diffusion of respiratory gases

• Helps in lubrication and cushioning of body organs
• Water plays an important role in the aqueous and vitreous humour of the eye.
• The amniotic fluid which is more of water acts as a shock absorber.
• Water helps in removing excretory products like ammonia and urea.

Use of water TO MAN in his environment

• Washing of ectoparasites from the body and dirt from equipments
• Used by man for household duties, and agriculture
• Helps as a transport medium for heavy sea vessels such as ship.
• Serves as external lubricants
• Man uses water to generate electricity
• Man uses it to cool machines in industries

1.4 The Water Cycle Application of The Concept Of Cycles to the same field and other fields of sciences
1. Life cycle of parasites may provide two important pieces of information.
◦ Information that has predictive values with respect to the pathogenic importance of each particular
parasite.
◦ Information of epidemiological significance that is indispensable to developing effective control
programs.
2. Bio-geochemical cycles.
◦ Bio-geochemical cycles are important because they regulate the element necessary for life on earth
by cycling them through the biological and physical aspects of the world.
◦ Bio-geochemical cycles are a form of natural recycling that allows the continuous survival of
ecosystems. In this we have the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle etc.
3. The menstrual cycle; these helps in the control of birth.

2.0 Cellular exchanges in different conditions.

Cellular exchange is a very vital life process for all living organisms. Materials are constantly been
exchanged between cells and their environment, and between cells and tissue fluid, this is done by diffusion,
osmosis, facilitated transport and active transport.

2.1 Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated transport, Active transport

i. Diffusion: it is the movement of molecules or ions from an area of their high concentration to and area
of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient.

Experiment to demonstrate diffusion O/L ©2014GCEB

Aim: to demonstrate diffusion in water
Requirements: a bottle of clean water, a transparent glass and a red sweet.

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Method: fill the transparent glass with the water and drop the sweet inside and allow for an hour.
Observation: after the time allowed , the colour of the water changes to that of the sweet.
Remark: colour changes because molecules of the sweet have diffused from the sweet with had high
concentration to the surrounding water with less concentration.
Conclusion: molecules diffuses from their area of higher concentration to their area of lower
concentration.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

 concentration: diffusion rate is faster when the molecules of a substance are abundant in a milieu,
because molecules will always want not to be crowded.
 Temperature: When temperature increases diffusion rate also increases because molecules move
faster with increase in temperature.
 Pressure: increase in external pressure increases diffusion rate.
 Size of the particles: diffusion rate will increase with a decrease in particles size and will decrease
with an increase in particles size.
 Nature of the substance: gaseous substances diffuse faster than liquids substances.
 Surface area: The greater the surface area of the membrane in which diffusion is taking place the
faster the rate of diffusion.
 The distance of diffusion: The greater the distance across which the molecules have to diffuse the
slower the rate of diffusion and vise-versa.
 Viscosity: Viscosity means the degree of thickness of the substance. Substances with low viscosity
(lighter substances) diffuse faster than high viscous (thicker substances) substances.

Biological importance of diffusion

• it helps in the movement of gases between organisms and their environment during respiration
and photosynthesis.
• It help cells to expel unwanted gases like carbon dioxide.
• Plants absorb some mineral salts by diffusion from the soil through root hairs of the cell.
• Food nutrients are absorbed by the foetus in a pregnant woman through the placenta by
diffusion.
• It causes air pollution as poisonous gases diffuses from their sources to the atmosphere polluting
the environment.

ii. Osmosis: it is the movement of water molecules from a region of their high concentration (a more dilute
or hypotonic solution) to an area of their lower concentration (a more concentrated or hypertonic
solution) across a selectively (or partially) permeable membrane.
Osmotic pressure: it is the force exerted as a result of osmosis.
Osmotic potential: it is the tendency of the stronger solution or concentrated solution to pull water
molecules from the weak solution to itself.
Nb: Osmosis only takes place across living cells, some partially permeable membranes include: peeled
yam, urinary bladder, a cell etc.

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in living tissues O/L ©2014CGCEB

Aim: To demonstrate osmosis in living tissues
Requirement: 2 transparent Beaker, water, salt or sugar, 2 cylindrical yam tubers, knife, Bunsen burner,
bold markers, 2 pins.

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setup

Procedure: use reported speech

• The yam tubers were peeled with a knife;
• Cavity of equal sizes were made in each tuber;
• One tuber was boiled on a Bunsen burner to destroy the permeability of its cell membrane and was
labelled B;
• Equal volume of salt or sugar solution was poured into each yam cavity and the level marked with a
pin;
• The two beakers labelled A and B were filled with equal volume of Pure water;
• The living yam cavity A was made to stand in beaker A, and the boiled yam cavity B, was made to
stand in beaker B;
• The whole set up were allowed to stand for more than one hour.
Observation (Results):
• Final level of water in the beaker A decreased, while that in the living yam cavity rose.
• Final level of water in the beaker B, and in the boiled yam cavity remained unchanged.
Interpretation:
Water moved by osmosis from the dilute solution in beaker A, into the cavity of the unboiled yam across
the tuber acting as a selectively permeable membrane.
No water moved by osmosis from the dilute solution in beaker B, into the cavity of the boiled yam,
because the tuber cells were destroyed by boiling and therefore could not act as a selectively permeable
membrane.
Conclusion: Osmosis occurs in living cells across a selectively permeable membrane.

Biological importance of osmosis

 aquatic organisms such as protozoan absorb water from their surrounding mainly by osmosis.
 Blood and tissue absorb water from the alimentary canal and kidneys mainly by osmosis.
 Plants absorb dissolved mineral salts and water from the soil by osmosis.
 Turgidity is achieved in plants due to osmosis.
 Opening and closing of stomata by guard cells is achieved through osmosis.

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 Haemolysis of red blood cells is caused by osmosis.

 Movement of water from cell to cell is by osmosis.

Differences between Osmosis and diffusion

Osmosis Diffusion
Only occurs across living cells. Both death and living cells.
Involves the exclusive movement of water molecules. Involves the movement of ions, gases and water.
Movement is influenced by a semi permeable Semi permeable membrane does not influence
membrane. movement.

Some biological phenomenon in Osmosis

 hypertonic solution: this is a strong solution when compared to another solution.
 Hypotonic solution: this is a weak solution when compared to another solution, e.g distilled water
is hypotonic when compared to salt solution or sugar solution.
 Wilting: it is the collapse of plants leaves on a very hot day or during the dry season.
 Plasmolysis: it is the process by which a cell loses water, shrinks and becomes flaccid or flabby
when placed in a hypertonic solution .
 Turgidity: it is when a cell absorbs water and maintain its full shape and size.
 Crenation: it is when the cell membrane of an animal cell crinkles when placed in a hypertonic
solution.
 Haemolysis: this is when an animal cell absorbs much water than normal causing the cell to swell
and burst..
 Turgor pressure: this is the force exerted by the protoplasm of plant cell on to the cell wall when
placed in a hypotonic condition after absorbing much water.
iii. Facilitated transport: in other words it is called faster diffusion, it takes place along special protein
pathways in cell membrane, through which chemicals can pass quickly. Theses protein carriers take
glucose and amino acids into the quicker than expected for normal processes.
iv. Active transport: it is the movement of ions or molecules from an area of low concentration to that of a
high concentration in living tissues.

Factors affecting Active Transport

• temperature
• oxygen concentration
• rate of respiration
• cyanide
• amount of ATP
NB: Active Transport acts against concentration gradient.

Differences between diffusion and active transport

Diffusion Active Transport
Living membrane not essential Living membrane essential
Do not need energy Uses energy supplied by respiration

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Moves down a concentration gradient Moves against concentration

Not selective selective
Non biological processes Biological processes

2.2 Transpiration
Def: transpiration is the process by which water is lost from plants through their leaves, stems and flowers into
the atmosphere in the form of water vapour.

Factors Affecting The Rate Of Transpiration

Light Intensity: As this energy enters the mesophyll cells, it increases in temperature causing greater
evaporation of water – the water molecules begin to move more rapidly and water vapor diffuses out much faster
than at normal temperatures.

Temperature: When there is an increase in temperature, the capacity of the air to hold water also increases, and
this increases the rate of transpiration but when temperature decreases the air can’t hold much water thereby
reducing the rate of transpiration.

Wind: When the air is still, the air surrounding a transpiring leaf becomes saturated quite soon, hence reducing
the rate of transpiration but when the wind flows constantly across the plant it carries away the water vapour on
the plant’s surface thereby increasing the rate of transpiration.

Humidity: When the atmospheric air is fully saturated with water vapor, there is no possibility of more vapor
moving into it, this will reduce the rate of transpiration but when atmospheric air is not saturated with water, it
increases the rate of transpiration.

Soil Water Content: When the amount of soil water is low, less water is absorbed by the plant, hence
transpiration rate is decreased but when there is too much water in soil transpiration rate increases.

CLASSIFICATION( VARIETY OF LIFE)

3.0 Introduction to the concepts of criteria and classification

There exist millions of different varieties of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Studying these organisms
individually brings problems among biologists, especially as new and new species are constantly been
discovered. To ease the study of related organisms having a character in common, scientists use the scheme
called classification.
The science of organism classification is called Taxonomy or Systematic, it involves the description,
identification, naming and classification into different groups according to their difference and similarities.

Reasons for classifying living organisms

• for convenience in study.
• for easy identification.
• to create order out of disorder.
• in other to know their interrelationships.

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• in other to understand their evolutionary relationships.

• to create a chart in other to fit new organisms.

Classification Grouping(Ranks)
The modern classification uses seven major classification groups which includes; kingdoms, phyla, classes,
orders, families, genera and species.
The branch of biology that deals with the classification of organisms is called Taxonomy.

The Binomial nomenclature

-It is a method of classification where two names are given to an organism.
- In order to wipe out confusion of common names, scientist decided in giving organisms two names called the
scientific name.
-This name comprises of the first name called the generic name starting with an an upper case letter and the
second name called the species name starting with a lower case letter.
-The scientific name must be underlined separately when wirtten with ink and when typed in italics.
-The generic and species name combined gives the scientific name which is written in Latin e.g a dog = Canis
familiaries, Wolf = Canis lupus. The father of binomial nomenclature is Carl Von Linné.

Some common organisms and their scientific names.

Common Scientific Names Common Scientific Names Common Scientific Names
Garden snail Helix aspersa Lizard Agama agama Coconut Cocos nucifera
Crayfish Cambarus affinis Pawpaw Carica papaya Mould Rhizopus nigricans
Earthworm Lumbriscus terrestris Eru Gnectum africanum Housefly Musca domestica
Millipede Julus virgatus Tilapia Tilapi zillii Maze Zea maize
Centipede Cermatia forceps Rice Oryzia sativa Black rat Rattus rattus
Garden spider Miranda aurentia Cassava Manihot utilisima Amoeba Amoeba proteus

3.1 Viruses
introduction: viruses are microscopic particles that can only be seen with an electron microscope. The word
virus in Latin means poison, outside living cells viruses become inert particles known as virions.

General Characteristics of viruses

• Viruses are very small, non-cellular, primitive organisms.
• They can only be seen with the aid of an electron microscope.
• The are obligate intracellular parasites found living only in bacteria and other living cells like plant and
animal cells.
• Viruses are not affected by antibiotics.
• The diseases caused by viruses are highly infectious.
• Out of living cells they are crystallized.
• They either have a DNA or an RNA but never both.
• They have spikes which helps them to attach to the host cell.

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Function Of Parts
• Head: bears DNA or RNA molecules.
• Proteins coat: helps in protecting the viral genetic material.
• Tail: adhere virus on host.
• DNA or RNA: helps for replication.
• Core: canal for DNA.
• Sheath: it’s a layer that surrounds and protects the collar.

Why viruses are considered to be living

• They posses genetic materials (DNA or RNA).
• They are capable of replicating themselves in other living cells.

Why viruses are considered to be non living

• they do not have cellular structures.
• They are not capable of reproducing out of other cells.
• They can be crystallized to geometrically shaped crystals.
• They do not grow.
• They are unable to carry out characteristics associated to living organisms.

Replication (in T2 Bacteriophage)

phage attacks a bacterium, it adheres to the receptor sites on the bacterium surface using the tail fibers. It
produces enzymes which dissolves the membrane of the host cell thereby allowing the virus to inject its content
(DNA or RNA) in to the host cell. The phage then takes controls over the host DNA by combining with it,
replicates more phages DNA, which later on develops in to viruses with head and tail. After about 5 minutes the
infected cell burst releasing new phages ready to infect other cells.

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Replication Cycle of Bacteriophage

Economic importance of viruses

✗ They cause many types of diseases to plants and animals
✗ Bacteriophages helps in destroying harmful bacteria in the cause of using them to replicate.
✗ They are use in the production of vaccines.
✗ They are important in biological research and control.
✗ They are use for genetic engineering.

Some viral diseases

Poliomyelitis
Influenza
Measles
AIDS
Covid

3.2 KINGDOM Monera (Prokaryotae (Bacterium))

it is called bacteria in plural, they are the smallest cellular organisms and are the most abundant. There exist true
bacteria (Eubacteria) and primitive bacteria (Archaebacteria).

General Characteristics of Bacteria

• They are the most unicellular organisms
• They have a cell wall made up of chitin or proteins.
• They maybe motile or non-motile and occur in air, land and water.
• Nutrition is either autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Respiration is aerobic or anaerobic.

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• Some bacteria cause diverse diseases to plants and animals.

• Reproduction is asexual by binary fission
• The don’t have a defined nucleus.
• They have a circular DNA call plasmid which lies free in the cytoplasm.

Structure
These are unicellular microscopic organisms. They vary in size and shape. They have a definite cell wall made
up of fat, protein and carbohydrate but not cellulose. Some bacteria have their cell wall enclosed in a slimy
mucous known as capsule.
Their cytoplasm contains the nucleolus and stored food substances, which are complex sugar, fat, proteins and
glycogen. The nucleolus occurs as a mass of chromatin threats. Most bacteria are colourless but some are
coloured yellow, red or violet due to the present of pigment. Some bacteria possess flagella (sing. flagellum)
which are thin whip-like structures used for movement.

Classification or Types of Bacteria

Bacteria cells vary in size and shape, and base on the shape, we classify bacteria as:,
• Spherical shape bacteria: known as Cocci (singular - Coccus) as in gonorrhea. Depending on the number
of spherical shape bacterium that are seen together we give cocci different names:
1. Diplococci: when they occur in pair e.g. pneumonia
2. Tetrads: when they occur in groups of four
3. Streptococci: when they occur in long chain e.g. sore throat
4. Staphylococci: When they occur in group or bunches e.g. boils or abscess
• Rod shape bacteria: known as Bacilli (singular bacillus). Depending on the number of rod shape bacterium
that are seen together we give bacilli different names:

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1. Dilpobacillus
2. Streptobacillus
• Spiral shape bacteria (plural spirillae): These are bacteria having a spiral shape e.g. in syphilis. They
usually occur singly.
• Vibrio: These are bacteria with a comma shape e.g. cholera. They usually occur singly.

Mode Of Life Of Bacteria

A. Nutrition: Bacteria have different feeding methods either as parasites, saprophytes or autotrophic
organisms
i. Autotrophic: These are bacteria which manufacture their own foods from simple substances such as nitrogen
and phosphorus.
ii. Parasitic: These are bacteria that live in other organisms where they extract their foods and at the same time
causing to it.
iii. Saprophytic: these are bacteria that live on dead organic matter. The foods are digested extracellular i.e.
enzymes are secreted on the dead and are digested out of their body, before being absorbed.
B. Movement: Bacteria move using their flagella. Some have a single flagellum, a few have tuff of flagella at
one or both ends, while some have flagellum arranged evenly round them.
C. Respiration: Bacteria obtain energy through the process of respiration. Some lives in the presence of
oxygen and are called aerobic bacteria. Others only lives in the absence of oxygen and are called anaerobic
bacteria. A few can survive with or without oxygen.
D. Reproduction: Reproduction in bacteria is asexual. When conditions are favourable, (abundant of food,
suitable temperature), bacteria divide by binary fission i.e. the nucleus and cytoplasm of a mature bacterium
divides into two halves. A cell wall is form at the center to separate the two new cells. This occurs rapidly every
20 to 30 minutes. When conditions re unfavourable, such as shortage of food, some bacteria form a cyst around
themselves. The content of each bacterium forms many spores within the cyst. Bacteria remain at rest in this
condition but soon becomes active when conditions are suitable for growth and reproduction.

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Economic Importance Of Bacteria

Bacteria are found everywhere on the planet in the air, fresh water, dust, sea etc. They play an important part in
the human life, though we do not always appreciate their importance because we cannot see them. They can be
useful as well as harmful.
I. Useful Effects Of Bacteria
• Some bacteria are used in the production of antibiotics and vaccines e.g. penicillin
• Some bacteria are used in food industry to produce vinegar yogurt, etc.
• Bacteria are used to decompose sewage into harmless substances, which can be used as manure.
• Soil bacteria play an important role as decomposers of dead plants and animals, thereby clearing the earth
surface and releasing nutrients to the soil.
• Some bacteria known as nitrogen fixing bacteria helps to convert atmospheric nitrogen to soil nitrogen found
in the roots of leguminous plants.
• Some bacteria lives in the digestive tract of herbivores helping them in the digestion of cellulose found in the
plants they eat.

II. Harmful Effect Of Bacteria:

• Some bacteria causes diseases such as cholera, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Tuberculosis
• Some bacteria feeds on the same foods that human do, thereby causing food spoilage e.g. milk
• Some bacteria known as denitrifying bacteria, converts soil nitrogen into atmospheric nitrogen thereby
reducing soil fertility.

Prevention Of Bacteria Growth

The various processes we use to prevent the growth of bacteria is either killing or making them inactive. These
methods are:
• Salting, drying and smoking makes foods unfavourable for bacteria growth
• Refrigeration: does not kills bacteria but makes them inactive
• Cocking for a long time will kill most bacteria.
• Boiling and canning, are done at high temperature and pressure, which kill the bacteria including spores
present.
• Proper ventilation and good hygiene in food preservation and also good personal hygiene.

Some Bacteria Diseases And Their Mode Of Spread

1. Tuberculosis
Causative agent: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mode of transmission: Droplet infection, through coughing and spitting by patients, handling objects
contaminated by patients’ saliva, and drinking milk from contaminated cows.
Signs and symptoms: May affect the lungs, liver and other organs, but most common in the lungs.
• Usually start with a dry cough and latter spitting blood stained sputum.
• Chest pain, persistent coughing, fatigue, lost of weight and appetite.
• Wasting of body and gradual death.
Control and prevention: Vaccination using the B.C.G vaccine, living in well ventilated dwellings to avoid
overcrowding. Isolation of infected persons

2. Gonorrhea and Syphilis

Causative agents:
• Gonorrhea: Neisseria gonorrhea

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• Syphilis: Treponema pallidum

Mode of transmission: Both are transmitted through sexual intercourse with an infected person, oral contact with
infected parts of the body.
Symptoms:
• Gonorrhea: In male, yellow discharge with burning sensation during urination,. In women, they may be pain
in passing out urine, vagina discharge or swelling of the volva (can be treated with antibiotics – penicillin).
3. Cholera:
Causative agent: Vibrio cholera
Mode of spread: Through contaminated foods and water
Signs and symptoms: Watery stool, vomiting, fever, rapid dehydration
Treatment and control: To control, we wash our hands before and after using the toilets, taking meals, and
cooking of foods very well. Treatment includes using drugs and re-hydration liquid preparations.

Home work: Give the differences between bacteria and viruses

BACTERIA VIRUSES

3.3 KINGDOM Protoctista (Amoeba, Spirogyra)

This kingdom constitutes organisms which resemble early plants (algae), early animals (protozoa) and early
fungi (Oomycota and slime mould). Thus, they are thought to be the ancestors of modern plants, animal and
fungi.

I. PROTOZOANS
The protozoans are animal-like protists, found in environment were water is present. They practice heterotrophic
mode of nutrition. Examples are Rhizopods (Amoeba), Ciliates (Paramecium) and Apicomplexa (Plasmodium,
the parasite which causes malaria).

Case study: AMOEBA – Amoeba proteus

Diagnostic Characteristics
• The amoeba is a unicellular microscopic organism
• Have no definite shape and no cell wall
• It is clear and transparent with a gel-like protoplasm made of nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is made up of a clear outer layer (ectoplasm) and a grayish interior (endoplasm)
• The endoplasm contains food vacuoles, nucleus and a contractile vacuole which may be formed anywhere in
the cell
• Has an extension of protoplasm called Pseudopodia (singular, pseudopodium) used for movement and
feeding.

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Structure
Structure of amoeba primarily encompasses 3 parts - the cytoplasm, plasma membrane and the nucleus. The
cytoplasm can be differentiated into 2 layers - the outer ectoplasm and the inner endoplasm The plasma
membrane is a very thin, double-layered membrane composed of protein and lipid molecules. The organism
appears colourless.

Habitat: Amoeba is an example of a free living protozoan, living at the bottom of pond (fresh water), in moist
places and in soil. They are also found in seas (marine water). Parasitic amoeba lives in the large intestines of
man and other multicellular organism.

Nutrition (Feeding): Amoeba feeds on microscopic organisms like algae, other amoeba and on decaying food
particles where they live. On meeting a food particle, the Amoeba gradually spreads its pseudopodia round the
food particle and encircles it with a drop of water. The food is ingested and a food vacuole is formed. Enzymes
are secreted into the food vacuole from the surrounding cytoplasm to digest the food. The soluble digested
nutrients are then absorbed into the cytoplasm, while the undigested residue is sent out (egested) through the
plasmalema as the amoeba flews away.

Movement: The Amoeba moves by continual formation of pseudopodia in the direction of movement. When
pseudopodia form, the protoplasm flows into it. After all must have flown, the Amoeba is brought to a new
position. This type of movement is known as amoeboid movement. Change in direction occur when a new
pseudopodium start forming in another point on the amoeba surface.

Excretion and osmoregulation: Excretion is the removal of body metabolic wastes, while Osmoregulation is
the maintenance of constant osmotic condition in the body. In fresh water species such as the Amoeba, the
contractile vacuole performs both functions. The cell membrane is permeable and the cytoplasm of fresh water
Amoeba is more concentrated than the surrounding water medium. Water therefore enters the cell by osmosis.
The contractile vacuole collects this water and when it reaches a certain size, it fuses with the cell membrane,
contracts and release its contents out of the cell at any point of the ectoplasm, thereby preventing the cell from
bursting. A small bubble soon reappears at any position in the cytoplasm of the Amoeba to form another

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contractile vacuole, and the process of excess water elimination continuous.

NOTE:
- Marine Amoeba species do not have functional contractile vacuoles because their body fluids have the same
concentration as the sea water (isotonic).

- Fresh water species of Amoeba has a contractile vacuoles because their cell content is more concentrated
(hypertonic) as compared to the surrounding water which is hypotonic. Therefore the constant entry of water into
the cells of fresh water Amoeba is overcome by the contractile vacuole they possess.

Gaseous exchange: Amoeba uses oxygen dissolve in the surrounding water. By simple diffusion, the oxygen
diffuses through the plasma membrane. It sends out carbon dioxide into the water by the same means.

Irritability: Amoeba has no sense organs, but it is able to sense danger when touched or pricked fro example, it
retracts away from the stimulus and forms pseudopodia in the opposite direction. Amoeba can also sense the
presence of food particles and move moves towards them.

Reproduction: Reproduction in amoeba is by binary fission when conditions are favourable (food, water, etc).
Binary fission means the cell divides into two, first the nucleus divides into two, followed by the cytoplasm and
the organelles to form two new Amoebae.

Home work: Give the Differences Between Bacteria And Amoeba

BACTERIA AMOEBA

II. ALGAE
Plantlike organism of any of several phyla, divisions, or classes of chiefly aquatic usually chlorophyll-
containing nonvascular organisms of polyphyletic origin that usually include the green, yellow-green, brown,
and red algae in the eukaryotes and especially formerly the cyanobacteria in the prokaryotes.

Case Study: Spirogyra – Spirogyra jogensis

General Characteristic Of Algae
• They are plant-like protists, which varies in form and size e.g. green filamentous algae, red algae
• Their bodies lack true stems, roots and leaves. Such a body which is not differentiated into true stems, roots
and leaves are generally referred to as thallus.
• They have a photosynthetic pigment which enables them to carry out photosynthesis
• There exist different groups of algae depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment they have.
• Some are unicellular, filamentous, colonial and thalloid in form.

Structure:
• Green in appearance due to the presence of chlorophyll
• Spirogyra is filamentous, and can be seen with the naked eye.

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• Made of rows of cylindrical identical cells joint together end to end producing the long filament
• Each cell is made of a cellulose cell wall enclosed in a gelatinous sheath making it slimy
• Has a large vacuole filled with cell sap occupies much of the cell.
• The nucleus is suspended in the center by strands of cytoplasm, which are linked to the lining of the
cytoplasm
• The chloroplast green and spiral in nature, on it are colourless patches made called pyrenoids, which stores
starch.
Pyrenoid Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Chloroplast

Nucleus

Cytoplasmic
strand

Mucilage
Spirogyra

Nutrition: Spirogyra manufactures its own food with the help of dissolve carbon dioxide, mineral salts and its
spiral chloroplast containing chlorophyll. In the presence of light, starch can be build up by photosynthesis. The
starch is then seen to accumulate around the pyrenoids.

Growth: Spirogyra grows in length but not width or thickness. The nucleus of a mature cell divides into two
halves, a wall grows across the center to divide the cell into two daughter cells which remains attached and
grows in length, thus increasing the length of the filament, some of which are up to 10 cm.

Reproduction: Reproduction in spirogyra is both sexual and asexual

- Asexual Reproduction
It is common in spirogyra, and consists of the breaking up of a part of a filament which separate from the parent
filament and continue to live as a separate plant. This type of reproduction is known as fragmentation.
- Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is by conjugation, as follows.
• Two filaments one regarded as the male (positive) filament and the other female (negative), comes together
and lies side by side.
• The cytoplasm of each of the opposite filament shrinks away from the cell wall and forms a mass lateral
outgrowth, which grows toward each other and joint. At the point of contact, the cross wall is dissolved and a
tube known as a conjugation tube is formed.
• The gamete from the “male” filament passes into the female filament through the conjugation tube.
• The two gametes meet and fuse their nuclei to form a zygote, surrounded by a thick resistant wall forming a

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spore-like structure called zygospore.

• After a period of rest, the zygospore germinates into a new filament when conditions are favourable.

conjugation in Spirogyra

Habitat: Spirogyra is mostly seen floating in ponds, springs, and slow running water.

Economic importance of Spirogyra:

• Spirogyra releases oxygen during photosynthesis, some of which goes into the surrounding water and is used
by aquatic animals for respiration, while some goes to the atmosphere.
• Spirogyra also reduces the amount of carbon dioxide (produced by aquatic organisms) in water, by using it
up during photosynthesis.
• Spirogyra forms the bases of food chain in the aquatic ecosystem, as they serve as food to aquatic organisms.
• They are used to manufacture fertilizers in coastal areas.
• They pollutes water bodies such as swimming pulls, and water reservoirs
• Through the process of eutrophication, they over crowd water canals blocking it and causing flooding.

Home work: give the differences between spirogyra and amoeba

SPIROGYRA AMOEBA

3.4 KINGDOM Fungi (Mould, Yeast and Mushroom)

General characteristics of Fungi
• Fungi lack chlorophyll and are therefore non-photosynthetic
• Fungi are heterotrophic, living either as parasites or saprophytes
• Unlike animals fungi practice extracellular digestion and nutrients are absorbed directly.

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• They store excess of carbohydrate usually as glycogen, not starch.

• Fungi don’t have any proper cellular organization. Their basic organ is the hypha (plural hyphae), which are
tiny tubular filaments with rigid cell walls made of chitin (fibrillar material) that give shape to the hyphae.
• The hyphae of some species of fungi have cross-walls (septate hyphae), while other have no cross-walls
(aseptate hyphae).
• Hyphae spread over and into substrates (food material) forming a visible mass of soft close woven white
thread known as the mycelium (plural, mycelia) which forms the vegetative body structure of the fungi.
• Many of which can reproduce asexually by forming spore, and others can also reproduce sexually
• Fungi are found everywhere; they range in sizes from single cell to large multicellular structure. Examples
are: Rhizopus nigricans (bread mould), Saccharomyces (yeast), Agariscus campestris (garden mushroom),
potato blight, Penicillium.

Case Study 1: Rhizopus nigricans (Bread Mould)

It belongs to a group of fungi called “black mould” because it appears as a delicate black mass. It is also
commonly called bread mould because it grows freely on moist stale bread. It can also grow on other food stuffs
such as coco-yam and fruits.

Structure: The body structure of Rhizopus, the mycelium, is made up of hyphae growing on and into the bread
(substrate). Mycelia consist of three types of hyphae:
i. Stolon: These are hyphae that grow horizontally on the substrate. They help to spread the Rhizopus over the
substrate.
ii. Rhizoids: These are root-like hyphae which arise were the stolon comes in contact with the substrate. They
grow and penetrate the substrate. Their main function is to anchor, secret enzyme into the substrate and helps to
absorbs nutrients (feeding).
iii. Sporangiophore: These are hyphae that grow somewhat upright out of the substrate from the point where the
stolon touches the substrate and rhizoids growing into the substrate. They give rise to reproductive structures
called sporangia (singular sporangium). Sporangium

Spores

Sporangiophore

Mycelium

Hyphae Stolon
Bread Mould
Nutrition: Rhizopus are saprophyte that carries out saprophytic nutrition i.e. feeds on remains of dead organic
matter. The hyphae in the substrate (rhizoids) secrets extracellular enzymes, which digest the food out of the
body and the soluble end products of digestion such as glucose and amino acids diffuse into the rhizoids. This
type of digestion which occurs out of the body of an organism is described as extra cellular digestion. The
absorbed nutrients are then use in other metabolic processes such as respiration and growth.

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Reproduction: Rhizopus carries out both asexual and sexual reproduction.

• Asexual Reproduction:
It is mainly by sporulation (spore formation). During spore formation the following changes occur in the
reproductive hyphae (sporangiophore):
i. The tip of each sporangiophore swells
ii. The swollen tip differentiates into a central light region and a dense region surrounding it.
iii. The light region gives rise to the columella, while the dense region forms numerous spores, both of which
form the sporangium dark in colour.
iv. The columella absorbs water, swells and caused the sporangium wall to break open, so that the spore are
free and expose to dispersal agents such as air, which takes them other habitats.
v. When spores lands on substrates in a suitable environment (moist and correct temperature), their individual
wall break open and they germinate into a new hyphae and eventually a new mycelium.

• Sexual Reproduction:
Sexual reproduction in Rhizopus occurs by conjugation, mostly during unfavourable conditions as
follows:
i. Two hyphae (one positive and the other negative) from different mycelia lie side by side.
ii. Two short hyphal branches with swollen tips called pro-gametangium (plural pro-gametangia) grow out
from each.
iii. As the pro-gametangia grows out towards each other they finally came in contact.
iv. Once pro-gametangia makes contact, their tips will form gametangium (plural, gametangia). Between the
gametangia is a cross wall. The base portion of the side branch is now known as suspensor.
v. The cross wall finally dissolves, so that the protoplasm of the two gametangia mixes up to form a zygote. A
thick and dark wall for protecting is developed around the zygote to form a structure known as zygospore.
vi. On favourable conditions, the zygospore produces single delicate hyphae that grow vertically.
vii. The tip of the hyphae develops into a sporangium containing spores.
viii. The sporangium breaks open, the spores are liberated which germinate in a favourable condition, to form
new mycelia.

Case Study 2: Yeast: Saccharomyces

Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Saccharomycetes
Common Name: Yeast
Scientific Name: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Intro: Yeast is a fungus consisting of a single cell in nature. It lives in sugar containing solution like nectar of
flowers or juice of ripe fruits.

Structural features:
• Yeast is a unicellular plant.
• Each individual cell is spherical or oval in shape, and is surrounded by a cell membrane and cell wall.
• Within the cell membrane is a cytoplasm which is granular in appearance and within it we fine the following:
a nucleus which consists of a nuclear vacuole (in which are chromatin threads), and a nucleolus, glycogen
granules and other food reserve (fat and protein) used during unfavourable conditions. The cytoplasm also
contains a large number of mitochondria.

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A typical yeast cell

Nutrition: Yeasts are saprophytes living in sugar solution such as ripe fruits, palm wine, and human gut. At this
location, simple sugar diffuses through the cell wall and cell membrane into the cytoplasm. Yeasts can also secret
enzymes to break down complex sugar out of their cell into simpler ones before they are been absorbed.

Respiration: Yeast cell respire both in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) and in the absence of oxygen
(anaerobic respiration).
Under anaerobic condition, the absorbed glucose is broken down by the enzymes zymase which they
secret to ethanol (an alcohol) and carbon dioxide (CO 2) and less energy is produce. The process is called
alcoholic fermentation.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + E
Sugar (glucose) Ethanol carbon dioxide Energy
Under aerobic condition, they convert the sugar to CO 2 and water, with the release of large amount of
energy. The CO2 produce in both conditions are used in bakeries to raise dough.

Reproduction in yeast: Reproduction is asexual by budding and by spore formation

Budding: A bud develops on the cell wall and membrane of mature yeast. The nucleus divides by mitosis
and the daughter nucleus moves into the bud. The bud soon increases in size and other organelles are form in it.
The bud may separate from the parent cell or remain attached to it and give rise to a new bud which intern
repeats the same process so forming chain and sub chains of yeast cell.

Sporulation: In some species during unfavourable condition, yeast cell forms a thick wall around its cell. The
nucleus and cytoplasm divides into four parts, each part is called ascospore and the whole structure is called
ascus. When conditions become favourable, these grow into a new yeast cell.

Case study 3: mushroom – Agariscus campestris

Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Basidiomycetes
Common Name: Mushroom

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Scientific Name: Agariscus campestris

Structural Features:
• its hyphae are highly packed in solid masses to form spores producing parts called sporophores.
• A mature sporophore consist of the pileus and the stalk. The pileus has a circular disc with a diameter of
about 2 – 3 inches.
• The stipe supports the pileus and gills. The pileus and gills forms an umbrella-like structure.
• Mid way above the stipe is a ring-like structure called the annulus.
• The gills are found under the pileus and are radially arranged originating from the stalk.
• Spores are produced on the surface of the gills. The mycelia are underground are are used for anchorage.

Mushroom

Reproduction
Mushroom grows within 24 to 36 hours. When a mature spore lands on suitable soil or substrate, it germinates
into small buttons that looks like knobs. During growth the stipe elongates rapidly and expand to a pileus that
ruptures giving an umbrella structure. The structure then form new spores asexually ready to be liberated on new
environment.

Mode Of Life
mushrooms are saprophytes and feed on organic matter. Light plays no role on its life cycle since lacks
chlorophyll just like other fungi.

Edible And Poisonous Mushroom

Edible
Agariscus bisporus russula cyanoxantha russula xerampelina
Agariscus campestris laetiporus sulphureus

Poisonous
aminata phaloides conocybe filaris cortinarius rubellus

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aminata verna aminata muscaria

Economic Importance Of Fungi

Fungi have both useful effect as well as harmful effects on the economy as outlined below.

Useful effects of fungi

i. Fungi are decomposer: Saprophytic fungi clear the earth surface from various dead organisms, through the
process of decomposition.
ii. Fungi increase soil fertility: During decomposition, fungi add manure to the soil to increase soil fertility.
iii. Fungi are used in medicine: A few species of fungi are used in the production of medicines called anti-
biotic such as Penicillin from penicillium. This medicine treats a variety of bacteria and fungi diseases.
iv. Role of fungi in industries: Yeast ferment sugars to produce alcohol which is used beer production. During
fermentation of sugar, CO2 is also produce which is used in bakery industries.
v. As food: Some fungi edible to man e.g. mushroom. Some species such as Penicillium are used in the
manufacture of cheese. Yeast in an important source of vitamin B and enzymes.

Harmful effects of fungi

i. Fungi cause many diseases in plants and animals. Examples of fungi disease to man include: ring worm,
eczema, athlete’s foot (water rain), some forms of meningitis, and in plants we have; tomato rot, corn smut,
cocoa black pots, potato blight caused by Phytophthora infestans a parasitic fungus which attacks the leaves,
stem and at times tubers of potato plants.
ii. Fungi can cause the destruction of a wooden building, stored cereals, fruits and vegetables.
iii. Fungi causes internal infection in man which may lead to dead if not treated

Home work: Give the Differences Between Mould And Bacteria

MOULD BACTERIA

3.5 KINGDOM ANIMALIA (Amphibians, Reptiles, Bony fish, Birds)

also known as metazoa are multicellular eukaryotic organisms and heterotrophic organisms, they breathe in
oxygen and can reproduce sexually. In the animal kingdom we have vertebrates and non-vertebrates.

Vertebrate
Also called craniates are animals of the sub-phylum vertebrata and of the phylum chordata, they are
characterize by the presence of a backbone.

Case Study 1: Bony Fish

Kingdom: Animalia.
Phylum: Chordata.
Class: Osteichthyes

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Common Name: Tilapia zilli.

Scientific Name: Tilapia, Mbonga.

Intro: Fishes are aquatic organisms , some living in marine water and other living in fresh water. They breathe in
water by means of gills and they navigate from place to another in water by the help of fins.

General Characteristics Of Bony Fish.

• They have fins modified for swimming and guiding.
• They have a terminally located mouth and teeth.
• They have a centralized located bony skeleton at the spinal cord.
• Respiration is by the use of gills and the gills are covered by the operculum on both sides.
• Their bodies are covered with overlapping cycloid scales.
• Swim bladders is found at the abdominal cavity which is used for buoyancy.
• They have separate sexes of male and females (they are dioecious).
• They are poikilothermic (cold blooded).
• They have two eyes located on both sides of the head with no eye lid present.
• They reproduce by laying eggs.

A Bony Fish
Function Of Parts
Eyes: use for vision.
Scales: protects the fish against mechanical injury.
Fins:
• pelvic fins sit horizontally on the ventral side of the fish; use for steering.
• pectoral fins are vertical and are located on the sides of the fish, usually just past the operculum; use for
balancing.
• caudal fin is known commonly as the tail fin. It is the primary appendage used for locomotion in many
fishes. The caudal fin acts like a “propeller” for the fish.
• Dorsal and Anal fins act as sterilizers.
Swim Bladder: it is use for the up and down movement of the fish called buoyancy.

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Nostril: located on both sides of the head use to detect chemicals in water.
Mouth: it is at the front, or anterior end, of the fish. Use for feeding.
Operculum: flaps on both side of the head covering the gills. The protect the gills.
Lateral Line: it runs the length of the body—from just behind the head to the caudal peduncle. It is used to help
fishes sense vibrations in the water. Vibrations can come from prey, predators, other fishes or environmental
obstacles.
Gills: for gaseous exchange.
Anus: to send out undigested for and some excretory products.

Adaptations Of Fish To Live In Water

• they have streamed-lined bodies so they easily move in water.
• The body have a muscular tail and fin which is used as a propeller in water.
• Some have a swim bladder for the up and down movement in water.
• The body is covered with scales to protect the fish against mechanical injury.
• The muscles of the body walls are arranged in blocks to help them for swimming.
• They produce slimy secretions from mucus which helps reducing friction in water.
• The body is coloured so as to be invisible to enemies.
• Their eyes are laterally placed, giving them a great view of 180 o to locate preys and escape from
enemies.
• The fish lays so many eggs so as to maximize the chances of survival.
• The girls of the fish are protected by operculum.
• They have gills for gaseous exchange in water.

Economic Importance Of Fish

• good source of proteins.
• certain paints are manufactured from fish oil.
• they help in clearing water, since the feed on debris and plankton.
• Fish bones are good source of calcium.
• Fish farming serve as employment for so many people all over the world.
• Cod liver oil, which is medicinal is gotten from fish.
• Use in scientific research.
• Most people get iodine from fish.
• Some are predators, hence use for biological control.

Case Study 2: Amphibians (Frogs And Toads)

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Common Name: Toad
Scientific Name: Bufo bufo

Intro: amphibians also known as batrachians are vertebrates tetrapods most species are terrestrial and freshwater
aquatic.
General Characteristics Of Amphibians
• They have, soft moist and thin bodies which lack scales.
• They have many mucus glands on the skin.

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• They are poikilothermic (cold blooded).

• Fertilization is external and eggs are laid in water.
• Larva (tadpole) have gills for gaseous exchange.
• The mouth is very wide and contains teeth with a protractile tongue.
• They have a pair of eyes and nictitating membrane with movable eyelids.
• The auditory system is well developed with tympanum, only the middle and inner ear present.

Habitats
Amphibians are adapted to live both in water and on land. They can be found on marshes, pools or streams. They
live mostly on land (moist places) and return to water to breed.

Eye
Parotid glands

Nostril

Tympanium

Mouth

Hind limbs

Fore limbs

Toad

Function of parts
Parotid Glands: produces poison that paralyses or scare away predators.
Eye: used for vision.
Nostril: used for gaseous exchange.
Mouth: contains a protractile sticky tongue used to catch prey (insects) for feeding.
Ear Drum (Tympanum): used for hearing.
Fore Limbs: used for absorbing shock during landing.
Hind Limbs: they are more muscular adapted for hopping and webbed digits used for swimming.

Respiration
They are transitional animals, their respiratory surfaces are the sin, gills and lings. Gills are only present in the
tadpole stage. For the adult amphibians they uses the skin for gaseous exchange in water and uses the lungs

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when on land.
Feeding
Tadpoles feed on vegetation while adult toads and frogs are carnivores they feeds on small insects, molluscs and
worms.
Locomotion
They move by swimming and jumping or leaping. They have five toes covered with webs which helps for
swimming, for jumping the hind limbs are well develop, long and muscular than the fore limbs. The hind limbs
enables them to jump or leap, some toads or frogs can jump up to 20m.

Life Cycle And Reproduction

Toads and frogs are usually highly active at night and they ar seasonal organisms. They are abundant and
functional during the rainy season, they hibernate and reduce their metabolic rate during the dry season.
The female amphibian is larger than the male. During reproduction, the females are full with eggs and they
carry their males on the back, as the female lays her eggs and swims, the male secrets sperms which fertilizes the
eggs immediately. The eggs are laid on long jelly-like strands which prevents them from being eaten by birds,
insects or other aquatic organisms. After 2 – 3 days the eggs emerges into tadpole which have a large head and a
tail, the young tadpoles feed on yolk from its intestines since it has no mouth or eyes.
After some few days small pits develop on the head which mark the position of eyes and mouth and external
gills produced on the sides of the head. As the tadpole grows, the hind limbs starts to develop followed by the
fore limbs and after several days the tail will cut and shrink and disappears giving a young toad or frog. The
stages of development is known as metamorphosis.

Metamorphosis scheme

Adaptations Of Amphibians To Live On Land And In Water.

• They posses legs which are used for movement on land and in water.
• The skin is constantly kept moist to prevent them drying off when on land.
• Gills are modified to lungs to live on land.
• They have webs on digits which helps in swimming.

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Differences Between Toads And Frogs

Toads Frogs
Have a dry, Warty skin Have a smooth, thin and moist skin
Hind legs are shorter Hind legs are longer
Lack teeth Have teeth
Body is brought and short Body is narrow and long
Mostly dark spotted brown under light Frogs are green in colour

Home work: give the differences between adult bony fish and adult amphibian
Bony Fish Amphibian

Case Study 3: Reptiles – Lizards

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Common Name: Lizard
Scientific Name: Agama agama

Intro: they are animals with dry skins, characterize to live in terrestrial habitats except crocodile which lives in
water and other aquatic snakes.

General Characteristics Of Reptiles

• They are vertebrates
• They are poikilothermic (cold-blooded)
• Their bodies are covered with dry scales
• They have a four chambered heart
• They carry out internal fertilization and oviparous except vipers which are ovoviviparous.
• They are terrestrial except crocodile.
• Glands are absent in the skin of reptiles.
• Reptiles are terrestrial or aquatic animals

Examples of reptiles include; Snakes, Lizards, Crocodile, Tortoise, Iguana, Komodo dragon etc

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Structure

Function Parts
The Scales: are made of keratin and impermeable to water; they prevent the lizard's skin from drying off.
The Limbs: they are use for movement.
Tail: it helps the lizard to balance its body during movement.
Eyes: use for vision.
Mouth: use for feeding.
Nostril: use for breathing and smell.
Claws: use for climbing walls.
Cloaca: use for the following to lay eggs, deposition of sperms, and excrete waste.
Ear Drum (Tympanum): use for hearing.

Mode Of Life
feeding
movement
protection
reproduction

Sexual Dimorphism: this is a phenomenon where by the male and female of a species are different from each
other in appearance.

Difference between the male and female lizard

Male Female
Larger in size Smaller in size
Brilliantly coloured to attract female for reproduction Colour is not bright
Gular fold present below the chin No gular fold
Nuchal crest present above the neck No nuchal crest

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Tail is long , blue at the base and orange in the middle Tail is brown completely
but black at the tip

Economic Importance Of Lizards

• Death lizards when dried and preserved are use for decoration.
• They are use as food either by man, cat or other organisms.
• They are use for biological control since the feed on insects.
• They create disturbing noise by running on roofs.
• They form a good link in terrestrial food chain and food webs.

Adaptations Of Lizards To Their Terrestrial Habitats

• They have dry scaly skin to prevent their bodies from drying up and excessive water loss.
• Their ability of laying eggs on sand or gravels prevent the risk of destroying the eggs before they
hatches.
• Their ability to camouflage help them to escape from predators.
• The presence of more than one vertebrae permits them to turn their neck in all directions.
• The detaching part of the tail helps them to escape from predators.
• Laying eggs with shells and large yolk enables the lizard to complete its life cycle on land.

Home Work: give the difference between lizards and toads/frogs

Lizards Toads/Frogs

Case Study 4: Aves – Birds

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Common Name: Fowl
Scientific Name: Gallus gallus

Intro: the class Aves comprises of birds, they consist of birds that can fly and those that can not fly. The class
Aves is considered the descendant of reptiles because their legs have scales, they lay eggs with shells, and their
limbs end with claws. Despite the similarities birds are different from reptiles in that they are warmed-blooded
animals.

General Characteristics
• They lay eggs.
• They carry out periodic moulting.
• Fertilization is internal but their young hatch from eggs.
• They have oil glands at the dorsal part of their tail.
• They have one occipital condyle at the neck hence can turn their head through 360 o without turning the

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body.
• They have streamlined bodies which helps to reduce friction during flight.
• They show a degree of parental care.
• Their legs are covered with scales.
• Their toes ends with claws.
• The mouth is modified in to a beak.
• Their body is covered with feathers.
• Their fore limbs are modified to wings.

Bird

Functions Of Parts
Eye: use for vision
Beak: use for feeding and nest construction.
Claws: for scattering food and defence
Wings: modified fore limbs use for flight
Internal Ear: use to hear sounds.
Feathers
Quill Feathers: also called flight feathers are present in two places on birds: the wings and tail. Provides
strength for flight.
Contour Feathers: they offer shape and colour to the bird. They are found everywhere except the beak, legs,
and feet. Contour feathers are coloured just at the ends.
Down Feathers: they have little or no shaft. They are soft and fluffy. Down feathers help insulate birds by
trapping air.
The Filoplume: are extremely small. They have a tuft of barbs at the end of the shaft. These feathers send out

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messages to the brain that provide information about the positioning of feathers for flight, insulation, and
preening.

Assignment: drawings of the different types of feathers

Function Of Feathers To Births

• Makes the body light for flight.
• Body temperature is maintain by the feathers since they act as insulators.
• The feathers makes the body waterproof.
• Provides camouflage to protect the birds from predators.
• The bright plumage colour attracts partners for mating.
• Used to provide warmness for incubation of the eggs and to prevent water from evaporating from the
eggs.

Adaptations Of Birds To Flight

• Streamline body to reduce friction between the bird and air.
• Lack pinnae whose absence reduces obstruction of air flow.
• Hollow bones which gives birds light weight and encourages flight.
• Fused skeleton which gives rigidity and reduces weight.
• Have fore limbs which are modified as wings and assist for flight.
• Lungs are adapted to ensure rapid supply of air needed for flight.
• Their high body temperature ensures rapid respiration to generate energy needed for flight.
• Have well developed muscles attached to the skeleton at the wings to help move them obligately
downward and upward.
• The sternum is keel-like for the attachment of pectoral muscles.

Economic Importance Of Birds

• They are used as food.
• They lay eggs which are good sources of proteins.
• They help in the pollination of flowers.
• They assist in seed dispersal.
• They are used for scientific research.
• Some are used as pets.
• Their feathers are used for decoration.
• Some birds produce sounds which is indication of time.
• Hunting wild birds is a sport in many countries.
• Birds destroy crops like palm trees, maize etc.
• Birds like palm birds make a lot of noise which is uncomfortable.

3.6 KINGDOM PLANTAE; lower plants (bryophytes, and Pteridophytes), Higher plants (Angiosperms and
gymnosperms).

Introduction: Plants are autotrophic eukaryotes adapted to live on land, they are sectioned into roots, stem and
leaves. Some plants produces flowers, One common adaptive trend is that all plants undergo alternation of
generation. A phenomenon in which, a sexual gamete producing (gametophyte) generation and an asexual spore
producing (sporophyte) generation, alternate in their life cycle.

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lower plants (bryophytes and Pteridophytes).

Bryophytes: Bryophytes are small plants often seen growing in clomps (together) in damp and shady soils.

Case Study: Mosses

• Mosses are small green plants growing in colonies
• Present is a stem with “leaves” spirally arranged on it.
• They grow forming green patches or soft velvet-like green carpet
• Spores germinate into a structure called protonema

Structure: The moss plant is small usually a few centimeters in height. Lacks true roots and leave, but leaf-like
structures are attached to the stalk. Present also are root-like structure called rhizoids that helps to anchor the
plant. Absorption of water and mineral salts takes place over the whole surface of the plant. The moss plant itself
is a gametophyte. To it is attach the sporangium, which depends on the moss plant and constitute the sporophyte.

Moss Plant

Life cycle of the Moss plant

The moss plant like all other plants undergo alternation of generation; a phenomenon in which the sexual gamete
producing (gametophyte) plant generation alternate with the asexual spore producing (sporophyte) generation.

• Gametophyte generation
The moss plant is a gametophyte i.e. it bare the gamete and reproduce by the sexual method – involving male
and female gamete. The male organ is known as antheridium (plural antheridia) and produces motile male
gamete (sperm). The female organ is called archegonium (plural archegonia), flask-like and produces non-motile
female gametes or eggs
The sperm are transferred from the antheridium to the archegonium with the help of water. Fertilization
(fusion of male and female gamete) occurs to form a zygote. The zygote grows into the the sporophyte which
remain attached and dependent to the gametophyte.

• Sporophyte generation
It is made of a slender stalk and a spore sac (sporangium) attached to the gametophyte. Asexual reproduction in

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the sporangium produces numerous spores by mitotic division. When spore are mature, the sporangium breaks
open and the spore are dispersed by air current. On landing on moist ground with favourable temperature, each
spore germinate into a green filamentous protonema which produces buds that grow into the gametophyte, thus
completing the cycle.

Alternation Of Generation In Moss Plants.

Economic Importance Of Mosses

• Their spores are well dispersed in the atmosphere and are usually the first plants to grow in an area.
• Once they grow they are capable of breaking rocks to form soil on which other new plants can grow
• They are used in mulching (mixing with soil) to for humus, which enriches the fertility of the soil

Higher Plants (Angiosperms And Gymnosperms)

Angiosperms
This phylum of plants is divided into two classes which are; class monocotyledonae (Monocots) and class
dicotyledonae (Dicots).
In the class Monocotyledonae we have; Maize, Bahama grass, Sugar cane, Lily flower etc.
In the class Dicotyledonae we have; Balsam plant, Okra, Beans, Ground nut plant.

Characteristics of Angiosperms
• Reproductive structure is the flower.
• Double fertilisation occurs.
• They have true roots, stems and leaves.
• They have xylem to transport water and their phloem tissue to transport food.
• They produce fruits or closed seeds.
• They are pollinated by insects and wind.

Differences between Monocots and Dicots Plants

Monocots Dicots

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external morphology of a monocot plant (Maize Plant)

Function of Parts
Fibrous Root: used to absorb water and mineral salt from the soil. Attaches the plant to the soil.
Prop Root: attaches the plant firmly to the soil.
Stem: it conducts dissolved salts, water, and food because it contains the xylem and phloem.
Leaves: produces food by photosynthesis after absorbing light because it contains chloroplast. Site for gaseous
exchange since they contain stomata. Transpiration occurs in the stomata and cuticle on the surface of the leaves
and this brings cooling to the plant.

Economic Importance of Cereals

Cereals are grains which are of the grass family but edible e.g. maize, rice, millet, barley, and wheat.
• Used as food because they contain proteins, oil and carbohydrates.
• Sold for money.
• Provide employment to farmers.
• Used in breweries to make beer e.g. barley and sorghum.
• They produce O2 from photosynthesis and use up CO2 from respiration.

External morphology of a dicotyledonous plant (Bean Plant)

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Functions Of Parts
• Roots: for anchorage, water and mineral salts absorption.
• Root Nodules: contains nitrogen fixing bacteria which converts soil nitrogen to nitrates, this nitrate is
used to make plant proteins.
• Stem: conduct water and dissolved mineral salts. Supports the plant, used for leaves attachments.
• Leaves: site for photosynthesis, transpiration and gaseous exchange.

4.0 Major and minor plant nutrients.

4.1 Major or macro-nutrient s(N, P, K, Ca, Mg):
Those nutrients required by plants in concentrations exceeding 1000 ppm (0.1%) are termed major or macro-
nutrients. The term ‘macro’ refers to the amount used (usually 50mg/ kg or more in the plant body) and essential.
• Primary nutrients: C, H, O, N, P, K are the primary elements that are essential for seed germination
and for plant growth. C, H, O are found abundantly in water and the atmosphere. N, P, K are either
obtained from soil or supplied through chemical fertilizers.
• Secondary nutrients: They are secondary because they are needed only to grow (secondary growth).
They are Ca, Mg and S.
4.2 Minor or micro-nutrients(Cu, Zn, Mo, Fe):
The elements required by plants in a concentration less than 100 ppm are termed minor or micro-nutrients. They
are also called “trace elements.” The term ‘micro’ refers to the amount used (usually less than 50mg/ kg in the
plant body) rather than the essentiality.
• Beneficial elements: They are helpful for some specific plants, not for all. e.g., Na, Si (for rice).
• Trace elements: Some micro-nutrients and other non-essential elements (but not macro-nutrients)
present in soil or in the plant body in minimal amounts. e.g., Cd, Pb. As, V, Se.
4.3 Importance of N, P, K, and deficiency symptoms in plants
Elements Deficiency Symptoms
Nitrogen N Stunted growth, leaves turn yellow, leaves are smaller
Phosphorus P Leaves and stem turns red, mottling of lower leaves, poor roots
development.
Potassium K Poor growth, leaves turns orange brown

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4.4 Sources of plant nutrients

Element Source Function Deficiency
Carbon Carbon dioxide gas, from Use in photosynthesis for No starch formation
burning fuels and food manufacturing
respiration
Iron Iron salts in soil Regulation of cell Poor growth, leave turns
activities, chlorophyll yellow
formation and cell wall
Calcium Calcium salts in the soil Cell wall formation, helps Poor root development
in nitrogen metabolism, and stunted growth
promotes root’s growth
Magnesium Magnesium salts in soil Constituent of chlorophyll Yellowing of leaves, poor
growth
Sulphur Sulphates in soil Constituent of proteins Slender cells, leaves turn
and enters into nuclear yellow.
structure

5.0 Revision of concept of balanced diet

5.1 Classes of food (concept of classification) and their importance
Classes of food sources importance Energy value
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
vitamins
minerals
water
roughage

5.2 Nutritional and calorific requirements of men, women, children, pregnant women
5.3 Definition and importance of the Reference Intake (RI) or Guideline Daily Amounts (GDA) for men, women
and children
5.4 . Estimation of the calorific value of RI or GDA
. Estimation of the calorific value of a commonly eaten local meal
. Project design and implementation
5.5 Mode of transmission, control and elimination including the life
cycles where applicable of potato blight, tomato rot, corn smut, malaria, cholera, dysentery

6.0 Auto-medication
Definition: Also known as Self-medication is the selection and use of medicines by individuals (or a member of

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the individuals' family) to treat self-recognized or self-diagnosed conditions or symptoms.

Disadvantages or consequences

Consequences of fake traditional medicines sold in transport vehicles

7.0 Define risky behaviour

7.1 Common risky behaviour to avoid
7.2 Protective behaviour to adopt

8.0 Ebola
Def: also know as Ebola haemorrhagic fever is a viral haemorrhagic fever of humans and other primates caused
by Ebola virus which is an RNA virus.

Signs and Symptoms

• Head ache
• Red eyes
• bleeding
• Sore throat
• Difficulty in breathing
• Chest pain
• Muscular aches and weakness
• Joint aches
• Diarrhoea
• Skin rash and bleeding
• Stomach pain and vomiting
• High fever which causes extremely high temperature

Life Cycle and Latent Period/Incubation Period

The length of time between exposure to the virus and the development of symptoms (incubation period) is
between 2 and 21 days, and usually between 4 and 10 days.

Transmission.
• Through direct contact with body fluids of Ebola patient. The body fluids are saliva, sweat, urine, semen,
tears etc
• Through contact with contaminated items used by patient or on patient e.g. blades, dresses, spoons
• Semen or breast milk of a person after recovery from EVD may carry the virus for several weeks to months.

Managing Ebola

9.0 Intestinal worms (Tapeworm and Ascaris)

These are parasitic worms which live in the intestine of animals, they depends on their host for food and
shelter. These worms often cause severe damages to the walls of the intestine leading to internal haemorrhage
and malnutrition.

Tapeworm

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Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platehelminthes
Class: Cestoda
Common Name: Tapeworm
Scientific Name: Taenia solium (Pork Tapeworm), Taenia saginata (Cow Tapeworm)

General Characteristics
• Their body is segmented, consisting of head, neck and the strobules body.
• The head or scolex has suckers or hooks (suckers for T. saginata, hooks and suckers for T. solium).
• Their body is covered with a thin non-ciliated permeable cuticle.
• They lack a digestive system or organ.
• They are sensitive to their host.
• They have a general tape-like body.
• They have a highly developed reproductive system.
• They measure about 2 to 5m.

Structure

life cycles

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Transmission
• By eating raw meat or meat that is not properly cooked.
• Practising poor hygienic methods

Prevention
• Meat should be properly cooked before consumption.
• Infected persons should be treated completely and they should practice proper disposal of faeces.
• Healthy persons should practice goody hygienic methods, since the larva is found in contaminated soil.
• Contaminated pork or beef should be thrown in pit toilet.

Adaptation To Their Mode Of Life

• They have hooks and suckers for attachment to the intestinal walls of its host.
• Their body is flat and long to provide a large surface area for absorption.
• It is a hermaphrodite making it not to need a sexual partner.
• It has two host; the primary and secondary host to increase survival.
• Their eggs are released in faeces to ensure continuity.
• The small scolex facilitates penetration in to the intestinal wall.
• The worm shows degeneration of unwanted organ.
• The hard shell embryo can remain for several months in soil.

Ascaris
it is an intestinal worm parasite known as soil transmitted helminth. They are round worms(Nematodes). It is
the most common human worm infection known as ascariasis, the larva and adult worm live in the small
intestine and can cause intestinal diseases.

Structure

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Life Cycles
• Eggs produced by the female are fertilised in the intestine by the male during copulation.
• The fertilised eggs are deposited in the intestine and are passed out with faeces of the host.
• If water or food contaminated with the eggs is ingested, the eggs will reach the stomach were they hatch
into small larvae.
• The larvae bore through the intestine and enter the blood stream and move into the liver, then enters the
lungs.
• In the lungs the move to the alveoli and move up the trachea, were they are then coughed to the back of
the throat and swallowed for the second time.
• They pass through the oesophagus, stomach and finally end up in the small intestine were they mature
and the cycle begins all over.

Diagram of the life cycle

Transmission
ascaris eggs are passed out in faeces of infected person. If the person defecates in the bush, garden, farm or
faeces been use as fertilizers, the eggs of ascaris deposited in soil which later matures into an infective form.
When a healthy person gets in contact with this soil, he can accidentally ingest the ascaris eggs present in soil.

Prevention
• Avoid contact with soil that maybe contaminated with human faeces.
• Wash your hands with soap and warm water before handling food.
• Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection.
• Wash, peel or cook all raw vegetables and fruits before eating, particularly those that have been grown n
soil that has been fertilized with manure.

Adaptation to their mode of life

10.0 Practicing personal hygiene

11.0 Ecology
11.1 Define interdependence and ecological balance.
11.2 Interdependence between plants and animals (Photosynthetic and Respiratory interdependence, nutritional
interdependence, energy interdependence, etc).

12.0 Insects
Intro: They comprises of organisms in the class insecta in the animal kingdom. They are found in almost all
habitats except marine habitat. Insects include; Housefly, Grasshopper, Honey bees, Cockroach, Beetle, Termites
etc.
General Characteristics Of Insects

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• The body is divided in to 3 parts; Head, Thorax and Abdomen.

• The head has jointed mouth parts, a pair of antennae, a pair of compound eyes and some simple eyes.
• Each thoracic and abdominal segments has a pair of spiracles which leads to tracheal systems for
gaseous exchange.
• They have malpighian tubules for excretion.
• Their life cycles involves development by metamorphosis.
• They have specialized mouth parts for feeding.
• Growth takes place by ecdysis and development takes place by metamorphosis.
• They have chitinous exoskeleton which protects them against bacteria invasion.
• Some insects have wings for flight.

Growth And Ecdysis (Moulting) In Insects

Growth in insects is controlled by their cuticle which is the layer that protects the exoskeleton. Newly
formed cuticles are soft and permits growth but when the cuticle reacts with air or water for an hour, it hardens
and prevent growth. In other for an insect to grow, the old cuticle has to be shredded in a periodical process
called ecdysis or moulting. For moulting to occur, a hormone called ecdysone or moulting hormone is secreted
by glands in the thorax, this hormone brings about digestion of parts of the cuticle which then spits open for the
insect to emerge with a soft exoskeleton.
A brief increase in size of the insect’s body take place, of which last an hour. The newly formed
exoskeleton’s part then reacts with air and hardens making an end to growth. Growth in insects is controlled by
Two Hormones, Ecdysone brings about moulting and juvenile hormone prevents or stops moulting.
NB: Ecdysis takes place only in the larval and pupal stage of the insect and not in the adult stage.

Reasons Why Insects Have Been Successful

• They have variable mouth parts specialize to their feeding habits since they have a variety of food.
• There exist a variety of insects species.
• Their small sizes enables them to inhabit a wide range of habitats.
• Some show specialization in the way the behave.
• Some possess wings which enables them to fly easily escaping from enemy.
• They have chitinous waterproof exoskeleton which protects them against desiccation and for muscle
attachment.
• They have a very efficient respiratory system made up of spiracles and tracheal which supplies oxygen
directly to the tissues for efficient gaseous exchange.
• They lay large quantity of eggs to increase their chances of survival.
• They is usually no competition between the adult and larva for food.
• Their appendages are segmented which makes them adjust to different habitats.
• Their ability to metamorphose enables them to survive in completely different environments.

12.1 House Fly

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Common Name: Housefly
Scientific Name: Musca domestica

Habitat

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They are found most especially in warm, moist and dirty places such as decaying matter and faeces. The
housefly is a household pest found in all parts of the world.

Structure

Life Cycle
the housefly having separate sexes, the male and female fly mate. The female lays 2 to 6 batches of 100 to 150
eggs on fresh faeces or any decaying material. On favorable conditions the eggs hatches after 24 hours to larvae,
the larvae which are mobile feeds on the decaying matter and later on develops into pupa. The pupa is not
mobile, it darkens and hardens, development takes place inside its shell forming an adult fly. After days the
puparium breaks open liberating the adult fly.

Economic Importance
• By promoting the development of pus on wound they prevent rapid healing of of the wound.
• Housefly is a vector of many diseases like typhoid, diarrhoea and dysentery i.e they transmit the germ.
• They help in the detection of death bodies or decaying matter since they are always present.

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• They are pests to man’s life.

• Their larvae help to accelerate decay.
• They contaminate food and water by feeding or landing on them.
• They are use for biological research.

12.2 Social Insects

These are insects living in a well defined community (colony) in which there is division of labour and
specialization. Examples of social insects include; Termites, Bees, wasps and ants.

12.3 Social organization as an example of inter-specific interdependence

Social insects are organized into castes of which each caste member has a particular function to perform
within their community for the survival of the colony.

12.4 Honey Bee Colony (organization of the cast structure and division of labour)
In the honey bees colony there are three different caste members which includes; workers, drones and queen.
The Queen
The queen is the largest member of the caste and only one if found per colony. The queen is the only fertile
female of the colony and has a longer abdomen for storing eggs. The main function of the queen is to lay eggs
which gives rise to new members of the caste. The queen lacks a pollen collecting basket. The queen has a sperm
sack were sperms are stored during nuptial flight. It secrets a chemical which helps maintain the colony together.

The Drones
They are the second largest of the colony and are fertile males whose man function is to fertilise the queen.
They have similar structures to the workers but lack pollen collecting baskets and stings. It has a short proboscis
when compared to workers. They are stung and driven away by workers when the is food shortage.

The Workers
They are the smallest members of the caste, sterile, have stings and posses pollen collecting baskets. Their
main role is to feed and protect the entire colony. Workers have well developed wings and their small sizes
enables them to fly and visit practically every particular area in search for food. They have the largest population
of the colony. They equally build honey combs, clean the comb, taking care of the queen’s eggs and larvae, and
defend the colony from enemies and intruders.

Adaptations of workers to their functions

12.5 Termite colony

In the termites colony there are four different caste members of the colony which includes; workers, soldiers,
kind and queen.
The Workers

The Soldiers

The King

The Queen

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12.6 Economic Importance of Insects

• They speed up decay of organic substances.
• Some are vectors of diseases.
• Some are pest to man, plants and domesticated animals e.g. mosquito, housefly, locust etc.
• their activities destroys our stored food and furniture.
• Some are parasitic to man and animals e.g. lice, fleas and ticks.
• Some are used for genetic studies e.g fruit fly (drosophila melanogaster).
• They take part in fresh water and terrestrial food web.
• Some are used as food e.g. termites, locust, grasshopper, crickets.
• They are important scavengers removing organic waste.
• They help in the pollination of flowers.
• Some produce useful substances which are medicinal e.g. honey.

13.0 Fertilizers
Substances (such as manure or a special chemical) that are added to soil to help the growth of plants.
13.1 . Organic fertilizers
13.2 Inorganic fertilizers
13.3 Methods of Fertilizer application: (broadcasting drilling, ringing etc.)
13.4 Impact of fertilizers on the soil:
13.5 Production (Composting for organic and Industry for nonorganic)

The End

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