1.

Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Resources

1. Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Resources

The two major sources of energy is classified as: (i) Conventional Sources (ii) Non-Conventional
Sources.
1.1 Conventional Energy Resources
The conventional energy sources are also known as the non-renewable energy sources, which are
obtained from static stores of energy that remain underground unless released by human interaction It
is present in a limited quantity and are being consumed by human beings for many years now. These
energy sources are the decaying matters, which take over hundreds of years to form, for example, coal,
petroleum, etc. So, if they are depleted once, they can never be generated at a speed or pace, which could
sustain their rate of consumption. Such energy may also called as finite energy or Brown Energy.
The conventional energy sources can be further classified into two types, namely, the commercial energy
sources and the non-commercial energy sources.
Commercial energy sources are those energy sources for which the consumer needs to pay the price for
the consumption. For example coal, petroleum, oil, natural gas, and electricity.
Non-commercial energy sources are those energy sources that are freely available, and the consumers
don't need to pay the price for their consumption. A few examples are firewood, straw, dried dung, etc.
Firewood is obtained from the trees and plants, dung is obtained from animal wastes and straw is
obtained from the crop plants like wheat crops, rice crops etc.
Coal: Coal is the most important source of energy. The formation of coal takes place when dead plant
matter decays into peat (accumulation of partially decayed organic matter or vegetation) which is
converted into coal by pressure and heat over millions of years. Coal is mostly composed of Carbon. It
has variable amounts of other elements also, like Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, and Oxygen.
Natural Gas and Oil: Natural gas is one of the most crucial sources of energy in the world whereas oil
is considered to be liquid gold. Oil is formed from a large number of tiny animals and plants, which
when die, get trapped at the bottom of the sea under multiple layers of sand and mud, and get exposed
to heat and pressure. It is widely used in trains, ships, automobiles, and planes. Natural gas is formed
when several layers of decomposing animal and plant matter are exposed to intense pressure and heat
over millions of years under the surface of Earth. It is used for various purposes, including cooking,
heating, and electricity generation.
Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy, in which there is a flow of electrons (electric charge) in one
direction. Electricity can be produced using fossil fuels (coal and petroleum), nuclear power, and
renewable energy (solar, wind, or hydropower). As a common source of energy, electricity is commonly
used for commercial and domestic purposes. The electricity is primarily utilized in electrical appliances,
including refrigerators, air conditioners (AC), TV, and washing machines.
1.2 Non-conventional Energy Resources
The non-conventional energy sources are also known as the renewable energy sources, which are
obtained from natural and continuous flows of energy occurring in the environment. It refers to those
energy sources, which are renewed by natural processes, that too continuously. It can not be exhausted
and can be generated at a constant rate for their use over and over again. Furthermore, these energy
sources do not pollute the environment and natural surroundings and require less expenditure. This type

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1.3 Comparison of Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Resources
of energy is already passing through the environment as a current or flow, irrespective of being a device
to intercept and harness this power. Such energy may also called as Green Energy or Sustainable Energy.
A few examples are wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, and biomass energy.
Solar Energy: Solar energy is the energy produced or generated by sunlight. It is formed due to nuclear
fission and fusion inside the Sun. This energy travels in the form of radiation (electromagnetic waves).
Based on the form of energy that needs to be generated, the photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight.
Solar energy is present in abundance although it can be only trapped during the daytime, during the
hours of intense rays. It is widely utilized for lighting, heating, distillation of water, and cooking
purposes.
Wind Energy: Wind energy is the energy generated or produced by harnessing the power of the wind.
It has been used for many years for grinding grains in mills. Although, in recent years, it has been used
to generate electricity by harnessing the energy of winds by turbines attached to substantial capacity
generators. It is also utilized in the operation of water pumps for irrigation purposes. Usually, wind
farms are located near coastal areas or mountains with the high wind flow. In India, many desert regions,
like the outskirts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, have built substantial wind farms.
Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is the energy generated by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea. Tides are
nothing but the rise and fall of the water level in the ocean shores, which are created in the ocean due to
the rotation of the Earth and the attraction between Earth and Moon. The narrow dams are built near the
end of tides, where the turbines help to capture the energy during high tides and low tides. India has vast
tidal mill farms at the Gulf of Kachchh, while other countries include Russia and France. As a non-
conventional source of energy, tidal energy is still left to be tapped due to the lack of cost-effective
technology.
Geothermal Energy: The heat acquired within the earth has been used for generating the geothermal
energy. In many areas, hot springs and volcanoes are witnessed as part of geothermal energy. New
Zealand, Iceland, Central America, and the USA have the largest geothermal power plants. India also
has geothermal power plants located in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh.
Biomass Energy: Biomass energy is extracted from biological materials, which are formed from living
organisms and plants. In the biomass power plant, biomass is burnt into a combustor in order to produce
heat, which will be further converted into mechanical energy in order to generate electricity. Biomass
can also be converted into other forms of energy like fuels used in transportation, biodiesel or methane
gas depending on the requirements.
Hydro Energy: This energy is generally available in flowing rivers. A dam is formed to store the water
of the river at some convenient location. This stored water contains the potential energy which can be
converted into kinetic energy by giving a narrow passage to the flow. Thus we get a water stream with
high-speed that drives large turbines to produce electricity.
1.3 Comparison of Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Resources
Conventional Energy Resources Non-conventional Energy Resources
(Non-renewable Energy Sources) (Renewable Energy Sources)
Example: Fossil Fuel, CNG, Coal, Oil, Natural Example: Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Bio
gas Energy, Hydro Energy, Tidal Energy, Ocean
Energy

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 2. Structure of Electric Supply Systems

Non-renewable Renewable
Available in limited quantity Freely available in nature
Static store of energy Continuous flow of energy
Responsible for the cause of pollution Not responsible for the cause of pollution
Efficiency is low Efficiency is high
Low production expenses High production expenses
Not eco-friendly Eco-friendly in nature
Location for use is general and invariant Location for use is site- and society-specific
Steady energy source Fluctuating energy source
Available for both domestic and industrial uses Majorly available for domestic purposes

2. Structure of Electric Supply Systems

Electricity is generated at central power stations and then transferred to loads (i.e. Domestic,
Commercial and Industrial) through the transmission and distribution system. A combination of all these
systems is collectively known as an Electric Power System.
A power system is a combination of central generating stations, electric power transmission system,
Distribution and utilization system. Electric power is produced at the power stations which are located
at favourable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is then transmitted over large distances
to load centres with the help of conductors known as transmission lines. Finally, it is distributed to a
large number of small and big consumers through a distribution network. The layout of a typical AC
power supply scheme in a power system is shown in the below figure by a single line diagram.
2.1 Generating Station
Energy is generated (transformed from one to another) at the generating stations. Generating stations
are of different type, for example, thermal, hydel, solar power, wind power, nuclear. The generated
electricity is stepped up through the transformer and then transferred over transmission lines to the load
centres.
At generating station, electric power is produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual
generation voltage is 11 kV. For economy in the transmission of electric power, the generation voltage
(i.e., 11 kV) is stepped upto 132 kV at the generating station with the help of 3-phase transformers. The
transmission of electric power at high voltages has several advantages including the saving of conductor
material and high transmission efficiency.
2.2 Primary Transmission
The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to the outskirts of the
city. This forms the primary transmission.
2.3 Secondary Transmission
The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station (RS) which usually lies at the outskirts
of the city. At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step-down transformers. From

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2.4 Primary Distribution
this station, electric power is transmitted at
33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system
to various sub-stations (SS) located in the
city. This forms the secondary
transmission.
2.4 Primary Distribution
The secondary transmission line terminates
at the sub-station (SS) where voltage is
reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-
wire. The 11 kV lines run along the
important road sides of the city. This forms
the primary distribution.
2.5 Secondary Distribution
In the last stage in a Power System, the
electric power from primary distribution
line (11kV) is delivered to distribution sub-
stations (DS) or Distribution Transformer.
These sub-stations are located near the
consumer’s localities and step down the
voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for
secondary distribution. The voltage
between any two phases is 400 V and
between any phase and neutral is 230 V.
The single-phase residential lighting load is
connected between any one phase and
neutral, whereas 3-phase, 400 V motor load
is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
The secondary distribution system may
consists of feeders, distributors and service
mains.

3. Power Generation
3.1 Hydro Power Generation
Hydro electric power stations are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be built conveniently
and large water reservoirs can be obtained. In a hydro electric power station, water head is created by
constructing a dam across a river or lake. From the dam, water is led to a water turbine. The potential
energy of the stored water is converted into kinetic energy by first passing it through the penstock pipe.
The kinetic energy of the water is then converted into mechanical energy in a hydraulic turbine. The
turbine is coupled to the electric generator. The mechanical energy available at the shaft of the turbine
is converted into electrical energy by means of the generator.
Block diagram of hydro power plant shows that, the measured synchronous speed is fed back to compare
with the reference speed signal. The speed deviation produced by comparing reference and synchronous
generator speed is used as an input for PID based speed governor. The governor produces the control
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 3. Power Generation
signal, causing a change in the gate opening by servomotor. The turbine then produces the torque,
driving the synchronous machine generating the electrical power output. The speed governor
continuously checks speed deviation to take action. The function of excitation system is to maintain the
generator terminal output voltage at constant level.

3.2 Nuclear Power Generation

In a nuclear reactor, firstly we have a concrete chamber inside the chamber we have a steel vessel. It is
inside this steel vessel where the nuclear reaction actually takes place. Then we have the fuel rods inside
it. These rods are the fissionable materials used for the reactions. Generally we use uranium-235 (235U),
plutonium, thorium etc. In between the fuel rods we have the control rods. They are generally made of
cadmium. They are used to control the nuclear reactions.
In a nuclear power plant, heat energy is generated by a nuclear reaction called as nuclear fission. When
the reaction takes place a large amount of heat is produced. Thus heat is transferred to the heat exchanger
by means of a pump. Inside the heat exchanger we have liquid sodium as coolant. The heat exchanger
is again connected to the steel vessel.

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3.3 Solar Power Generation
The high pressure steam from the heat exchanger is passed on to the turbine. Turbine is a mechanical
component which is coupled to the generator. When the high pressure steam reaches the turbine, the
turbine rotates due to the high pressure. Due to the rotation of the turbine the generator will produce
electricity.
The steam from the turbine should be converted back into water, so that it can be reused for the reaction.
For that the steam from the turbine is passed on to a condenser. The condenser converts the steam into
water. Then by means of a pump the water is pumped back into the heat exchanger.
3.3 Solar Power Generation
Solar energy is the cleanest renewable energy source and it can be used to meet the electricity
requirements such as lighting systems, water heating for domestic, commercial and industrial
applications, etc. The essential component in solar energy system is photovoltaic or solar cell, by which
sunlight energy is converted into electrical energy by the principle of the photoelectric effect. This
electrical energy is stored in the battery using a charge controller circuit. The charge controller directs
the voltage and currents from solar panel and also protects the battery from over and under charging
conditions. The DC power from battery is supplied to DC loads and/or converted to AC using an inverter
to power the AC loads. By this way solar system is installed in homes and industries to power up the
loads.

3.4 Wind Power Generation

The main components of a wind energy system are shown in Figure. The rotor blades are connected to
the turbine rotor, which convert kinetic energy in wind to rotational mechanical energy on a low-speed
shaft (10 to 20 rpm). The low-speed shaft connects to the gearbox, which has a set of gears that increase
the output speed of the shaft to approximately 1,000 rpm or 1,500 rpm for an output frequency of 50
Hz. For this reason, the shaft from the gearbox is called the high-speed shaft. The high-speed shaft is
then connected to the generator, which converts the rotational mechanical energy to electrical energy.

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 4. DC Circuits
The output of generator is either directly connected to the grid or through rotor side converter and grid
side converter. A step-up transformer is also used to step up the generated voltage before connecting the
wind energy to the grid.

The turbine controller takes data from a wind sensor to control the orientation of turbine blade and
turbine face, to optimize the energy extracted, and to prevent over-speeding in the event of high winds.
The converter controller controls the rotor speed, power, voltage, current, and frequency.

4. DC Circuits
There are two types of current may flow in an electric circuit – direct current (DC) and alternating
current (AC). The circuit that deals with direct current or DC, is referred to as the DC circuit, and the
circuit that deals with alternating current or AC, is referred to as an AC Circuit. This section will deal
with the discussion of DC circuits only. The components of the electrical DC circuit are mainly resistive,
whereas components of the AC circuit may be reactive as well as resistive.
A simple DC circuit is shown in the figure which
contains a DC source (battery), a load lamp, a switch,
connecting wires, and measuring instruments like
ammeter and voltmeter. The load resistor can be
connected in series, parallel or series-parallel
combination as per requirement.
Any electrical circuit can be categorized into three
different groups – series, parallel, and series-parallel. Therefore, in case of DC circuit, it can also be
divided into three groups, such as series DC circuit, parallel DC circuit, and series and parallel circuit.
4.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that potential difference or voltage between the two ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided that its temperature and other physical
parameters remain unchanged. That is,
𝑉∝𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
Where, 𝑅 is the proportionality constant and is known as resistance of the conductor.
Relationship between the Voltage (in volt), Current (in Ampere) and Resistance (in Ω) forms the basis
of Ohms Law. It can be applied both for AC and DC circuits.
If we know the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage, current, and resistance) in this circuit,
we can use Ohm’s Law to determine the third.
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4.2 DC Series Circuit
To find the Voltage (𝑉): 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
To find the Current (𝐼): 𝐼 = 𝑉 ⁄𝑅
To find the Resistance (𝑅): 𝑅 = 𝑉 ⁄𝐼
4.1.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
i) Ohms’ law does not hold good for non-ohmic conductors or semiconductors such as silicon
carbide, Germanium etc.
ii) Not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes, transistors etc., as they allow the
current to flow in one direction only.
iii) Not applicable for non-linear elements like thyristor, where parameters like resistance,
inductance, capacitance etc. changes for different values of voltage and current.
4.2 DC Series Circuit
When all the resistive components of a DC circuit are connected end to end to form a single path for
current flow, then the circuit is referred to as a series DC circuit. The manner of connecting components
end to end is known as a series connection. In a DC series circuit, same current flows through all parts
of the electrical circuit.
Suppose three resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 are connected in series across a voltage source of 𝑉 (in volts) as
shown in figure. Let current 𝐼 (in Ampere) flows through the series circuit. Now according to Ohm’s
law,
The voltage drop across resistor 𝑅1 , 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
The voltage drop across resistor 𝑅2 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2
The voltage drop across resistor 𝑅3 , 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3
The voltage drop across the whole series DC circuit,
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
𝑉
⇒ = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝐼
According to Ohm’s law, the equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑒𝑞 ) of an electrical circuit is 𝑉 ⁄𝐼 . Therefore,
𝑉
= 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝐼
From the above expression it can be concluded, that when a number of resistors are connected in series,
the equivalent resistance of the series combination is the arithmetic sum of their individual resistances.
From the above discussion, the following points come out:
 When a number of electrical components are connected in series, the same current flows through
all the components of the circuit.
 The applied voltage across a series circuit is equal to the sum total of voltage drops across each
component.
 The voltage drop across individual components is directly proportional to its resistance value.
4.3 DC Parallel Circuit

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 4. DC Circuits
When two or more electrical components (or resistors) are connected in a way that one end of each
component is connected to one common point and the other end is connected to another common point,
then the electrical components are said to be connected in parallel, and such electrical DC circuit is
referred as a DC parallel circuit.
In this circuit, every component will have the same voltage drop across them, and it will be exactly equal
to the voltage which occurs between the two common points. Also, in a parallel DC circuit, the current
has several parallel paths through the parallel connected components, so the circuit current will be
divided into as many currents as the number of paths.
Suppose three resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 are connected in parallel across a voltage source of 𝑉 (volt) as
shown in the figure. Let 𝐼 (Ampere) be the total circuit current which is divided into current 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and
𝐼3 flowing through 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 respectively. Now according to Ohm’s law,
The current flow through resistor 𝑅1 , 𝐼1 = 𝑉 ⁄𝑅1
The current flow through resistor 𝑅2 , 𝐼2 = 𝑉 ⁄𝑅2
The current flow through resistor 𝑅3 , 𝐼3 = 𝑉 ⁄𝑅3
The total current drawn by the parallel DC circuit,
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

As per Ohm’s law, 𝐼 = 𝑉 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑞 . Let 𝑅𝑒𝑞 be the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit, then
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐼= = + + = 𝑉[ + + ]⇒ = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is
equal to the arithmetic sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.
From the above discussion of the parallel DC circuit, we can come to the following conclusion:
 Voltage drops are same across all the components connected in parallel.
 Current through individual components connected in parallel is inversely proportional to their
resistances.
 Total circuit current is the arithmetic sum of the currents passing through individual components
connected in parallel.
4.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
A German physicist, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) developed a pair of rules or laws. These two
rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoff’s Laws with one law deals with the currents flowing in an
electric circuit, Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) while the other law deals with the voltages across
various elements of the circuit, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

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4.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
4.4.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL states that the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a junction
in a circuit is zero, i.e. ∑ 𝐼𝑘 = 0.
In the figure, three currents entering the node, 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 are all taken as
positive in value and two currents leaving the node, 𝐼4 and 𝐼5 are taken as
negative in value. Then, according to KCL,
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
In other words, the total current entering at a junction or node is exactly
equal to the current leaving the node, i.e. 𝐼𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐼𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 .
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼5
The term Node, in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more current
carrying paths. Also, for current to flow either in or out of a node, a closed path circuit must exist.
Example: The various currents are given in milliamps, mA. What is the unknown current?

Ans: (a) 𝑖 = 4 mA (b) 𝑖5 = −6 mA (c) 𝑖3 = 0 mA (d) 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖6 = 𝑖3 + 𝑖5 + 𝑖6

4.4.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed loop in
the circuit is zero, i.e. ∑ 𝑉𝑘 = 0. In other words, the sum of source voltages is equal to the sum of voltage
drops in a closed circuit.
While analysing any circuit using Kirchhoff’s laws, a number of definitions and terminologies are used
to describe the parts of circuit being analysed such as: node, path, branch, loop and mesh. These terms
are used frequently in circuit analysis, so it is important to understand them.
Circuit – it is a closed conducting path in which an electrical current flow.
Path – it is a single line of connecting elements or sources.
Liner Circuit – it is a circuit whose parameters are constant i.e. they do not change with voltage or
current.
Non-linear Circuit – it is a circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current.
Bilateral Circuit – a bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either
direction. The resistor is bilateral; because it can be made to perform its function equally well in either
direction.
Unilateral Circuit – it is the circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its
operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in both
directions.

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 4. DC Circuits
Node – Node or junction is a point in the
circuit where two or more electrical
elements are connected together giving
a connection point between two or more
branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
Branch – Branch is a single or group of
components such as resistors or sources
which are connected between two
nodes.
Loop –It is a closed path in a circuit that
follows the sequence of branches in such
a way that no element or node is encountered more than once.
Determination of Voltage Sign:
 A rise in voltage should be given +ve sign and a fall in voltage should be given −ve sign.
 If we go from −ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal, then there is a rise in potential, hence
this voltage should be given a + ve sign.
 If we go from +ve terminal of a battery to its −ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence
this voltage should be given a −ve sign.
 The sign of the battery EMF is independent of the direction of current through that branch.
 If we go through a resistor in same direction as direction of current, then there is a fall in
potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve.
 If we go through a resistor in the direction opposite to direction of current, then there is a rise in
potential. Hence, this voltage rise should be taken −ve.

Example 2.14: Find the current flowing in the

40Ω Resistor, 𝑅3 .
Solution: The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A
and B) and 3 loops.
Using KCL, the equations are given as:
At node A: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
At node B: 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
Using KVL, the equations are given as:
Loop 1: 10 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0 ⇒ 10 = 10𝐼1 + 40𝐼3
Loop 2: 20 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0 ⇒ 20 = 20𝐼2 + 40𝐼3
Loop 3: 10 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 20 = 0 ⇒ 10 = 10𝐼1 − 20𝐼2

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4.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
As 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 , we can rewrite the equations for Loop 1 and Loop 2 as:
Loop 1: 10 = 10𝐼1 + 40(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) = 50𝐼1 + 40𝐼2
Loop 2: 20 = 20𝐼2 + 40(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) = 40𝐼1 + 60𝐼2
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us the values of 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 .
Substitution of 𝐼1 in terms of 𝐼2 gives us the value of 𝐼1 as -0.143 A
Substitution of 𝐼2 in terms of 𝐼1 gives us the value of 𝐼2 as +0.429 A
As 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ,
The current flowing in resistor 𝑅3 is given as: 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = −0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 A
The voltage across the resistor 𝑅3 is given as: 𝐼3 × 𝑅3 = 0.286 × 40 = 11.44 V
The negative sign for 𝐼1 means that the direction of current flow
initially chosen was wrong, but it is still valid. In fact, the 20V
battery is charging the 10V battery.
Example: Find the voltage, 𝑉𝑅3 across resistor 𝑅3 .

Example 2.16: Write down KVL and KCL equation for

following figures.

Example: Fnd 𝐼 in the circuit of following figure. Example: Find the current flowing through 10Ω
[Ans: 2.88 A] resistance in the figure given below. [Ans: 0.6 A]

2 2
I1

12V 6V

10 3

24V
I2

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 4. DC Circuits
Example: Determine 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝑉𝐴𝐵 for Example: For the circuit shown, determine E such that the
the circuit shown. [Ans: 𝐼1 = 0.5 A, 𝐼2 = current through 10Ω resistor is zero. [Ans: 15 V]
0.5 A, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 0.5 V]

Example: Find (i) the current at node A and its Example: Determine I1, I2 and VAB for the network
direction (ii) all the branch currents for the shown using Kirchhoff’s laws. [Ans: 𝐼1 = 1 A, 𝐼2 =
network shown. [Ans: 𝐼𝐴 = 40 A, towards node 1 A, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2 V]
A, 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 19.5 A, 𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 10.5 A, 𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 19.5 A,
𝐼𝐸𝐷 = 40.5 A, 𝐼𝐹𝐸 = 5.5 A, 𝐼𝐹𝐴 = 20.5 A]

Example: What is the voltage 𝑉𝑆 across the Example: For the circuit shown in figure, find 𝑉𝐶𝐸
open switch in the circuit shown? [Ans: 30 V] and 𝑉𝐴𝐺 . [Ans: 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = −5V and 𝑉𝐴𝐺 = 30V]

Example: Determine the currents in the unbalanced Example: Find the current in resistance 𝑅
bridge circuit of figure shown. Also, determine the p.d. shown in figure. [Ans: 2.056 A]
across BD and the resistance from B to D.
[Ans: 𝐼𝐷𝐴 = 30⁄91 A,
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 29⁄91 A,
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 17⁄91 A,
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 18⁄91 A,
𝑉𝐵𝐷 = − 88⁄91 V,
𝑅𝐵𝐷 = 1.87 Ω]

13
Dr. Dipesh Kumar, Asst. Prof., EEE, BMSCE
4.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Example: Two batteries A and B are connected in parallel and load of 10 Ω is connected across their
terminals. A has an e.m.f. of 12 V and an internal resistance of 2 Ω; B has an e.m.f. of 8 V and an
internal resistance of 1 Ω. Use branch current method to determine the values and directions of
currents flowing in each of the batteries and in the external resistance. Also determine the potential
difference across the external resistance. [Ans: 𝐼𝐴 = 1.625 A, 𝐼𝐵 = −0.75 A, 𝐼10 = 0.875 A and
𝑉10 = 8.75 V]
Example: In the circuit shown,
determine (a) the current supplied by
the 100V source and (b) the voltage
across the 6Ω resistance. [Ans: 10 A,
5 V]

Example: Find the currents in all the resistors by Example: In the network shown, calculate: (i)
in the circuit shown in figure. Also calculate the currents flowing in each branch using Kirchhoff’s
power consumed. [Ans: 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 0.715 A, 𝐼𝐶𝐵 = laws (ii) Current by Battery (iii) Resistance seen
2.857 A, 𝐼𝐵𝑂 = 3.572 A, Power consumed by by battery. [Ans: 𝐼𝐸 = 16.21 A, 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 10.54 A, 𝐼𝐴𝐷
resistors = 92.86 W and Power supplied by = 5.67 A, 𝑖𝐵𝐶 = 8.91 A, 𝑖𝐷𝐶 = A]
sources = 92.86 W]

14
Dr. Dipesh Kumar, Asst. Prof., EEE, BMSCE