SLM513: Soil Genesis & Classification 2023/2024 Session

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
This is a process whereby soils are grouped on the basis of their properties. These properties
include among others, the epipedon and diagnostic subsurface horizon, the nature of the profile,
the soil texture, structure, mineralogy and the nature of the climate including rainfall,
temperature and relief.

Why are soils classified?

i. To organize our knowledge about soils
ii. To deal with complexity
iii. To develop principles and guidelines for proper use and management:
a. to predict behaviour
b. to identify best uses
c. to estimate productivity
d. to identify potential problems
iv. To facilitate easier transfer of information and technology
v. To provide a basis for research and experimentation
vi. To understand relationships among individuals of the population
vii. To provide an organizational chart or map of the world of soils as we perceive it - the soil
survey

Basic principles of classification

i. Classification is the grouping of objects into classes or groups on the basis of similarities or
differences in their common properties.
ii. Individual objects make up a population.
iii. A class is a group of individual or other classes similar in selected properties and
distinguished from all other classes of the same population by differences in these
properties.
iv. In any system of classification, those groups about which the greatest number of things can
be stated for the chosen objective are generally the best and the most useful classification
groupings.

What is different about soils?

There is really no soil ‘individual’ as a self-standing object. The emphasis in soil is on defining
mappable classes rather than on optimal classification of individuals. There is no true
inheritance or genetics as it is understood in biology. The major difficulty in defining soil
individuals or basic entities follows from the existence of soil as a continuum. The term pedon is
now used as a collective noun for a small basic soil unit that can be regarded as the basic soil
entities or soil individual. A pedon consists of a small volume of soil which includes the full
solum and the upper part of the unconsolidated parent material. It is usually less than two metres
in depth, and has a lateral cross-section that is roughly circular or hexagonal in shape and
between 1 m2 and 10 m2 in area.
Criteria for soil classification
Different classification system uses different criteria. Commonly, the criteria used to classify
soils are those that can be observed or determined rapidly by simple tests on the field. The
following criteria are used for differentiating soils at the level of soil type:

Page 1 of 6
SLM513: Soil Genesis & Classification 2023/2024 Session

i. Number of horizons in the profile

ii. Colour of various horizons with special emphasis on the surface one or two
iii. Texture of each horizon
iv. Structure of the horizons
v. Relative arrangement of horizons
vi. Thickness of horizons
vii. Thickness of the true soil (profile)
viii. Chemical composition of horizons
ix. Character of the soil material (alluvial, loess, sand)
x. Geology of the soil material (parent material)
In addition to the above the USDA make use of:
i. Soil moisture regimes
ii. Soil temperature regimes

Major ways of classifying soils

There are various ways to organize a soil classification. A major distinction is between natural
and technical approaches:
Natural soil classifications group soils by some intrinsic properties, behaviour or genesis of the
soils, without making reference to use. Examples of natural classification systems are:
i. USDA Soil Taxonomy
ii. FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System
iii. FAO/World Reference Base for Soil Classification (WRB) system

Technical soil classifications group soils by some properties or functions that relate directly to a
proposed use(s). Examples of technical classification include:
i. Suitability classes (FAO Framework for Land Evaluation)
ii. Land Use Capability (USDA LCC)
iii. Fertility Capability Classification (FCC)

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
There are two major and widely used soil classification systems in Nigeria, namely: the UDSA
Soil Taxonomy and the World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources Systems. These two
systems are designed for universal application. They classify any soil, and serve to correlate
experiences on similar soils all over the world.

A. USDA System of Soil Classification (Soil Taxonomy)

This is a multi-categorical and hierarchical system. It comprises a hierarchy of 6 levels called
Taxa. Thus, the classes in the highest categories are divided into smaller classes in the lower one
and continue to the lowest level, which is the soil series. Soil Series is the most detailed category
in Soil Taxonomy.

Page 2 of 6
SLM513: Soil Genesis & Classification 2023/2024 Session

STRUCTURE OF SOILTAXONOMY

SOIL ORDERS
Each of the world’s soils is assigned to one of the 12 orders, largely on the basis of soil
properties that reflect a major course of development. A general knowledge of the 12 Soil Orders
is essential for understanding the nature and function of soils in different environments.
The formative name for each Order is usually a two or three letter prefix. The prefixes are:

Soil Order Formative Element Derivation

Alfisols alf Nonsense
Andisols and. Jap. ando, black soil
Aridisol id L. aridus, dry
Entisols ent Nonsense
Gelisols el Gk. gelid, very cold
Histosols ist Gk. histos, tissue
Inceptisols ept L. inceptum, beginning
Mollisols oll L. mollis, soft
Oxisols ox Fr. oxide, oxide
Spodosols od Gk. spodos, wood ash
Ultisols ult L. ultimus, last
Vertisols ert L. verto, turn
The most common Soil Orders in Nigeria are Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Oxisols and
Ultisols.
1. Alfisols: Argillic, nitric, or kandic horizon; high to medium base saturation
2. Andisols: From volcanic ejecta, dominated by allophane or Al-humic complexes
3. Aridisols: Dry soil, ochric epipedon, sometimes argillic or nitric horizon
4. Entisols: Little profile development, ochric epipedon common
5. Gelisols: Permafrost, often with cryoturbation (frost churning)

Page 3 of 6
SLM513: Soil Genesis & Classification 2023/2024 Session

6. Histosols: Peat or bog; > 20 % organic matter

7. Inceptisols: Embryonic soils with few diagnostic features, ochric or umbric epipedon,
cambic horizon
8. Mollisols: Mollic epipedon, high base saturation, dark soils, some with argillic or nitric
horizons
9. Oxisols: Oxic horizon, no argillic horizons, highly weathered
10. Spodosols: Spodic horizon commonly with Fe, Al oxides and humus accumulation
11. Ultisols: Argillic or kandic horizons, low base saturation
12. Vertisols: High swelling clays; deep cracks when soil dry
SUB-ORDER
The sub-orders are the next categories to the soil order. At this level, soils are differentiated from
each other within the order on basis of moisture and temperature regimes, diagnostic surface
horizon (epipedon), parent material, drainage and vegetation effects.
Formative elements used at the Suborder level include:
UD = udic moisture regime;
UST = ustic moisture regime;
XER = Xeric moisture regime;
AQU = aquic moisture regime,
HUM = presence of humus etc.
Example, Ustalf = Alfisol, UST = Ustic moisture regime; Ustalf = Alfisol under ustic moisture
regime.

GREAT-GROUP
Sub-orders are divided into Great-groups on the basis of close similarities in the kind,
arrangement and degree of expression of horizon, close similarities in soil temperature and
moisture regimes, similarities in the base status regime. Formative element used at the level of
Great Group includes:
Plinth = Plinthite,
Cry = cryic temperature regime,
Dur = Duripan,
Natr = Natric horizon, etc.
Example, Plinthaqualf = PLINTH + AQU + ALF = Plinthite + Aquic moisture regime + Alfisol.
Thus, Plinthaqualf is an Alfisol under aquic moisture regime and has a plinthic horizon.

SUB-GROUP
Sub-groups are sub-division of the Great-group. Criteria for differentiating the Sub-groups are:
i. presence of diagnostic horizons or features
ii. properties that are subordinate to those used in differentiating Great-groups
iii. properties that tend towards other Great-groups

The Sub-group names are derived from the Great-group names to which an adjective is attached
indicating the major property of the sub group; e.g. Calcic Rhodexeralf, meaning a red coloured
Alfisol having a calcic horizon under xeric moisture regime.

FAMILY
This is a user-oriented category. About 8,000 families have been identified in Soil Taxonomy.
Thus, the criteria for separation are soil properties that influence the response of soil to
management and manipulation. These properties include:
i. particle size distribution
ii. mineralogy of the horizon
Page 4 of 6
 SLM513: Soil Genesis & Classification 2023/2024 Session

iii. temperature regime

iv. the thickness of the soil penetrable by plant root
v. cation exchange capacity
vi. presence of cutans
vii. presence of vertic property
viii. a few other definitive soil properties

Terms such as loamy, sandy and clayey are used to identify the broad particle size classes.
Terms used to describe the mineralogical classes include smectic, kaolinitic, siliceous,
carbonatic and mixed. The clays are described as super-active, active, semi-active, or sub-active
with regard to their capacity to hold cations. For temperature classes, terms such as cryic, mesic,
and thermic are used. The terms shallow and micro are sometimes used at the family level to
indicate unusual soil depths.
Example, Clayey Calcic Rhodxeralfs, means Calcic Rhodxeralfs with clayey soil texture.

SERIES
The series category is the most specific unit of the classification in Soil Taxonomy system. It is a
subdivision of the family, and is a more user-oriented class than the family. Separation of the
family into series involves more detailed properties of the soil profile, i.e., each series is defined
by a specific range of soil properties involving primarily the kind, thickness, and arrangement of
horizons. Features such as a hardpan within a certain distance below the surface, a distinct zone
of calcium carbonate accumulation at a certain depth, or striking colour characteristics greatly
aid in series identification. Note that soil series is given name after the place where it was first
encountered.

B. WORLD REFERENCE BASE FOR SOIL RESOURCES (WRB) CLASSIFICATION

SYSTEM
The World Reference Base (WRB) is a soil classification system for naming soils and creating
soil map legends. The system is developed by the sustained efforts of a large group of scientists
under the cooperation and logistic support of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS)
and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The WRB is based on
the FAO Legend (FAO-UNESCO, 1974) and the Revised Legend (FAO, 1988) of the Soil Map
of the World (FAO-UNESCO, 1971-1981).
The criteria for classification are similar to those of Great-group and Subgroup in the USDA Soil
Taxonomy. However, the definition of diagnostic horizons in the WRB system is different from
that of the USDA system, although there are many equivalent definitions. For example, argillic
horizon in the USDA is the same as argic horizon in the FAO/WRB, while albic, calcic, cambic,
duric, histic, melanic, gypsic and nitric horizons have definitions similar to those horizons
bearing the same nomenclature in the USDA system.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

1. The classification of soils is based on soil properties defined in terms of diagnostic horizons,
properties and materials, which should be measurable and observable in the field.
2. The selection of diagnostic characteristics takes into account their relationship with soil
forming processes.
3. To the extent possible at a high level of generalization, diagnostic features that are of
significance for soil management are selected.
4. Climate parameters are not applied in the classification of soils.
Page 5 of 6
SLM513: Soil Genesis & Classification 2023/2024 Session

5. The WRB is meant to be a comprehensive classification system that enables accommodation

of national soil classification systems; and not intended to be a substitute for national soil
classification systems, but rather to serve as a common denominator for communication at
the international level.

STRUCTURE OF THE WRB

The WRB comprises two tiers (levels) of categorical details:
First Level has 32 Reference Soil Groups (RSGs). Classes are differentiated mainly according to
characteristic soil features produced by primary pedogenetic process, except where special soil
parent materials are of overriding importance. Many RSGs in the WRB are representative of
major soil regions so as to provide a comprehensive overview of the world’s soil cover.
Second Level consisting of the name of the RSG combined with a set of principal and
supplementary qualifiers as prefixes and suffixes. In many cases, soil characteristics that have a
significant effect on land use are taken into account.
There are 32 Soil Reference Groups (SRG) in the FAO/World Reference Base Soil Resources
classification system (WRB, 2014):
S/N NAME S/N NAME S/N NAME
1 Acrisols 12 Ferralsols 23 Planosols
2 Albeluvisols 13 Fluvisols 24 Plinthosols
3 Alisols 14 Gleysols 25 Podzols
4 Andosols 15 Gypsisols 26 Regosols
5 Anthrosols 16 Histosols 27 Solonckak
6 Arenosols 17 Kastanozems 28 Solonetz
7 Calcisols 18 Leptosols 29 Stagnosols
8 Cambisols 19 Lixisols 30 Technosols
9 Chernozems 20 Luvisols 31 Umbrisols
10 Cryosols 21 Nitosols 32 Vertisols
11 Durisols 22 Phaeozems

Common group in Nigeria soils are Plinthosols, Ferrasols, Stagnosols (mangrove soils), Alisols
(Ultisols), Acrisols (Ultisols), Luvisols, Lixisols (Alfisols), Arenosols, Cambisols and Regosols.
The names of soils are indicated by adding prefix and suffix adjectives from the qualifier lists to
the Reference Group, for example: Gleyic Luvisols Oxyaquic.

Page 6 of 6