LECTURE 6

RELIGION AS A SUBJECT OF MC

1. The Essence of Religion and Theories on Its Origin

From the Latin religio (respect for what is sacred) and religare (to bind, in
the sense of an obligation), the term religion describes various systems of belief
and practice that define what people consider to be sacred or spiritual. Throughout
history, and in societies across the world, leaders have used religious narratives,
symbols, and traditions in an attempt to give more meaning to life and understand
the universe. Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is
usually practiced in a public way by a group. The practice of religion can include
feasts and festivals, intercession with God or gods, marriage and funeral services,
music and art, meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of
culture.

Religion acts as a universal social institution throughout human history.

Historical, anthropological, and sociological research has shown that both
traditional and modern societies have their own distinctive religious belief systems.
There is no doubt that the universality of religion is related to the important roles
and functions it plays in social life. Given this, it becomes necessary to study the
essence of religion, its emergence, and the laws of its development based on
scientific concepts. As a result of this necessity, various theories analyzing the
nature, origin, role, and place of religion in society have been proposed since the
18th century.

These theories primarily try to explain the religious phenomenon from two
perspectives:
1. The fundamental elements of the structure of religion;
2. The role and function of religion in society.

The structure of religion primarily manifests in three forms:

1. Belief in supernatural beings;
2. Religious practices;
3. Religious organizations and rituals
Religious experience refers to the conviction or sensation that we are
connected to “the divine.” This type of communion might be experienced when
people are pray or meditate. Religious beliefs are specific ideas members of a
particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or that
reincarnation exists. Another illustration of religious beliefs is the creation stories
we find in different religions. Religious rituals are behaviors or practices that are
either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as bar
mitzvah or confession of sins.
In other words, religion involves belief in supernatural beings or forces,
worshiping them, performing rituals and ceremonies, and, finally, joining religious
groups to express one's beliefs.

Let us consider some of the concepts related to the essence of religion. The
English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) characterized the
essence of religion as "belief in spiritual beings." The term "spiritual beings" here
refers to metaphysical entities (such as gods, angels, etc.) that are believed to
possess supernatural powers and are beyond human cognition. Ideas that link the
essence of religion to belief in a god (monotheistic religions) or gods (polytheistic
religions) are also widely spread.
Researchers who study religion from a phenomenological perspective
believe that one of the characteristic features of religion is the sense of sanctity or
the supernatural. In this context, the supernatural manifests as a mysterious feeling
that generates fear or dread in the human spirit. In this sense, the famous
anthropologist Rudolf Otto (1869-1937) characterizes religion as "the experience
of the holy." According to him, religion is the interaction of humans with a being
considered sacred. Here, religious experience is understood as the feeling of the
sacred being, approaching it, and directly experiencing it.
The functional explanation of the essence of religion refers to the roles that
religion plays for both the individual and society. In this explanation, the
characteristics of religion that unify society and create solidarity among people
with the same beliefs are emphasized. As for the significance of religion for the
individual, it is more related to human spiritual life and psychology. Religion gives
meaning to human life, protecting it from spiritual crises, hopelessness, depression,
and other psychological problems. The prominent French sociologist Émile
Durkheim (1858-1917), who made significant contributions to the development of
sociological theory of religion, believed that "religion is a system of beliefs and
rituals related to a sacred being, which unites believers into a moral community or
religious group, thus creating social solidarity." In this definition, the essence of
religion is explained, and its function of uniting people through spiritual ties is also
mentioned.

Theories proposed to explain the origin of religion have caused serious

debates. These debates are based on different approaches to religion and
methodological differences. Generally, in the social sciences, there are two main
methodological approaches to studying religion: the positivist and
phenomenological approaches.

The first approach, based on the philosophy of positivism, does not limit
itself to understanding religious consciousness and activity, but also attempts to
explain its origin using the methods of natural sciences. Thus, religion is regarded
as a form of social consciousness that evolved from primitive and mythological
worldviews. In this approach, religion is seen as a form of social consciousness
that emerged in the early stages of social development, a collective illusion,
irrational thoughts, and a means of escaping worldly concerns and alleviating
suffering.

The second form of methodological approach to religion is found in the

phenomenological approach to religion. Here, religious phenomena are studied
from within, that is, from the perspective of believers, and the reality of religious
phenomena is not questioned. As is known, the objective approach tries to study
religion in the context of the principle of religious neutrality, assuming that
religious beliefs and behaviors can only be correctly understood based on the
subjective experiences of those who believe. For researchers who approach
religion from this perspective, what is important is not whether beliefs are based on
truth, but rather how they affect the human psyche, social activities, and society.
The positivist-evolutionary (evolutionary) theories explaining the origin of
religion are mainly as follows: animism, totemism, fetishism, and naturism (or
animatism).
Animism is a mythological worldview that holds that nature and its
individual elements (such as mountains, trees, the sun, etc.) have a spirit, like
humans. Considered the primitive form of religion, animism involves attributing
human-like capabilities to nature. Animist beliefs are still present among tribes
living in primitive ways (e.g., Australian Aboriginals).

Totemism is the belief in the existence of a supernatural kinship between

humans and sacred totems (such as plants, animals, objects, etc.). In this belief
system, a specific plant or animal totem, considered an ancestor, serves as a
symbol for a tribe and regulates all the social relations within the tribe. Since the
totem is considered sacred, the tribe and individuals carrying its name are also
regarded as inviolable. According to Émile Durkheim, totemism is the most
primitive belief that forms the basis of all religions.

Fetishism is a worldview based on the sanctification of certain objects with

unusual forms and the worship of these objects. In fact, fetishism is a special form
of animist worldview. Naturism or animatism refers to the personification of
natural forces and the sacralization of events in the physical world, or in other
words, the worship of nature. In the theory of naturism, it is suggested that in the
early stages of social development, humans, struck with fear and horror by natural
phenomena like lightning, storms, earthquakes, volcanoes, solar and lunar eclipses,
and other natural events, recognized their helplessness in the face of nature and
consequently deified these natural occurrences.

The ideas of the famous German philosopher and founder of Marxist theory,
Karl Marx (1818-1883), about the role and place of religion in the context of
analyzing the capitalist economic system are important for explaining the essence
of religion. This is because Marxism provides the most comprehensive materialist
explanation of the nature of religion. Marx's theory of religion continued and
developed the critical tradition of religion in the history of social thought, raising
this critique to a new level.

Marxism approaches religion as a social phenomenon, explaining its

emergence and spread in the context of real social-historical relationships.
According to this theory, religion arose due to the emergence of class societies
built on human exploitation. Religion provides consolation to the oppressed people
in a world where evil prevails, reconciles them with social injustices in reality, and
calls them to seek salvation not in this world, but in the afterlife. Thus, religion
justifies exploitation and oppression, serving the interests of the ruling classes.
When Marx said, "Religion is the opium of the people," he was referring to this
social function of religion.

Materialist and evolutionary theories that attempt to explain the origin of

religion have faced some criticisms. These theories, first and foremost, fail to
explain the diversity of religions, as it has not been objectively substantiated that
world religions and primitive religions originate from the same source. On the
other hand, alternative explanations for the origin of religion have also been
proposed. For example, Austrian linguist, anthropologist, and Catholic priest
Wilhelm Schmidt (1868-1956), starting from the fact that belief in a supreme,
creative sky god holds a significant place in polytheistic (many-god) religions,
suggested that all religions originated from primitive monotheism.

2. Religion as a Form of Individual Worldview and Social Consciousness

Religion emerged as a historical form of social consciousness. Indeed,

religious consciousness originates from individual consciousness, but when we
look at history, we see that all world religions have transcended the boundaries of
individual consciousness and gained a social character.

Throughout history, religious consciousness has manifested in different

forms in various societies. This diversity primarily arises from the differences in
the social and cultural foundations of societies. Generally, religious consciousness
expresses itself in three forms: theoretical, practical, and social. The theoretical
expression of religious consciousness refers to religious beliefs and faiths, the
practical expression involves worship, rituals, and ceremonies, and the social
expression pertains to religious communities.

The theoretical aspect, which forms the foundation of religious

consciousness, also manifests at various levels. In primitive worldviews, beliefs
expressed in the form of myths have evolved into "religious doctrines" or theology
in more advanced cultural stages. The theoretical expression of religious
consciousness covers three important topics: God, the universe, and humanity. In
other words, theological, cosmological, and anthropological concepts have
manifested in various religions through myths, beliefs, and doctrines. In theology,
the essence, attributes, origin of gods, and their proofs are discussed. Cosmology
involves concepts related to the origin, development, various stages, and the fate or
end of the universe. The anthropological discussion in religious practice concerns
the creation, nature, duties, and destiny of humans.

The practical manifestation of religious consciousness includes rituals,

ceremonies, worship, symbols, and various sacrificial rites associated with sacred
beings. There has been much debate about whether the theoretical or practical
aspect of religious consciousness is more important. As a result, in primitive and
national religions, the practical or ritual aspect of religious experience is
considered more significant, whereas in universal religions, the theoretical
(doctrinal) aspect of religious consciousness holds greater importance.

Another aspect of religious consciousness is its social expression because

religions have the potential to unite people into religious groups and communities.
The social aspect of religious consciousness is essentially the process of elevating
individual consciousness to the level of social consciousness. As a result of the
dissemination and socialization of subjective religious consciousness, religion
plays a crucial role in the formation of the social consciousness of a group or
society as a whole.

The function of religion refers to its significance for the individual and
society, its role and place in society. The diversity of sociological definitions of
religion, as well as the various forms of expression of religious consciousness,
implies that religion serves different functions for individuals and society. It is not
easy to determine the unchanging functions of religion for all societies and times.
Its social role depends on the structure and culture of society. For example, in
primitive societies without a state structure, religion regulates social order, while in
secular states, this function is performed by civil law. Therefore, the functions of
religion are not universal; rather, they are variable and relative. Nevertheless, it is
possible to identify some roles that different historical religions have played and
continue to play for both society and the individual. These roles can be considered
in two categories: individual functions of religion and social functions of religion.

Religion's significance for the individual is immense. Religion gives

meaning to people's lives and shapes their worldview. Throughout history and in
modern times, people have sought answers to questions such as "Why do I exist?",
"What should I do?", and "What will happen after I die?". However, there is no
worldview other than religion that provides concrete answers to these questions.
The theoretical expression of religious consciousness, as we saw earlier, contains
answers regarding how and why the universe and humans were created, their
duties, and their fate, through various belief systems, myths, or religious stories.
 While science has explained many phenomena related to nature, explaining
the meaning and value of life does not fall within the domain of science. Therefore,
many philosophers have acknowledged that the meaning, purpose, and goal of life
can only be determined by religion, not science. For instance, according to the
famous German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920), the primary function of
religion is to give meaning to life. Religion gives special meaning to experiences
such as suffering, injustice, inequality, and death, forming a comprehensive
worldview that meets the individual's spiritual and psychological needs.
Another individual function of religion is to provide a sense of belonging
and identity. By submitting to a supernatural power, an individual determines
which religion or sect they belong to, thus establishing their identity. In this way,
religion serves as a powerful shield against the identity crisis faced by many
people in the modern era.

The social functions of religion are also diverse. Among these, the functions
of social integration, regulation, and legitimization of societal norms are
particularly noteworthy. The role of religion in social integration and unification
has been emphasized by almost all functionalist sociologists. Religion unites
people into religious communities and groups through shared beliefs, rituals, and
ceremonies. A common worldview and shared goals enable people to live together
in society. Émile Durkheim stated that it is through religion that social life is made
possible and argued that religion is essentially a symbolic expression of social life.
However, the integration function of religion has a relative character. While
religion unites people who share common beliefs, it can also lead to negative
attitudes and even violence toward those who hold different beliefs or are non-
believers. These negative roles of religion are referred to as religious dysfunctions.
It is well-known that many conflicts in history and today have been rooted in
religion. Therefore, whether religion contributes to integration or causes conflict
depends on the specific situation.

At the same time, religion has the function of legitimizing social values,
norms, and culture, justifying them. By imbuing social norms and values with
sacred meaning, religion helps to preserve the social structure. Thus, religion plays
a fundamental role in maintaining traditions, social norms, and values, while also
transmitting these sacred norms and values from one generation to the next. The
determination of right and wrong actions (norms) by religion strengthens the self-
regulation mechanism in individuals. This, in turn, contributes to maintaining
public order and reinforcing social stability.

Finally, it should be emphasized again that the integration, support for social
order, or potential for causing turmoil functions of religion can develop in positive
or negative directions, depending on the existing social, cultural, economic, and
political structure of society, as well as the processes taking place in the society
and geopolitical environment.
 3. Theories on the Role of Religion in the Modern World

It is impossible to imagine the history of humanity without religion. For

millennia, religious beliefs and concepts have played a significant role in shaping
humanity's fate, influencing the course of history, and in the ancient and medieval
periods, religious institutions were closely intertwined with all aspects of public
life. For instance, in medieval Western society, social institutions operated under
the control of the Roman Catholic Church. However, with the advancement of
scientific and technological progress, religious institutions lost their dominant
position in society, and people began to distance themselves from religion.

German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), observing these

developments, proclaimed that "God is dead," indicating that humanity had entered
an era without religion, during which the significance of religious-moral and
spiritual values was diminished. However, there were also many thinkers who
disagreed with Nietzsche. In response to the processes of modernization and the
influence of secularization, intense debates emerged regarding the future role of
religion in society. As a result, several theories were proposed, and we will
examine some of the most widely discussed ones.

a. Secularization Theory

The term "secularization" is derived from the Latin word "saecularis," which
means "worldly." The term "secularization" was first used in the 17th century.
Initially, it referred to the transfer of the church's land ownership to the control of
secular powers. Over time, the concept of secularization expanded to include
broader meanings.

In sociology, secularization refers to the process by which society and

individuals become free from the influence of religion. According to secularization
theory, the development of science and technology, along with the progress of
humanity, will lead to increasing secularization, eventually causing religion to
disappear as a worldview. Famous Western thinkers such as Auguste Comte (1798-
1857), Karl Marx (1818-1883), Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Émile Durkheim
(1858-1917), and Max Weber (1864-1920) argued that the modernization of
society would lead to a decrease in religiosity.

In the 20th century, this theory was further developed by Western

sociologists like Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), Bryan Ronald Wilson (1926-2004),
and Thomas Luckmann (1927-2016). Bryan Ronald Wilson, for instance, defines
secularization as "the loss of significance of religious ideas, practices, and
institutions." According to him, as societies industrialize, they become more
rational, scientific, and specialized, leading to a weakening of traditional values
and practices. As a result, religious life diminishes, and the roles once played by
religious institutions (such as education, politics, public order, etc.) are transferred
to other specialized social and political institutions.

Sociologists argue that secularization occurs on three levels:

1. Macro level: At this historical stage, the political life of society is free
from the influence of religious organizations and ideologies, meaning that the state
and religion are separated, and religious freedom is declared. Democratic
principles and universal values replace religious ideals.

2. Meso level: At this level, the cultural, intellectual, and economic spheres
of public life become independent of religious influence.

3. Micro level: Secularization occurs on an individual level, where religion

becomes a matter of personal choice, a matter of individual preference.

When looking at the history of human development, there is ample evidence

supporting secularization theory. For example, the scientific revolution of the 16th
and 17th centuries, and the spread of the Enlightenment movement in the 17th and
18th centuries, undermined the stronghold of the Roman Catholic Church, which
had dominated the Western world and exerted a powerful influence on people's
consciousness. These events led to the exclusion of religion from public life and
the triumph of secular ideas in Western societies. The Reformation movement of
the 16th and 17th centuries, which called for reforms within the Catholic Church,
also accelerated secularization processes. Secular values, which began in the
Western world, spread to other regions, and today, the vast majority of countries
around the world have secular state structures.

b. Theory of Religious Transformation

Proponents of this theory, proposed in the late 20th century, argue that it is
mistaken to believe that religion will completely disappear as a result of
secularization. According to them, while the position of traditional religious
institutions in society may significantly weaken under the influence of
secularization and modernization, religion itself and religious ways of thinking will
not disappear. In other words, while religion no longer influences the development
of society in the same way as in the past, due to the secularization and progress of
society, it transforms, taking on new forms and meanings. One of the proponents of
this concept is the modern Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor.

According to the theory of religious transformation, in modern societies,

where the level of social welfare is high and individual interests are prioritized
over collective ones, there is a problem of spiritual emptiness and the
meaninglessness of life. Secular and modern ideas are not capable of filling this
void. In their search for the meaning of life, modern individuals place importance
on their personal religious experiences. They interpret traditional religious beliefs
in their own unique way, understanding them differently, or seeking the meaning of
life outside traditional religious institutions. As a result, alternative, new religious
practices and beliefs, synthesized from different religious ideas, emerge, often
directed towards the individual's inner world. Scholars defending this theory use
the numerous new religious movements that have emerged in the Western world as
examples, as well as noting the growing interest in various religious and mystical
teachings, such as Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism.

c. The Theory of Religion's Continued Importance at the Individual

Level

According to this theory, the loss of power and significance of religious

organizations in society does not mean that individuals themselves are moving
away from religion. In Western countries, despite the sharp decline in the number
of people who belong to churches and participate in religious ceremonies under the
influence of modernization and secularization, many Europeans still believe in
God and the existence of life after death.

An example of this can be seen in Iceland, where only a small percentage of

the population regularly attends church services. However, sociological surveys
show that 88% of Icelanders believe in the afterlife, 40% believe in reincarnation,
and 82% pray to God in their daily lives. This example shows that even though
many Europeans do not go to church or perform religious rituals, religious
worldviews still maintain their significance in helping people understand
themselves and explain the meaning of life.

The British sociologist Grace Davie described this phenomenon as

"believing without belonging", meaning people may have faith without being
affiliated with any religious institution. Therefore, the indifference of Europeans
toward worship does not mean they are irreligious.

The Austrian sociologist Peter Berger, in his article "The Decline of

Secularization", expressed that religion continues to hold significance at the
individual level: "It is true that modernity has led to secularization in some ways,
and in some areas this is felt more strongly. But it is also clear that modernity has
sparked many powerful movements against secularization. Furthermore, there is no
necessity for secularization at the individual level just because it has occurred in
the public sphere. In many societies, some religious organizations have lost their
power and influence, but both ancient and new forms of religious beliefs and
worship—sometimes in new institutional forms or extreme religious expressions—
have maintained their place in individuals' lives..."

In essence, the theory asserts that religion remains important at the

individual level, even if its institutional power in society has diminished. This
theory emphasizes the ongoing relevance of personal beliefs and spiritual
practices, despite broader societal secularization.

d. The Theory of Secularization as a Myth

According to this theory, there is no serious scientific evidence to confirm

the concept of secularization, and this idea has mostly been advanced for
ideological reasons. Some sociologists, such as José Casanova, Rodney William
Stark, and Barry Glazner, have referred to the theory of secularization as a "myth."
The contemporary American sociologist Rodney William Stark has gone further,
suggesting that "secularization should be consigned to the cemetery of unproven
theories."

Scholars who argue that the secularization theory is a fabrication emphasize

that the role of religion in both everyday life and public-political affairs is growing
in the modern world. Today, religious organizations are actively participating in
discussions of social issues and in shaping public opinion. José Casanova, in his
book Public Religions in the Modern World, provides four arguments to prove that
religion plays an active role in contemporary social-political processes:

1. The Iranian Islamic Revolution of 1979, which resulted in the overthrow

of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
2. The significant role of Catholicism in the Polish "Solidarity" movement,
which gained momentum in 1980-1981.
3. The significant role of Catholicism in the Sandinista Revolution of 1979,
which led to the overthrow of the political regime of Anastasio Somoza in
Nicaragua.
4. The rise of Protestant fundamentalism as a political force in the United
States.

Even the Austrian sociologist Peter Berger, who was once a prominent
defender of the secularization theory, later admitted in his works The
Desecularization of the World and The Decline of Secularization that the evidence
supporting secularization did not hold true in most parts of the world. On the
contrary, the religious factor has been strengthening. He noted that while
secularization may seem like a global phenomenon, it manifests differently in each
society. To support his argument, Berger uses the Muslim world as an example. He
argues that in most Muslim countries, state-provided services in areas such as
education, healthcare, and social security are insufficient. As a result, religiously-
oriented Islamic organizations largely meet the needs of the population in these
areas, which increases the influence of Islam in public and political life.

The process of religious revival in the former Soviet republics, the Islamic
awakening in several Muslim countries, and the growing number of religious and
sectarian conflicts in different regions of the world all indicate that, despite the
scientific and technological advancements of humanity, religion has not lost its
significance.

4. Islamaphobia as a form of racism and intolerance

The term Islamophobia comes from the combination of two words: Islam
and phobia. According to the etymology of this term, Islamophobia is based on the
fear of Islam and Muslims. The logical consequences of this fear are hatred,
discrimination and persecution of Islam, Muslims and everything related to Islam.
The Cambridge Dictionary, defines Islamophobia as hatred, fear and discrimination
against Islam and the people who profess this religion as unreasonable1, and
Merriam Webster Dictionary - as irrational. Islamophobia cultivates hatred against
Muslims and it is occasionally accompanied by hate crimes. This means that
people who spread Islamophobic moods and ideas are not limited to humiliating
Islam and Muslims, but they also commit acts of violence against Muslims,
including killing them. In such cases, Islamophobia is classified as a hate crime.
Classification of hate crimes is based on motive for which they are
committed, i.e. by which protected characteristics the given crime was committed.
The most widespread types of hate crimes are ones committed on the basis of race,
religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity/national belongness, disability. Islamophobia
should be classified as a hate crime committed on religious base. Islamophobia is a
widespread form of intolerance and discrimination. It cultivates intolerance and
discrimination against Muslims.
Even some researchers quite accurately consider Islamophobia to be a form
of racism. For example, Tarig Modoud, a British sociologist, in his article
"Rethinking multiculturalism after 7/7", supporting this point of view, notes:
“There is not a singular racism but multiple racisms that include colour/ phenotype
forms but also cultural forms building on “colour”, or on a set of antagonistic or
demeaning stereotypes based on alleged or real cultural traits. The most important
such form of cultural racism today is anti-Muslim racism, sometimes called
Islamophobia”. Farah Elahi and Omar Khan, British researchers also define
Islamophobia as a form of racism. To them, with many Black and minority ethnic
groups, Muslims also experience disadvantage and discrimination in a wide range
of institutions and environments, from schools to the labor market to prisons and
even violence on the streets. Policies to tackle Islamophobia should be developed
in line with policies to tackle racial discriminations and generally focus on the real
effects of the people affected by it. They recommend the government to adopt their
definition of Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism. Omar Khan in one of his
speeches noted his disagreement with the current and dominant view of
Islamophobia as anti-Muslim hatred or fanaticism. In his opinion, this view is too
narrow and, therefore, creates the false impression that Islamophobia refers only to
(often violent) street clashes, and not also to direct and indirect forms of
discrimination in the labor market, housing, education, and health provisions.
Furthermore, portraying Islamophobia as a form of racism will encourage broader
groups of the population to join the fight against Islamophobia because they
support the fight against all forms of racism.
Although the term Islamophobia first appeared in literature in the 1970s, it
was not until the 1980s, especially in the 1990s that the term began to be used
extensively. In November 1997, the Runnymede Trust - the country's leading race
equality think-tank published its landmark report “Islamophobia: A Challenge for
Us All” which is said to have popularized the term. In the aforementioned report it
was noted that the term Islamophobia refers to the following three phenomena: 1.
Unfounded hostility towards Islam; 2. Practical consequences of such hostility in
unfair discrimination against Muslim individuals and communities; 3. Exclusion of
Muslims from mainstream political and social affairs.
The term "Islamophobia" reached its pinnacle after the terrorist attacks on
September 11, 2001 in the United States by members of the terrorist organization
AL Qaeda. The spread of radical Islam and the growing threats posed by it led to
the widespread use of the term Islamophobia both in popular fields of literature
and in the speeches given by politicians. Fear and hatred of Islam and Muslims are
a negative phenomena in themselves. For the reason that, as noted above, they are
unreasonable, irrational and unjust. In addition, they are subjective, biased and
untrue. The fear and hatred of Islam and Muslims have certain forms of
manifestation. For example, the fear of Islam manifests itself in the presentation of
this religion as a religious system that opposes development, innovation, promotes
intolerance towards other religions, and opposes science, education, and the arts.
As for the fear of Muslims, this is reflected in the fact that they are presented as an
aggressive, terrorist-oriented community that do not want to integrate into the
society in which they live.
One of the main reasons for the rise of Islamophobic views in the West today
is the unfair and biased policy against Muslims in these countries. This is primarily
due to the spread of certain negative stereotypes about Muslims in Western
countries. Historically, negative stereotypes and myths about Muslims have been
widespread in the West. Doug Saunders, Canadian journalist in his book “The
Myth of the Muslim Tide: Do Immigrants Threaten the West?” refutes the
stereotypes about Muslims widespread in the West and proves them to be biased
and false. He notes the Islamophobic nature of the stereotypes. The spread of
negative stereotypes about Muslims in the Western countries has led to the
emergence of various conspiracy theories. One such conspiracy theory is the
Eurabia theory.
The term "Eurabia" was coined by British journalist Bat Yeor in her 2005
book titled “Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis”. Later, the term became heavily used
and took the form of a conspiracy theory. In fact, the racist Islamophobic theory of
Eurabia offers a scenario for the future development of Europe. According to this
scenario Europe will Islamize in the near future. The influx of Muslims to Europe
and the high birth rate among them will result in a Muslim majority here by the
end of the XXI century. Muslims will rule Europe. An islamized Europe will
gradually lose its cultural values. It will weaken existing ties with the United States
and Israel. According to the theory of Eurabia, some ruling political circles in
Western Europe allegedly cooperate with the Arab countries in order to strengthen
Europe against the United States. Therefore, along with Islamophobia, this theory
is based on Euroscepticism, which criticizes the European Union and the policy of
European integration. It is no coincidence that far-right forces and populist
politicians in Europe defend and propagate the theory of Eurabia, which promotes
racism and discrimination. For example, Anders Breivik, a Norwegian
Islamophobe who killed more than 80 innocent people in 2011 because of hatred
towards Muslims, often used the term Eurabia in his speeches.
Nowadays, negative stereotypes and conspiracy theories about Muslims
spread by certain groups in the West, are widely used to promote ideas of
Islamophobia. In addition, such stereotypes and conspiracy theories are often used
by the ruling circles for their own political purposes. Such injustice, which causes
discontent and anger among Muslims, is one of the main reasons for the emergence
of radical groups among Muslims. Certain organizations and forces spreading
Islamophobia in the West, especially extreme right-wing populist groups, are trying
to capitalize on the rise of radical groups among Muslims for their own purposes.
Islamophobia is one of the most widespread forms of racism, intolerance and
discrimination in our lifetime. Islamophobia is directed against the integration
processes in society. Because it’s spread in society causes ethnic and religious
conflicts, which, in turn, seriously hinders the socio-economic development of the
country. In addition, like other types of hate crimes, the impact of Islamophobia
has broader, more dangerous, more destructive and long-term consequences for
individuals and society compared to ordinary crimes. This is due to the fact that in
addition to the person who is the direct victim of a crime motivated by
Islamophobia, other members of this group, who are other Muslims, also suffer. In
other words, a crime motivated by Islamophobia in a particular country causes
wider confrontation in society, affecting all the Muslims living in that country.
Sometimes the echo of Islamophobia spreads beyond the borders of the country. In
this case, some Muslim countries protest against the act of Islamophobia in certain
countries. This means that the confrontation has already spread from a domestic to
an international level. In order to prevent all these confrontations, the world
communities must prevent Islamophobia, as well as all forms of racism,
intolerance and discrimination.

5.Religious Diversity in Azerbaijan

As one of the first places in the world inhabited by man, Azerbaijan is also a
place where religious beliefs emerged, including belief in the afterlife. Since
ancient times religious ideas and beliefs have been widespread there. The country’s
favourable geographical location, mild climate and rich natural resources have
been a focus of attention in all periods of history. At different times these factors
have played a particular role in attracting numerous ethnic and religious groups to
settle in Azerbaijan. A major attraction for people of different nations and religions
to Azerbaijan was the culture of the people populating the region, their friendly
attitude towards other religions and the tolerance that was their way of life.
 In ancient times religious rituals and ceremonies played an important role in
the lives of the people living in the territory of Azerbaijan. They worshipped fire,
water, trees, mountains, the spirits of their ancestors, stars and different natural
phenomena. The pictures carved on the rocks of Qobustan are confirmation of the
importance of these religious rituals and ceremonies. Although millennia have
passed, some elements of these beliefs remain in peoples’ memories and can be
seen in their way of life.
These examples prove once more that the ideas of paganism among the
population of Azerbaijan go back to ancient times and that they followed different
beliefs. Moreover, archaeological excavations have revealed big stone idols in
Khinisli, Daghkolani and Chiraghli, anthropomorphic figures in Ismayilli and clay
statues in Mingachevir.
One of the religions to emerge in the 6th century BCE in the historical
Azerbaijani territories and spread widely there and also in Iran, India and Central
Asia is Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism maintained its status as the state religion
for a long time, but began to weaken in the 7th century when Islam began to spread
in the region.
Zoroastrianism covered a wide area and still has worshippers in India and
Iran today. It is one of the contributions made by the Azerbaijani people to the
cultural values of the world. Even when Islam was at its most widespread, the fire-
worshippers’ temple in Surakhani near Baku continued to function, right up until
the 20th century. Today this temple is one of Azerbaijan’s main cultural
monuments.
The number of Zoroastrians is not so large today. At present there are
approximately 130,000 followers of the religion across the world, mainly in the
states of Maharashtra and Gujarat in India. Small groups of Zoroastrians live and
worship in such cities as London, New York, Chicago, Boston and Los Angeles.
A monotheistic religion widespread in Azerbaijan, which has benefited from
the cultural richness of the Azerbaijani people, is Judaism. This religion appeared
in the 8th century BCE and its main difference from Islam and Christianity is its
national character, i.e. only Jews follow it. The history of the arrival of the Jews in
Azerbaijan is very old; they often suffered persecution in the countries in which
they settled, so they decided to come to Azerbaijan. Judaism is the first religion to
have come to Azerbaijan from outside and the first religion with a belief in the
afterlife to spread in this country. The Jews living in many countries around the
world are not treated equally. But at all times in history in Azerbaijan they have felt
themselves to be equal members of a large family, surrounded with the attention
and care of the local population, and have lived freely and independently. This
attitude has led to the survival to this day of Krasnaya Sloboda (Qirmizi Qasaba or
Red Settlement) in the district of Quba as the only place inhabited almost solely by
Mountain Jews to this day.
At present six synagogues function in Baku, Quba and Oghuz, while prayer
houses of the Jewish religious communities function in Ganja and Sumqayit. A
200-year-old Mountain Jewish synagogue in Krasnaya Sloboda reopened in
October 2010 after major renovation. On 27 October that year, on the initiative and
with the support of Ilham Aliyev, President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the
construction of a synagogue began in Baku, funded from the state budget. The
synagogue was ceremonially opened on 5 April 2011.
Some 16,000 Jews live in Azerbaijan today. They take an active part in the
political, economic, social and cultural life of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The
Jewish communities are considered the most active religious organizations in the
Republic of Azerbaijan and many of their organizations have received state
registration and function freely in the country. The AzerbaijaniIsraeli Friendship
Centre, the Jewish Agency Sochnut and the Joynt and Vaad L-Hatzolah committees
operate to protect and preserve Jewish traditions. There are also religious schools,
Jewish cultural centres such as the Yeva (Eve) Women’s Society and other
nongovernmental organizations. The Hebrew language is taught in the Faculty of
Oriental Studies at Baku State University.
Christianity is another religion widespread in Azerbaijan. The three main
branches of Christianity – Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism – are all
present in Azerbaijan. When considering Christianity, it is impossible not to
mention the Caucasian Albanian Church and its history. The Albanian Church is
one of the ancient apostolic churches not only of the Caucasus, but the entire
Christian world. Some of the first Christian communities are thought to have
formed on the territory of Caucasian Albania. The 8th century Albanian historian
Moisey Kalankatuklu noted in his History of Agvan that Caucasian Albania was
the first country to adopt and spread Christianity
In the early 19th century, Orthodoxy was spread in Azerbaijan as a result of
tsarist Russia’s ‘settlement policy’ in the region. In 1815, the first Orthodox
Church was built in Baku. This decision was legally approved by decree of the
commander-in-chief of Russian troops in the Caucasus, Gen. Rtishсhev, and funds
were collected for the construction of the new church. Since the construction work
required a lot of time, the believers needed a temporary place of prayer. An old
mosque building near the Maiden Tower, which was being used as a food store at
the time, was turned into the Saint Nicholas Orthodox Church and a priest, David
Ivanov, was invited from Tbilisi to perform religious rituals there
After the establishment of Soviet power in Azerbaijan, there was a fall in the
number of Russian Orthodox churches and of other places of worship. Religious
institutions lost their registration and prayer houses and churches were closed.
During the period of militant atheism, particularly in the 1930s, many church
buildings were destroyed and thousands of priests and believers suffered
repression. After independence Azerbaijan took important measures to restore
freedom of conscience and regulate the activities of religious institutions, creating
great opportunities for the independent activity of different confessions. The Holy
Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church and Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia
Alexy II issued a decree on 28 December 1998, restoring the Eparchy of Baku and
the Caspian and appointing a respected clergyman, Alexander Ishein, its bishop.
Roman Catholicism, another branch of Christianity, began to spread in
Azerbaijan in the early 14th century. In 1320 French Friar Jordanus Catalani, also
known as Jordan of Severac, visited Baku and other cities of Azerbaijan.
Researchers believe that Franciscan Friar Odoric of Pordenone was in Azerbaijan
in the same period too.
Protestantism, the third biggest branch of Christianity, spread in Azerbaijan
in the first half of the 19th century. German Lutherans began to settle in tsarist
Russia, particularly in the south Caucasus, in that period and established the
German colonies in Goygol (Helenendorf) and Shamkir (Annenfeld). The Lutheran
churches built in these towns are still there today. With the arrival of German
industrialists in Azerbaijan new Lutheran churches were built in Gadabay and
Baku in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2010 President Ilham Aliyev
instructed the renovation of the Lutheran Church of the Saviour, built in Baku in
1899. Members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Saviour are able to hold
services in the church.
After the independence of Azerbaijan a Baha’i religious community
reformed and was officially registered. Moreover, an Indian Krishna religious
community formed and today the members of both religious communities live and
practise their faith in Azerbaijan.
Another religion that made a deep mark in the history, culture, spiritual and
moral life of the Azerbaijanis is Islam. For 14 centuries the history of Azerbaijan
has been closely connected with Islam. Despite great difficulties in the Soviet
period the Azerbaijanis preserved the values of Islam and protected them as their
spiritual heritage. Christianity reached Azerbaijan before Islam, but covered only
some parts of its historical territories – namely, Caucasian Albania, while the
southern part of Azerbaijan, that is, Atropatena, remained Zoroastrian. Islam,
however, spread to all the historical territories where the Azerbaijani Turks lived
and has preserved its dominant position for 14 centuries. The spread of Islam
among the Turkic peoples, including among the Azerbaijani Turks, was an event of
historical importance. As consciousness of religious unity is much stronger than
consciousness of national unity Islam laid the foundation of the new Muslim
civilization. With the adoption of Islam the Turkic peoples joined a broad and rich
civilization, which Islam developed and enriched further. Islam spread to the
Caucasus through Azerbaijan. As a logical result, Azerbaijan plays the role of
religious centre for all the Muslims of the Caucasus, which is acknowledged by
academic and religious circles. Islam began to spread in Azerbaijan from 639.
It is an undeniable fact that tolerance is a specific feature of the Azerbaijani
people. It should be noted that Islam played a very important role in the formation
of the environment of tolerance and culture in Azerbaijan. In Islam, the traditional
religion of the Azerbaijanis, tolerance is highly appreciated as a moral and spiritual
value and culture. History confirms that, buoyed by their own beliefs, Muslims
have not only shown tolerance towards people of other religions, but have also
helped them to build their prayer houses and keep their faiths alive.