UNIT II - LINEAR AND ANGULAR

MEASUREMENTS
Linear Measuring Instruments – Evolution –
Types – Classification – Limit gauges – gauge
design – terminology – procedure – concepts
of interchange ability and selective assembly
Angular measuring instruments – Types –
Bevel protractor clinometers angle gauges,
spirit levels sine bar – Angle alignment
telescope – Autocollimator – Applications.
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
 Introduction
✔ Most people’s first contact with linear measurement is with a steel
rule or a tape measure.

✔ However, today’s engineer has a choice of wide range of instruments

to choose from right from purely mechanically operated instruments
to digital electronics instruments.

✔ One has to only consider the nature of application and cost of

measurement to decide which instrument is the best for an
application.
Design of Linear Measurement Instruments

✔ The measuring accuracy of line graduated instruments depends on

the original accuracy of line graduations. Excessive thickness or
poor definition of graduated lines affect the accuracy of readings
captured from the instrument.

✔ Any instrument incorporating a scale is a suspect unless it is

provided compensation against wear.

✔ Attachments can enhance the versatility of instruments. However,

every attachment used along with an instrument, unless properly
deployed, may contribute to accumulated error. Wear and tear of
attachments can also contribute to errors.
Design of Linear Measurement Instruments

✔ Instruments such as callipers depend on the feel of the user for their
precision. Good quality of the instrument promotes reliability, but
ultimately skill of the user ensures accuracy.

✔ The principle of alignment states that the line of measurement and

the line of dimension being measured should be coincident. This
principle is fundamental to good design and ensures accuracy and
reliability of measurement.

✔ Dial versions of instruments add convenience in reading. Electronic

versions provide digital readouts which are even easier to read.

✔ One important element of reliability of an instrument is its

readability.
Design of Linear Measurement Instruments

✔ If cost is not an issue, digital instruments may be preferred. The

chief advantage of electronic method is the ease of ‘signal
processing’. The readings may be expressed directly in the
required form without additional arithmetic. The readings can be
stored on a memory device for further use and analysis.

✔ Whenever, contact between the instrument and surface of the

job being measured is inevitable, contact force should be
optimum to avoid distortion. The designer cannot leave the fate
of the instrument on the skill of the user alone.
 Surface Plate
✔ A surface plate is a hard, solid
and horizontal flat plate,
which is used as the reference
plane for precision inspection,
marking out and precision
tooling set up.

✔ Since surface plate is used as

the datum for all
measurements on a job, it
should be finished to a high
degree of accuracy.
 Surface Plate
✔ The surface plates are made either from cast iron or granite.

✔ Cast iron is dimensionally more stable over time compared to granite plates. The
one significant drawback is its higher co-efficient of thermal expansion which
makes it unsuitable for applications involving large variations in temperature.

✔ In recent times, granite has replaced cast iron as the preferred material for
surface plates. Granite has many advantages compared to cast iron. Natural
granite that is seasoned in the open for thousands of years is free from warp age
or weakening. It is twice as hard as cast iron and not affected by temperature
changes. It is not vulnerable to rusting and is non-magnetic.

✔ Glass is an alternative material for surface plates. It was used during World War
II when material and manufacturing capacity were in short supply. Glass can be
suitably ground and has the benefit that it chips rather than raising a burr, which
is a problem in cast iron surface plates.
 V - Blocks
✔ V-blocks are extensively used for inspection of jobs with circular cross-section.

✔ The cylindrical surface rests firmly on the sides of the ‘V’ and the axis of the
job will be parallel to both the base and sides of the V-block.

✔ Generally, the angle of the V is 900, though 1200 angle is preferred in some
cases.

✔ It is made of high grade steel, hardened above 60 Rc and ground to a high

degree of precision.

✔ V-blocks are classified into two grades, namely grade A and grade B, according
to IS: 2949-1964, based on accuracy. Grade A V-blocks have minimum
departure from flatness (up to 5 microns for 150 mm length) compared to
grade B V-blocks.
 V - Blocks
✔ There are many variants in V-blocks, such as, V-blocks with clamp, magnetic
V-block, cast iron V-block, etc.

✔ Figures below illustrates a V-block with stirrup clamp and Magnetic V-block.
While the former is convenient for clamping the job onto the V-block, so that
measurements can be made accurately, the latter has a magnetic base.
 Graduated Scales

✔ We often use the words ‘Rule’ and ‘Scale’ to mean the simple device that we
have been using since Primary school Geometry class. However, there is a clear
difference in the actual meaning of these two familiar words.

✔ A scale is graduated in proportion to a unit of length. For example, the divisions

in an architect’s scale illustrated in figure 4.7 represent feet and inches, while
the plumber’s scale would have divisions in terms of 1/32 or 1/64th of an inch.

✔ The divisions of a rule, on the other hand, are the unit of length, its divisions
and multiples. Typically, the rules with which we are familiar have graduations
in terms of centimetres, millimetres or inches, and their decimal divisions
throughout the length.
 Graduated Scales
✔ The use of steel rule requires consideration of the relationship between the
reference point and the measured point

✔ A graduated line on the rule, rather than an edge of the rule is selected as the
reference point. This method considerably improves the accuracy of
measurement even though a little effort is required to carefully align the
reference and measured points.

✔ It is not recommended to use the edge of the rule as the reference point since it
is subject to wear and tear and worn out corners would contribute to error in
measurement.
Types of Steel Rules
 Scaled Instruments

✔ Rules are useful for many shop floor measurements. However, measurements of
certain components requires some mechanical means to either hold the
measuring device steadily against the component being measured or to capture
the reading, which could be read at leisure later.

✔ Another important advantage of a scaled instrument is that the least count of

measurement can be greatly improved compared to an ordinary steel rule.

✔ Most of the modern scaled instruments provide digital display, which comes with
high degree of magnification. Measurements can be made up to micron
accuracy.
 Depth Gauge
✔ Depth gauge is the preferred instrument for measuring holes, grooves and
recesses.

✔ It consists of a graduated rod or rule, which can slide in a T-head or stock. The
rod or rule can be locked into position by operating a screw clamp, which
facilitates accurate reading of the scale.

✔ Figure illustrates a depth gauge, which has a graduated rule to directly read-off
the measurement. The head is used to span the shoulder of a recess, thereby
providing the reference point for measurement.

✔ The rod or rule is pushed into the recess until it bottoms. The screw clamp helps
in locking the rod or rule in the head. The depth gauge is then withdrawn and
reading is recorded in a more convenient position.

✔ Depth gauge is useful for measuring inaccessible points in a simple and

convenient manner.
 Combination Set

✔ The combination set has three devices built into it; a combination square
comprising a square head and steel rule, a protractor head and a centre head.

✔ While the combination square can be used as a depth or height gauge, the
protractor head can measure angles of jobs.

✔ The centre head comes in handy for measuring diameters of jobs having circular
cross section. Combination set is an useful extension of steel rule.
 Calipers
✔ There are many jobs whose dimensions cannot be measured accurately with a
steel rule alone. A typical case in point is a job with circular cross-section.

✔ An attempt to take measurement using a steel rule alone will lead to error,
since the steel rule cannot be positioned diametrically across the job with the
required degree of accuracy.

✔ Callipers are the original transfer instrument to transfer such measurements on

to a rule. They can easily capture the diameter of a job, which can be manually
identified as the maximum distance between the legs of the calliper that can
just slide over the diameter of the job.

✔ Even though callipers are hardly used in production inspection, they are widely
used in tool room and related work.
 Calipers

✔ Callipers are available in various types and sizes. Two major types are the firm
joint caliper and the spring caliper.

✔ Firm joint, as the name itself suggests, can hold the position of two legs opened
out to a particular degree unless moved by certain force. This is possible
because of higher friction in the joint formed between the two legs of the
caliper. A lock nut is needed to lock the caliper in a particular position.

✔ On the other hand, a spring caliper can hold a particular position thanks to the
spring pressure acting against an adjusting nut. This permits very careful
control and no lock is needed.
Types of Calipers
 Vernier Instruments
✔ A steel rule can measure accurately up to 1 mm or at best up to 0.5 mm. It is
not sensitive to variations in dimensions to much finer levels, because of the
inherent limitation in its design.

✔ On the other hand, vernier instruments based on the vernier scale principle
can measure up to much finer degree of accuracy.

✔ In other words, they can amplify finer variations in dimensions and can be
branded as ‘precision’ instruments.

✔ Vernier instruments are being used for more than two centuries.

✔ A vernier scale provides least count up to 0.01 mm or less, which remarkably

improves the measurement accuracy of an instrument. It has become quite
common in the modern industry to specify dimensional accuracy up to 1
micrometre or less.
 Vernier Caliper
✔ The vernier caliper consists of two main parts; the main scale engraved on a solid
L-shaped frame, and the vernier scale, which can slide along the main scale. The
sliding nature of the vernier has given another name for this instrument as the
‘sliding caliper’.

✔ The main scale is graduated in millimetres, up to a least count of 1 mm. The

vernier also has engraved graduations. The vernier caliper is made of either
stainless steel or tool steel, depending on the nature and severity of application.
Guidelines for the use of Vernier Caliper
✔ Thoroughly clean the vernier caliper and the job being measured. Ensure that
there are no burrs attached to the job, which could have resulted from a
previous machining operation.

✔ When a calipers' jaws are fully closed, it should indicate zero. If it does not, it
must be recalibrated or repaired.

✔ Loosen the clamping screw and slide the movable jaw till the opening
between the jaws is slightly more than the feature to be measured.

✔ Place the fixed jaw in contact with the reference point of the feature being
measured and align the beam of the caliper approximately to the line of
measurement.

✔ Slide the movable jaw closer to the feature and operate the fine adjustment
screw to establish light contact between the jaws and the job.
 Guidelines for the use of Vernier Caliper
✔ Tighten the clamp screw on the movable jaw without disturbing the light
contact between the caliper and the job.

✔ Remove caliper and note down the reading in a comfortable position, holding
the graduations on the scale perpendicular to the line of sight.

✔ Repeat the measurement a couple of times to ensure accurate measurement.

✔ After completing the reading, loosen the clamping screw, open out the jaws,
clean and lubricate.

✔ Always store the caliper in the instrument box provided by the supplier. Avoid
keeping the vernier caliper in the open for long durations, since it may get
damaged by other objects or contaminants.

✔ Strictly adhere to the schedule of periodic calibration of the vernier caliper.

 Dial Caliper

✔ In a dial caliper, the reading can be read directly from a dial gauge, which is attached to
the caliper. A small but precise pair of rack and pinion drives a pointer on a circular scale.
This facilitates direct reading without the need to read a vernier scale. Typically, the
pointer undergoes one complete rotation per centimetre or millimetre of linear
measurement. This measurement should be added to the main scale reading to get the
actual reading.

✔ Dial caliper also eliminates the parallax error to some extent, which is associated with a
conventional vernier caliper.
 Electronic Digital Caliper
✔ Electronic digital caliper is a battery operated instrument that displays the
reading on a LCD display screen. The digital display eliminates the need for
calculations and provides an easier way of taking readings.

✔ More importantly, digital caliper can be interfaced with a dedicated

recorder or personal computer through a seriel data cable. The digital
interface provides secured storage for a series of readings, thereby
improving the reliability of the records.
Vernier Depth Gauge
✔ Vernier depth gauge is a more versatile
instrument, which can measure up to 0.01 mm
or finer accuracy.

✔ The lower surface of the base has to butt firmly

against the upper surface of the hole or recess
whose depth is to be measured. The vernier
scale is stationary and screwed onto the slide,
whereas the main scale can slide up and down.
The nut on the slide has to be loosened to move
the main scale. Lower the main scale into the
hole or recess, which is being measured.

✔ A fine adjustment wheel will rotate the fine

adjustment screw which in turn will cause finer
movement of the slide. This ensures firm but
delicate contact with the surface of the job.
Vernier Height Gauge
✔ In the vernier height gauge, the graduated scale or
bar is held in a vertical position by a finely ground and
lapped base. A precision ground surface plate is
mandatory while using a height gauge.

✔ The feature of the job to be measured is held

between the base and the measuring jaw. The
measuring jaw is mounted on the slider which moves
up and down, but held in place by tightening of a nut.
A fine adjustment clamp is provided to ensure very
fine movement of the slide in order to make a
delicate contact with the job.

✔ The main scale in a height gauge is stationary while

the slider moves up and down. The vernier scale
mounted on the slider gives readings up to an
accuracy of 0.01 mm.
 Micrometer Instruments
✔ The word micrometre is believed to have originated in Greece, the Greek
meaning for the word micrometre being small.

✔ The first ever micrometre screw was invented by William Gascoigne of

Yorkshire, England in the 17th century and was used in telescopes to measure
angular distances between stars.

✔ The commercial version of the micrometre was released by the Browne &
Sharpe company in the year 1867. Obviously, micrometre as an instrument has
a long and cherished history in metrological applications.

✔ There have been many variants of the instrument and the modern industry
makes use of highly sophisticated micrometres, such as, digital micrometres
and laser scan micrometres. Micrometre can provide better least counts than
vernier caliper and better accuracy.
 Outside Micrometers
✔ It consists of a C-shaped frame with a stationary anvil and a movable spindle.
The spindle movement is controlled by a precision ground screw. The spindle
moves as it is rotated in the stationary spindle nut. Graduated scale is engraved
on the stationary sleeve and the rotating thimble.. The lock nut enables the
locking of the spindle while taking a reading. The ratchet ensures a ‘feel’ while
taking a reading and prevents application of excessive force on the job. The
range of micrometers is normally 0-25 mm, 25-50 mm or 0-50 mm. The
maximum range of micrometers is limited to 500 mm.
Types of Micrometers
 Types of Micrometers
✔ Disk Micrometer: It is used for measuring distance between two features with
curvature. Tooth span micrometer is one such which is used for measuring the
span between two teeth of a gear.

✔ Screw Thread Micrometer: It measures pitch diameters directly. The anvil has an
internal ‘vee’ which fits over the thread. Since the anvil is free to rotate, it can
accommodate to any rake range of thread.

✔ Dial Micrometer: The dial indicator fixed to the frame indicates the linear
displacement of a movable anvil to a high degree of precision.

✔ Blade Micrometer: The anvil face and spindle face are in the form of narrow
blades and useful for measuring narrow grooves, slots, keyways and recesses.
Vernier Micrometer
✔ A micrometer that we considered hitherto
can provide an accuracy of at best 0.01 mm
or 10 µm.

✔ Placing a vernier scale on the micrometer

permits us to make readings up to the next
decimal place. In other words, one can
measure accurately up to 1 µm or 0.001 mm,
which is an excellent proposition for any
precision workmanship.

✔ As illustrated in the figure, in addition to the

barrel scale and thimble scale, a vernier scale
is provided next to the barrel scale. Divisions
on this vernier scale have to be read in
conjunction with the barrel scale and
provides the next level of discrimination in
readings.
Digital Micrometer
 Digital Micrometer
✔ The ‘multifunction’ digital micrometer is becoming very popular in recent
times. The readings may be processed with ease. The push of a button can
convert a reading from decimal to inch and vice versa. Any position of the
spindle could be set to zero and the instrument can be used to inspect a job
within specified tolerance.

✔ The instrument can be connected to a computer or printer. Most of the

instruments can record a series of data and calculate statistical information
such as mean, standard deviation and range.

✔ Most of the instruments have a least count of 0.001 mm. An LCD screen
displays the reading with absolute linear scale with SPC data output. Easy
push button control is provided to choose various functions of the
instrument.
 Inside Micrometer Caliper
✔ The inside micrometer caliper
is useful for making small
measurements from 5 mm up
to 25 mm. In this instrument,
unlike a regular micrometer,
the axis of the instrument
does not coincide with the
line of measurement.

✔ The nibs, as the contacts are

called are ground to a small
✔ As illustrated in figure above, the movable jaw radius. As a necessity this
can be moved in and out by the rotation of the radius has to be smaller than
thimble. One complete rotation of the thimble the smallest radius the
moves it by one division on the barrel scale. A instrument can measure.
locknut can be operated to hold the position of Therefore, all measurements
the movable jaw for ease of noting down a are made with line contact.
reading.
Depth Micrometer
✔ An alternative to vernier depth gauge is the
depth micrometer. In fact, most shop floor
engineers vouch for its superiority over
vernier depth gauge because of greater
measuring range, better reliability and since
it is much easier to use.

✔ One peculiarity of this instrument is that it

reads in reverse from other micrometers.
Looking from the ratchet side, a clockwise
rotation moves the spindle downwards,
that is, into the depth of the job being
measured.

✔ Therefore, the entire barrel scale is visible

when the tip of the measuring rod is in line
with the bottom surface of the base.
 Floating Carriage Micrometer
✔ Floating Carriage Micrometre,
sometimes referred to as Effective
Diameter Measuring Micrometre.

✔ Gauge dimensions such as Outside

diameter, Pitch diameter, and Root
diameter are measured with the help of
this instrument.

✔ The carriage has a micrometre with a fixed spindle on one side and a movable
spindle with micrometre on the other side. The carriage moves on a finely ground
‘V’ guide way or an anti-friction guide way to facilitate movement in a direction
parallel to the axis of the plug gauge mounted between centres.

✔ The micrometre has a non-rotary spindle with a least count of up to 0.001 mm or

0.002 mm.
 Slip Gauges

✔ Slip gauges, also called gauge blocks can provide high degree of accuracy as
end standards. In fact, slip gauges are a direct link between the measurer and
the international length standards.

✔ The modern day slip gauges or gauge blocks owe their existence to the
pioneering work done by C.E.Johansson, a Swedish armoury inspector.
Therefore, gauge blocks are also known as Johansson gauges.

✔ He devised a set of slip gauges manufactured to specific heights to a very high

degree of accuracy and surface finish. He also proposed the method of
‘wringing’ the slip gauges to the required height to facilitate measurement.

✔ He also emphasised that the resulting slip gauges, to be of universal value,

must be calibrated to the international standard.
Slip Gauges
 Slip Gauges

✔ Figure illustrates the functional features of a slip gauge. It is made of hardened

alloy steel having 30 mm by 10 mm cross section.

✔ Steel is the preferred material since it is economical and has the same
co-efficient of thermal expansion as majority of steel components used in
production. Hardening is required to make slip gauge resistant to wear.

✔ Hardening is followed by stabilising at sub-zero temperature to relieve stresses

developed during heat treatment. This is followed by finishing the measuring
faces to a high degree of accuracy, flatness and surface finish.

✔ The length between measuring surfaces, flatness and surface conditions of

measuring faces are the most important requirements of slip gauges.
 Gauge Block Shapes, Grades, and Sizes

✔ Slip gauges are available in three basic shapes: rectangular, square with a central
hole, and square without a central hole. Rectangular blocks are the most
commonly used.

✔ Square slip gauges have larger surface area and lesser wear rate because of
uniform distribution of stresses during measurements.

✔ Square gauge blocks with central holes permit the use of tie rods, which ensure
that the built-up slip gauges do not fall apart.

✔ Slip gauges are classified into grades depending on their guaranteed accuracy. The
grade defines the type of application for which a slip gauge is suited, such as
inspection, reference, or calibration. Accordingly, slip gauges are designated into
five grades, namely grade 2, grade 1, grade 0, grade 00, and inspection grade.
Gauge Block Shapes, Grades, and Sizes
Grade 2 This is the workshop-grade slip gauge. Typical uses include setting up
machine tools, milling cutters, etc., on the shop floor.

Grade 1 This grade is used for tool room applications for setting up sine bars, dial
indicators, calibration of vernier, micrometer instruments, and so on.

Grade 0 This is an inspection-grade slip gauge. Limited people will have access to this
slip gauge and extreme care is taken to guard it against rough usage.

Grade 00 This set is kept in the standards room and is used for inspection/calibration
of high precision only. It is also used to check the accuracy of the workshop and
grade 1 slip gauges.

Slip gauges are available in standard sets in both metric and inch units. In metric
units, sets of 31, 48, 56, and 103 pieces are available.
 Wringing of Slip Gauges
✔ Wringing is the phenomenon of adhesion of two flat and smooth surfaces when
they are brought into close contact with each other. The force of adhesion is such
that the stack of a set of blocks will almost serve as a single block and can be
handled and moved around without disturbing the position of individual blocks.

✔ More importantly, if the surfaces are clean and flat, the thin layer of film
separating the blocks will also have negligible thickness. This means that stacking
of multiple blocks of known dimensions will give the overall dimension with
minimum error.

✔ The surfaces are in such close proximity that there is molecular adhesion of high
magnitude which creates a high adhesion force. Since the slip gauge surfaces
undergo lapping as a super finishing operation, material removal takes place at
molecular level.

✔ Since some molecules are lost during the lapping operation, material is receptive
to molecules of the mating surface, which creates high molecular adhesion.
 Wringing of Slip Gauges
Following are the preferred steps in wringing of slip gauges

✔Clean slip gauge surfaces with a fine hair brush (camel hair brushes are often
recommended) and a dry pad.
✔Overlap gauging surfaces about ¼ th of their length as shown in figure below
✔Slide one block perpendicularly across the other by applying moderate pressure. The
two blocks should now form the shape as shown in the figure
✔Now, gently rotate one of the blocks till it is in line with the other block as in figures
(c) and (d) below
 Comparators

✔ All measurements require the unknown quantity to be compared with a known

quantity, called a standard.

✔ There are certain devices in which the standards are separated from the
instrument. It compares the unknown length with the standard. Such
measurement is known as comparison measurement and the instrument,
which provides such comparison, is called a comparator.

✔ Comparators are generally used for linear measurements, and various

comparators available differ basically in the methods employed for amplifying
and recording the variations measured.
 Functional Requirements

✔ High degree of accuracy and precision.

✔ The scale should be linear and have a wide range.

✔ High amplification.

✔ Good resolution.

✔ Provision should be incorporated in order to compensate for temperature

effects.

✔ Comparator should be versatile.

 Classification of Comparators

✔ Mechanical comparators

✔ Mechanical-optical comparator

✔ Electrical and electronic comparators

✔ Pneumatic comparators

✔ Other types such as projection comparators, multi-check comparators, etc.

Dial Indicators
Johansson Mikrokator
 Johansson Mikrokator

✔ A light pointer made of glass fixed to a thin twisted metal strip

✔ While one end of the strip is fixed to an adjustable cantilever link, the other end is
anchored to a bell crank lever

✔ Any linear motion of the plunger will result in a movement of the bell crank lever,
which exerts either a push or pull force on the metal strip.

✔ Accordingly the glass pointer will rotate either clockwise or anti-clockwise

depending on the direction of plunger movement

✔ A calibrated scale is employed with the pointer, so that any axial movement of the
plunger can be conveniently recorded.
 Sigma Comparator

The magnification of the instrument is obtained in two stages. In the first stage, if
the effective length of Y-arm is L and the distance from the hinge pivot to the knife
edge is x, then magnification is L/x. The second stage of magnification is obtained
with respect to the pointer length R and driving drum radius r. The magnification is
given by R/r. Therefore, overall magnification is given by (L/x) × (R/r).
Sigma Comparator
Reed type Comparator
 Mechanical Optical Comparator

The multiplication factor 2 figures in the optical amplification because if the mirror is
tilted by θ°, then the image is tilted by 2θ° over the scale. Thus, the overall
magnification of the system is given by 2 × (l4/l3) × (l2/l1).
Zeiss Ultra-optimeter
Optical Projector
Electrical and Electronic Comparators
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Sigma Electronic Comparator
Sigma Electronic Comparator
 Advantages of electronic comparators

1. High accuracy and reliability.

2. High sensitivity in all ranges.

3. High speed of response.

4. Easy provision for multiple amplification ranges.

5. Versatility (a large number of measurement situations can be handled with

standard accessories).

6. Easy integration into an automated system.

 Pneumatic Comparators

✔ Pneumatic gauge lends itself to gauging of several features

at once, it has become an indispensable part of production
inspection in the industry.

✔ It is possible to gauge length, diameter, squareness,

parallelism, taper, concentricity, etc using a simple set up.
Free Flow Air Gauge
✔ Compressed air with a pressure in the
range 1.5 to 2 bars is passed through a
tapered glass column, which contains a
small metal float.

✔ The air then passes through a rubber or

plastic hose and exits to the atmosphere
through the orifice in the gauging head.

✔ Since the gauging head is inserted inside

the work part, which is being inspected,
there is a small clearance between the
gauging head and the work part.

✔ This restricts the flow of air, thereby

changing the position of the float inside
the tapered glass column.
Free Flow Air Gauge
✔ It is clear from the graph that as
clearance increases, so does the flow
rate. The curve has a linear portion,
which is used for measurement
purpose.

✔ This linearity in the gauging range

permits the dimensional variation to
be measured accurately up to one
micron.

✔ A calibrated scale enables the reading

to be read off directly from the scale.
Amplification up to 1,00,000:1 have
been built into these gauges.
Free Flow Air Gauge
 Back Pressure Gauge

✔ This system uses a two orifice arrangement as shown in figure above. While the
orifice O1 is called the control orifice, the orifice O2 is referred to as the
measuring orifice.

✔ The measuring head gets compressed air supply at a constant pressure ‘P’,
which is called the source pressure

✔ Depending upon the gap d, the back pressure Pb changes, thereby providing a
means for measuring dimension ‘d’.
Back Pressure Gauge
 Solex Pneumatic Gauge

✔ This air gauge has been developed and marketed by Solex air Gauges Ltd. of USA
and is one of the most popular pneumatic comparator in the industry.

✔ The Solex pneumatic gauge is generally used for the inspection of internal
dimensions, although it is also used for external measurement with suitable
attachments.
 Applications of Pneumatic Comparators
✔ Pneumatic gauging is one of the widely used methods for inspection of holes.

✔ The gauging elements can be adapted to measure nearly any feature of the hole
including diameter, roundness, squareness and straightness.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ No two parts can be produced with identical measurements by any
manufacturing process.

✔ In any production process, regardless of how well it is designed or how

carefully it is maintained, a certain amount of natural variability will
always exist.

✔ These natural variations are random in nature and are the cumulative
effect of many small, essentially uncontrollable causes.

✔ Usually, variability arises from improperly adjusted machines, operator

error, tool wear, and/or defective raw materials.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ Such characteristic variability is generally large when compared to the
natural variability.

✔ This variability, which is not a part of random or chance cause pattern,

is referred to as ‘assignable causes’.

✔ Characteristic variations can be attributed to assignable causes that

can easily be identified and controlled.

✔ If the process can be kept under control, that is, all the assignable and
controllable causes of variations have been eliminated or controlled,
the size variations will be well within the prescribed limits.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ Some variability in dimension within certain limits must be tolerated
during manufacture, however precise the process may be.

✔ The permissible level of tolerance depends on the functional

requirements, which cannot be compromised.

✔ No component can be manufactured precisely to a given dimension; it

can only be made to lie between two limits, upper (maximum) and
lower (minimum).

✔ The designer has to suggest these tolerance limits, which are

acceptable for each of the dimensions used to define shape and form,
and ensure satisfactory operation in service.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ When the tolerance allowed is sufficiently greater than the process
variation, no difficulty arises.

✔ The difference between the upper and lower limits is termed permissive
tolerance.

✔ For example, a shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of 40 ± 0.02

mm.

✔ This means that the shaft, which has a basic size of 40 mm, will be
acceptable if its diameter lies anywhere between the limits of sizes, that
is, an upper limit of 40.02 mm and a lower limit of 39.98 mm. Then
permissive tolerance is equal to 40.02 − 39.98 = 0.04.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ For manufacturing a large number of components, it is not economical
to produce both the mating parts (components) using the same
operator.

✔ Further, such parts need to be manufactured within minimum possible

time without compromising on quality.

✔ To enable the manufacture of identical parts, mass production, an idea

of the last industrial revolution that has become very popular and
synonymous with the present manufacturing industry, becomes
inevitable.

✔ Modern production techniques require that a complete product be

broken into various component parts so that the production of each part
becomes an independent process, leading to specialization.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ The various components are manufactured in one or more batches by
different persons on different machines at different locations and are
then assembled at one place.

✔ To achieve this, it is essential that the parts are manufactured in bulk to

the desired accuracy and, at the same time, adhere to the limits of
accuracy specified. Manufacture of components under such conditions
is called interchangeable manufacture.

✔ When interchangeable manufacture is adopted, any one component

selected at random should assemble with any other arbitrarily chosen
mating component.

✔ In order to assemble with a predetermined fit, the dimensions of the

components must be confined within the permissible tolerance limits.
 Principle of Interchangeability

✔Production on an interchangeable basis results in an increased

productivity with a corresponding reduction in manufacturing cost.

✔Another major advantage of interchangeability is the ease with which

replacement of defective or worn-out parts is carried out, resulting in
reduced maintenance cost.

✔In addition, the operator, by performing the same limited number of

operations, becomes a specialist in that work.
 Principle of Interchangeability

✔In order to achieve interchangeability, certain standards need to be

followed, based on which interchangeability can be categorized into two
types—universal interchangeability and local interchangeability.

✔When the parts that are manufactured at different locations are randomly
chosen for assembly, it is known as universal interchangeability.

✔To achieve universal interchangeability, it is desirable that common

standards be followed by all and the standards used at various
manufacturing locations be traceable to international standards.
 Principle of Interchangeability
✔ When the parts that are manufactured at the same manufacturing unit
are randomly drawn for assembly, it is referred to as local
interchangeability.

✔ In this case, local standards are followed, which in turn should be

traceable to international standards, as this becomes necessary to
obtain the spares from any other source.

✔ In selective assembly, the manufactured components are classified into

groups according to their sizes.

✔ Automatic gauging is employed for this purpose. Both the mating parts
are segregated according to their sizes, and only matched groups of
mating parts are assembled.
 Selective Assembly Approach
✔ It is equally important to produce the part economically and, at the same time,
maintain the quality of the product for trouble-free operation.

✔ Sometimes, for instance, if a part of minimum limit is assembled with a mating

part of maximum limit, the fit obtained may not fully satisfy the functional
requirements of the assembly.

✔ The reason may be attributed to the issues of accuracy and uniformity that may
not be satisfied by the certainty of the fits given under a fully interchangeable
system.

✔ It should be realized that, in practice, complete interchangeability is not always

feasible; instead, selective assembly approach can be employed.
 Selective Assembly Approach
✔ Attaining complete interchangeability in these cases involves some extra cost in
inspection and material handling, as selective assembly approach is employed
wherein the parts are manufactured to wider tolerances.

✔ In selectively assembly, despite being manufactured to rather wide tolerances,

the parts fit and function as if they were precisely manufactured in a precision
laboratory to very close tolerances.

✔ This ensures complete protection and elimination of defective assemblies, and

the matching costs are reduced because the parts are produced with wider
tolerances.

✔ Selective assembly finds application in aerospace and automobile industries.

✔ In a broader sense, a combination of both interchangeable and selective

assemblies exists in modern-day manufacturing industries, which help to
manufacture quality products.
 Tolerances
✔ Tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension
or other measured value or control criterion from the specified value.

✔ It can also be defined as the total variation permitted in the size of a dimension,
and is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower acceptable
dimensions.
 Tolerances
Classification of Tolerance
Tolerance can be classified under the following categories:
1. Unilateral tolerance
2. Bilateral tolerance
3. Compound tolerance
4. Geometric tolerance

Unilateral Tolerance
When the tolerance distribution is only on one side of the basic size, it is
known as unilateral tolerance.
In other words, tolerance limits lie wholly on one side of the basic size,
either above or below it.

Example: + 0.02 + 0.02 – 0.01 + 0.00

+ 0.01 – 0.00 – 0.02 – 0.02
40 , 40 , 40 , 40
 Tolerances
Bilateral Tolerance

When the tolerance distribution lies on either side of the basic size, it is known as
bilateral tolerance.

In other words, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both sides of the
basic size but may not be necessarily equally disposed about it.

Example: + 0.02
± 0.02 – 0.01
40 , 40
 Tolerances
Compound Tolerance
When tolerance is determined by established tolerances on more than one
dimension, it is known as compound tolerance.

For example, tolerance for the dimension R is determined by the combined effects
of tolerance on 40 mm dimension, on 60º, and on 20 mm dimension.
The tolerance obtained for dimension R is known as compound tolerance (Fig.
3.4). In practice, compound tolerance should be avoided as far as possible.
 Tolerances
✔ Geometric tolerance is defined as the total amount that the dimension of a
manufactured part can vary.

✔ This method is frequently used in industries. Depending on the functional

requirements, tolerance on diameter, straightness, and roundness may be
specified separately.

✔ Geometric tolerances are used to indicate the relationship of one part of an

object with another. Consider the example shown in Fig. 3.5.
 Tolerances
✔ Geometric tolerance can be classified as follows:

✔ Form tolerances: Form tolerances are a group of geometric tolerances applied

to individual features. They limit the amount of error in the shape of a feature
and are independent tolerances. Form tolerances as such do not require
locating dimensions. These include straightness, circularity, flatness, and
cylindricity.

✔ Orientation tolerances: Orientation tolerances are a type of geometric

tolerances used to limit the direction or orientation of a feature in relation to
other features. These are related tolerances. Perpendicularity, parallelism,
and angularity fall into this category.

✔ Positional tolerances: Positional tolerances are a group of geometric

tolerances that controls the extent of deviation of the location of a feature
from its true position. This is a three-dimensional geometric tolerance
comprising position, symmetry, and concentricity.
 Maximum and Minimum Metal
Conditions

✔ Let us consider a shaft having a dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm.

✔ The maximum metal limit (MML) of the shaft will have a dimension of 40.05 mm
because at this higher limit, the shaft will have the maximum possible amount of
metal.

✔ The shaft will have the least possible amount of metal at a lower limit of 39.95
mm, and this limit of the shaft is known as minimum or least metal limit (LML).

✔ Similarly, consider a hole having a dimension of 45 ± 0.05 mm.

✔ The hole will have a maximum possible amount of metal at a lower limit of 44.95
mm and the lower limit of the hole is designated as MML.
 Maximum and Minimum Metal
Conditions
✔ For example, when a hole is drilled in a component, minimum amount of material
is removed at the lower limit size of the hole. This lower limit of the hole is known
as MML.

✔ The higher limit of the hole will be the LML. At a high limit of 45.05 mm, the hole
will have the least possible amount of metal.

✔ The maximum and minimum metal conditions are shown in Fig. 3.8
 Maximum and Minimum Metal
Conditions

✔ Let us consider a shaft having a dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm.

✔ The maximum metal limit (MML) of the shaft will have a dimension of 40.05 mm
because at this higher limit, the shaft will have the maximum possible amount of
metal.

✔ The shaft will have the least possible amount of metal at a lower limit of 39.95
mm, and this limit of the shaft is known as minimum or least metal limit (LML).

✔ Similarly, consider a hole having a dimension of 45 ± 0.05 mm.

✔ The hole will have a maximum possible amount of metal at a lower limit of 44.95
mm and the lower limit of the hole is designated as MML.
 Maximum and Minimum Metal
Conditions
✔ For example, when a hole is drilled in a component, minimum amount of material
is removed at the lower limit size of the hole. This lower limit of the hole is known
as MML.

✔ The higher limit of the hole will be the LML. At a high limit of 45.05 mm, the hole
will have the least possible amount of metal.

✔ The maximum and minimum metal conditions are shown in Fig. 3.8
 FITS
Fits

✔Manufactured parts are required to mate with one another during assembly.

✔The relationship between the two mating parts that are to be assembled, that is, the
hole and the shaft, with respect to the difference in their dimensions before assembly
is called a fit.

✔An ideal fit is required for proper functioning of the mating parts. Three basic types of
fits can be identified, depending on the actual limits of the hole or shaft:
 FITS
1. Clearance fit
2. Interference fit
3. Transition fit
Clearance fit: The largest permissible
diameter of the shaft is smaller than the
diameter of the smallest hole.
✔ This type of fit always provides clearance.
Small clearances are provided for a precise
fit that can easily be assembled without the
assistance of tools. When relative motions
are required, large clearances can be
provided, for example, a shaft rotating in a
bush.
✔ In case of clearance fit, the difference
between the sizes is always positive. The
clearance fit is described in Fig. 3.9.
 FITS
Interference fit: The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft exceeds
the maximum allowable diameter of the hole.

This type of fit always provides interference. Interference fit is a form of a

tight fit. Tools are required for the precise assembly of two parts with an
interference fit.

✔When two mating parts are assembled with an interference fit, it will be
an almost permanent assembly, that is, the parts will not come apart or
move during use. To assemble the parts with interference, heating or
cooling may be required.

✔In an interference fit, the difference between the sizes is always negative.
 Transition Fit
✔ Transition fit: The diameter of the largest permissible hole is
greater than the diameter of the smallest shaft and the
diameter of the smallest hole is smaller than the diameter of
the largest shaft.
✔ In other words, the combination of maximum diameter of the
shaft and minimum diameter of the hole results in an
interference fit, while that of minimum diameter of the shaft
and maximum diameter of the hole yields a clearance fit.
✔ Since the tolerance zones overlap, this type of fit may
sometimes provide clearance and sometimes interference, as
depicted in Fig. 3.11.
 Allowance
✔ Allowance: An allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum
material limits, that is, LLH and HLS (minimum clearance or maximum
interference) of the two mating parts. It is the prescribed difference between
the dimensions of the mating parts to obtain the desired type of fit.
✔ Allowance may be positive or negative. Positive allowance indicates a clearance
fit, and an interference fit is indicated by a negative allowance.
Allowance = LLH − HLS
 Formula Used
Determination of tolerance
✔Tolerance on hole = HLH − LLH

✔Tolerance on shaft = HLS − LLS

Determination of allowance
✔Allowance = Maximum metal condition of hole − Maximum metal condition of
shaft = LLH − HLS

Determination of clearances:
✔Maximum clearance = HLH − LLS

✔Minimum clearance = LLH − HLS

✔If both the differences are positive, the fit obtained is a clearance fit, and if
negative, it is an interference fit. If one difference is positive and the other is
negative, then it is a transition fit.
Problems
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