Atoms, elements and

compounds
Learning outcomes
You should be able to;
• Identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative charges and relative masses
• Deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in electric fields
• Deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given proton and nucleon
numbers and charge
• Describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms of proton number and nucleon number
• Distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of neutrons present
x
• Recognise and use the symbolism yA for isotopes, where x is the nucleon number and y is the proton number.
Introduction
The universe is made up of a very large number of substances, and our
own part of the universe is no exception.
When we examine this vast array of substances more closely, it is
found that they are made up of some basic substances which were
given the name elements.
In 1803, John Dalton suggested that each element was composed of its
own kind of particles, which he called atoms. The word atom comes
from the Greek word atomos meaning ‘unsplittable’. Atoms are much
too small to be seen.

Structures in the universe, such as stars,

planets and meteorites, are made of
millions of substances.
Elements and atoms
Every substance in our world is made up from chemical elements. These chemical elements cannot be broken
down further into simpler substances by chemical means.
Every element has its own chemical symbol. The symbols are often derived from Latin or Greek words.

• One hundred and eighteen elements have now been

identified.

• The elements have different properties that we can

measure, and we can then classify them according to
those properties.

• All elements can be classified according to their various

properties. A simple way to do this is to classify them as
metals or non-metals.

• The elements also have chemical properties, which are

characteristics or behaviours that may be observed when
Gold is very the substance undergoes a chemical change or reaction.
decorative
Elements and atoms
Chemical elements contain only one type of atom. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can take part in
a chemical change.

Sodium is made of tiny particles called Diamond is made of carbon atoms

sodium atoms.

So you can see sodium only if there are enough sodium atoms together in one place!

The smallest atom is hydrogen, and we represent each hydrogen atom as a sphere having a diameter of
0.00000007mm (or 7 × 10−8mm)
Molecules
The atoms of some elements are joined together in small groups. These small groups of atoms are called molecules.
The atoms of some elements are always joined in pairs, for example, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine. They are known as diatomic molecules.
In chemical shorthand the molecule of chlorine is written as Cl2.
The gaseous elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon are composed of separate, individual atoms.
When an element exists as separate atoms, then the molecules are said to be monatomic.
In chemical shorthand these monatomic molecules are written as He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn respectively.

Molecules are not always formed by atoms of

the same type joining together as elemental
molecules.

A molecule of chlorine Most molecules consist of atoms of different

represented by a letter- elements, for example, water exists as
and-stick model molecules containing oxygen and hydrogen A model of water showing 2 H
atoms. atoms and one O atom. Models
such as this can be built to show
what a compound looks like.
Compounds
A compound is made of atoms of different elements, bonded together.
Water is a simple compound formed from the elements hydrogen and oxygen.

All molecules are not compounds.

All compounds are molecules.
Formulae
The formula of a compound is made up from the symbols of the elements that make up the compound and numbers
that show the ratio of the different atoms the compound is made from.
Carbon dioxide has the formula CO2, which tells you that it contains one carbon atom for every two oxygen atoms.
The 2 in the formula indicates that there are two oxygen atoms present in each molecule of carbon dioxide.

The ratio of atoms within a chemical compound is

usually constant. Compounds are made up of fixed
proportions of elements: they have a fixed
composition. Chemists call this the Law of constant
composition.
Mixtures
Many everyday things are not pure substances: they are mixtures. A mixture contains more than one substance,
which could be elements and/or compounds. Examples of common mixtures are:
• sea water
• air, which is a mixture of elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and neon, and compounds such as carbon dioxide
• alloys such as brass, which is a mixture of copper and zinc

Substances in a mixture have not undergone a chemical reaction and it is possible to separate them, provided
that there is a suitable difference in their physical properties.

If a mixture of iron and sulfur is heated, a chemical reaction occurs and a new substance is formed. The product of
the reaction is iron(II) sulfide.
The major differences between
mixtures and compounds
Mixture Compound
It contains two or more substances. It is a single substance.
The composition can vary. The composition is always the same.
No chemical change takes place when a mixture is When the new substance is formed it involves chemical
formed. change.
The properties are those of the individual elements/ The properties are very different to those of the
compounds. component elements.
The components may be separated quite easily by The components can only be separated by one or more
physical means. chemical reactions.
Structure of the atom
• Every atom has nearly all of its mass concentrated in a tiny region
in the centre of the atom called the nucleus.
• The nucleus is made up of particles called nucleons. There two
are types of nucleon: protons and neutrons.
• Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons.
• Outside the nucleus, particles called electrons move around in
regions of space called orbitals.

Atoms are tiny, but the nucleus of an atom is

far tinier still. If the diameter of an atom were
the size of a football stadium, the nucleus
would only be the size of a pea. This means A model of a carbon atom
that most of the atom is empty space! Electrons
are even smaller than protons and neutrons. Protons, neutrons and electrons are
known as subatomic particles.

We can describe the structure of the atom as a central nucleus containing neutrons and protons surrounded
by electrons in shells.
Characteristics of a proton, a neutron and
an electron
• The three subatomic particles are found in distinct Subatomic Relative mass Relative Location in
regions of the atom. The protons and neutrons are particle charge atom
located in the small central nucleus. proton 1 +1 in nucleus
• The electrons are present in the space surrounding
the nucleus. neutron 1 0 in nucleus
• The electrons are held in the shells within the
atom by an electrostatic force of attraction electron 𝟏 -1 outside
between themselves and the positive charge of nucleus
𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟎
protons in the nucleus. (negligible)
• Each shell can contain only a fixed number of
electrons: the first shell can hold up to two
electrons, the second shell can hold up to eight Although atoms contain electrically charged particles, the
electrons, the third shell can hold up to 18, and so atoms themselves are electrically neutral (they have no
on. overall charge). This must mean that in any atom there
are an equal number of protons and electrons.
The simplest atom is the hydrogen atom.
Behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and
electrons in an electric field
We can deduce the electric charge of subatomic
particles by showing how beams of electrons, protons
and neutrons behave in electric fields.
• a proton beam is deflected away from a positively
charged plate; as like charges repel, the protons
must have a positive charge
• an electron beam is deflected towards a positively
charged plate; as unlike charges attract, the
electrons must have a negative charge
• a beam of neutrons is not deflected; this is because
they are uncharged.
How electrons are arranged
Electron shells A simplified version of Bohr’s atomic
theory of the arrangement of electrons
Niels Bohr developed a theory to explain how electrons
were arranged in atoms. in an atom.
This theory helps to explain how the colours in a flame test • Electrons are in orbit around the central
are produced nucleus of the atom
• The electron orbits are called electron shells
(or energy levels) and have different energies
• Shells that are further from the nucleus have
Third level: Sometimes higher energies
appear full with eight • The shells are filled starting with the one with
electrons but can lowest energy (closest to the nucleus)
expand to a total of 18 • The first shell can hold only two electrons
Increasing • The second and subsequent shells can hold
Second level: room for eight electrons to give a stable (noble gas)
energy and
only eight electrons
distance from arrangement of electrons.
nucleus
First level: room for only
two electrons
How electrons are arranged
Electron shells

The distribution of electrons in the atom above is written in a short way 2,8,8
How electrons are arranged
Proton number and mass number
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the proton number (or atomic number) and is given
the symbol Z.
• Each element has its own proton number and no two elements have the same proton number. For example, the
element lithium has a proton number of 3 since it has three protons in its nucleus.
• Neutrons and protons have a similar mass, whereas electrons possess very little mass.
• So the mass of any atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
• The total number of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number (or
nucleon number) and is given the symbol A.

Key Definitions
Proton number or atomic number is the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.

Mass number or nucleon number is the total number of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Proton number and mass number
mass number (A) = proton number (Z) + number of neutrons

The number of neutrons present can be calculated by rearranging the

relationship between the proton number, mass number and number of
neutrons to give:
number of neutrons = mass number (A) − proton number (Z)
The proton number and mass number of an element are usually written in the following shorthand way:
Proton number and mass number
Question
A. What is the number of neutrons in one atom of 𝟐𝟒
𝟏𝟐𝐌𝐠 ?

𝟐𝟎𝟕
B. What is the number of neutrons in one atom of 𝟖𝟐𝐏𝐛 ?
Ions
An ion is an electrically charged particle.
➢ When an atom loses one or more electrons, it is no longer electrically neutral and becomes a positively charged
ion. This is called a cation.
➢ For example, when potassium is involved in a chemical reaction, each atom loses an electron to form a positive
ion, K+.

➢ When an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion. This is called an anion.
➢ For example, in some of the chemical reactions involving oxygen, each oxygen atom gains two electrons to form
a negative ion, O2−.
Question
Deduce the number of electrons in each of these ions:
𝟒𝟎 +
a) 𝟏𝟗𝐊
𝟏𝟓 +
b) 𝟕𝐍
𝟏𝟖 2-
c) 𝟖𝐎
𝟕𝟏
d) 𝟑𝟏 𝐆𝐚3+
Isotopes
In some elements, not all of the atoms in a sample of the element are identical. Some atoms of the same element can
contain different numbers of neutrons and so have different mass numbers.
Atoms of the same element which have different neutron numbers are called isotopes.
The two isotopes of chlorine are:

Key Definition
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical

The symbol for the isotope of boron with 5 protons and 11 properties because they have the same number of
nucleons is written: electrons and therefore the same electronic
configuration
Isotopes
Hydrogen has three isotopes.

The isotopes of hydrogen can be called hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3

Isotopes and Radioactivity
Some isotopes are radioactive.
• There are two types of isotopes: those which are stable and those which are unstable. The isotopes which are
unstable, as a result of the extra neutrons in their nuclei, are radioactive and are called radioisotopes.
• The nuclei of these atoms break up spontaneously with the release of not only large amounts of energy, but
also certain types of dangerous radiations that can in some cases be useful to society.
• For example, uranium-235 is used as a source of power in nuclear reactors in nuclear power stations and cobalt-60
is used in radiotherapy treatment in hospitals.

Cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy treatment.

A beam of gamma rays produced by the
radioactive isotope is directed into the patient’s
body to kill tumour tissue.
Isotopes and Radioactivity
Radiation can harm you!
Radiation can cause changes in living cells. The effects of radiation exposure depend on the type and amount of
radiation received.
• Massive doses of radiation result in harmful changes. DNA molecules are especially sensitive to radiation.
Changes in DNA can upset cell chemistry and result in cell death or uncontrolled growth (cancer).
• If radiation causes changes in the chromosomal DNA of a sperm cell or an ovum, these changes are transmitted
to the offspring.
Isotopes and Radioactivity
Making use of radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are dangerous – but they are also useful. For example:
• To check for leaks: Engineers can check oil and gas pipes for leaks by adding radioisotopes to the oil or gas. If a
Geiger counter detects radiation outside the pipe, it means there is a leak. Radioisotopes used in this way are called
tracers.
• To treat cancer: Radioisotopes can cause cancer. But they are also used in radiotherapy to cure cancer – because
the gamma rays in radiation kill cancer cells more readily than healthy cells. Cobalt-60 is usually used for this. The
beam of gamma rays is aimed carefully at the site of the cancer in the body.
• To kill germs and bacteria: Gamma rays kill germs too. So they are used to sterilise syringes and other
disposable medical equipment. They also kill the bacteria that cause food to decay. So in many countries, foods
like vegetables, fruit, spices, and meat, are treated with a low dose of radiation. Cobalt-60 and cesium-137 are used
for this.
• Carbon-dating: Our bodies contain some carbon-14, taken in in food. When we die, we take no more in. But the
carbon-14 atoms continue to decay. So scientists can tell the age of ancient remains by measuring the radioactivity
from them.
Relative Atomic Mass
• A single atom cannot be weighed on a balance. However, the mass of one atom can be compared to that of
another using a mass spectrometer.
• Since we are comparing masses of atoms, the values we obtain are relative values and we need to set a standard
against which other atoms are measured.
• In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended that the standard
used for the Relative Atomic Mass scale was carbon-12.
• An atom of carbon-12 was taken to have a mass of 12 amu.
• Why Carbon?
➢ Carbon was chosen as standard because there are far more compounds containing carbon than any other
element.
• The masses of all other atoms are compared to the mass of a carbon atom. This gives a series of values of the
relative atomic mass (Ar) for the different elements.
Relative Atomic Mass
Relative atomic masses of some element

Element Atomic Symbol Relative atomic mass (Ar)

carbon C 12
hydrogen H 1
oxygen O 16
calcium Ca 40
copper Cu 64
gold Au 197

Relative atomic mass (Ar): The average mass of

Mass spectrometer: An instrument in which atoms
naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale
or molecules are ionised and then accelerated; the
where the carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12
ions are then separated according to their mass.
units.
Mass Spectrometry
A mass spectrometer can be used to measure the mass of each
isotope present in an element. It also compares how much of
each isotope is present – the relative abundance (isotopic
abundance).

Principle of operation
The atoms of the element in the vaporised sample are
converted into ions. The stream of ions is brought to a detector
after being deflected (bent) by a strong magnetic field. As the
magnetic field is increased, the ions of heavier and heavier
isotopes are brought to the detector. The detector is connected
to a computer, which displays the mass spectrum.
Simplified diagram of a mass spectrometer.

The mass spectrum produced shows the relative abundance

(isotopic abundance) on the vertical axis and the mass to ion
charge ratio (m/e) on the horizontal axis.
Mass Spectrometry

The mass spectrum of a sample of lead. The mass spectrum of neon, Ne.
Calculating relative atomic mass
To calculate the relative atomic mass we follow this method:
• multiply each isotopic mass by its percentage abundance
• add the figures together
• divide by 100

Example
What is the relative atomic mass of chlorine? Chlorine has two isotopes:
35 37
17Cl 17Cl
% abundance 75 25

σ(𝐈𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐱 % 𝐚𝐛𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞) Hence the ‘average mass’ or Ar of a chlorine atom is:
Ar = Ar (Cl) =
𝟑𝟓 𝐱 𝟕𝟓 +(𝟑𝟕 𝐱 𝟐𝟓) 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟎
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐛𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 =
𝟕𝟓+𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎

= 35.5 amu
Calculating relative atomic mass

a) Given that the percentage abundance of 20 22

10Ne is 90% and that of 10Ne is 10%, calculate the Ar of neon.

b) The table shows the relative masses and the percentage abundances of the two isotopes of boron.

Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron to one decimal place.

Calculating relative atomic mass
From a mass spectra
Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon from its mass spectrum.

The mass spectrum of neon has three peaks:

20Ne (90.9%), 21Ne (0.3%) and 22Ne (8.8%).

𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟗𝟎.𝟗 + 𝟐𝟏.𝟎 𝐱 𝟎.𝟑 +(𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟖.𝟖) 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕.𝟗

Ar of Ne = = = 20.2
𝟗𝟎.𝟗+𝟎.𝟑+𝟖.𝟖 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Electronic configuration and the Periodic
Table

• Electron arrangement is key to

understanding and predicting the
properties and characteristics of an
element.

• You can directly link the electronic

configuration of an element to its position
in the Periodic Table.
Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table
Patterns in the Periodic Table
Note these patterns for the table of the first 20 elements
• The period number tells you how many shells there are.
• The group number is the same as the number of outer-
shell electrons, except for Group 0.
• All the elements in a group have the same number of
electrons in their outer shells. So Group I elements have 1,
Group II have 2, and so on. These outer-shell electrons are
also called the valency electrons.
• The valency electrons dictate how an element reacts. So
the elements in Group I all have similar reactions, for
example.

Keywords
Group number: The number of the vertical column that an
element is in on the Periodic Table.

Period number: The horizontal row of the Periodic Table that an

element is in.
Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table
The noble gas electronic configuration
• Noble gases (Group 0) are very unreactive gases. The elements in Group 0 have a very stable arrangement of
electrons.
• Noble gas atoms have a ‘full’ outer shell of electrons. Their atoms all have 8 outer-shell electrons, except for
helium, which has 2. (It has only one shell.)
• Noble gas atoms do not make chemical bonds with the atoms of other elements by sharing or transferring their
outer electrons. That means their atoms exist naturally as single atoms.

When the atoms of elements other than

the noble gases combine together to
form molecules, the atoms involved often
achieve the same stable arrangement of
electrons characteristic of the noble
gases.
Questions
1. One element has atoms with 13 electrons.
a) Draw a diagram to show the electron distribution.
b) Name the element.
2. An element has 5 valency electrons. Which group is it in?
3. How many electron shells do atoms of Period 3 have?
4. The element krypton, Kr, is in Group 0, Period 4. Its proton number is
36.
a) Write down the electronic configuration for krypton.
b) What can you say about the reactivity of krypton?