Prof.

Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 1

  Nature and classification of geomaterials

 Typical phenomena related to the nature of

geomaterials

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 2

Geomaterials

All types of rocks (Igneous, If eroded, transported

sedimentary and metamorphic) can and sedimentated they
be exposed to external atmosphere form sediments
Igneous
effusive rocks

Sediments

Rised up formed
the montains
Igneous
intrusive rocks Covered, compacted
and cemented form….
Warmed
and/or deformed
forms… Sedimentary
Warmed rocks
Melted and/or deformed
forms… Metamorphic
forms…
rocks

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 3

Sediments (soils) formation

 Phases (1) and (2) affect

the soil nature

 Phases (3) and (4) affect

the deposit structure

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 4

Geomaterials
 Inorganic soils:
 Aggregation of particles with size within the range 10-4÷103 mm.
 Fragments of rocks or mono-mineral crystals
 Their properties depend from: grain-size distribution (i.e. mean diameter
and frequency of various soil fractions), grain shapes, mineralogical
nature of particles, interstitial fluid, aggregation conditions.
 Organic soils:
 Mainly composed by organic fraction (animal or vegetable residuals)

 Rocks and rock masses:

 Natural materials formed by a geogenic process
 Rock  aggregation of minerals with high cohesion
 Rock mass  rock formations interrupted by primary and secondary
joints or discontinuities
 Artificial materials:
 Material formed with an human activities (primary or secondary
products or wastes)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 5

Soil classification
Layer involved in main geotechnical problems: about 1-60 m.
The geotechnical behavior is affected by the particle sizes, the nature and
structures of soils, etc. ⇒ we need a classification

Inorganic soils: the classification is based on size and mineralogical

composition

Argilla Limo Sabbia Ghiaia Ciottoli

(clay) (silt) (sand) (gravel) (coble)
0,002 0,06 2 60 d (mm)

Organic soils: their classification is based on the content and nature of the
organic material

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 6

Soil classification
The fraction subdivision differs in the various international standards. Here
some examples:

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 7

Grain size analysis: sieve analysis
coarse grained soils

gravel

sand

 Sieve Analysis, by screening a known dried

weight of soil through a stack of sieves with
biggest opening of sieves at top
 Number on sieve corresponds to the number of
square openings per square inches (number
200 sieve means 200 openings per square inch
i.e. opening size = 0.075 mm x 0.075 mm)
 Used for coarse-grained soils
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 8
Grain size analysis: hydrometer analysis
Sieve analysis cannot be used for clay and silt particles because they are too
small (<0.075 mm in diameter).
For portion that passes sieve No. 200 we do hydrometer analysis.
Soil particles, dispersed in water, settle at different velocities because of their
different sizes.
Assuming soil particles as perfect
spheres and water with a viscosity
η, Stokes’ law relates the terminal
velocity v of a particle to its
diameter D:

ρs is the density of soil particles

ρw is the density of water

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 9

Grain-size distribution or gradation curve
FINE or COHESIVE SOILS COARSE or GRANULAR SOILS

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 10

Grain-size distribution or gradation curve
Larger gradation means a wider particle size distribution.
Well graded poorly sorted (e.g., glacial till)
Poorly graded well sorted (e.g., beach sand)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 11

MICROMECHANICAL AND CONTINUOUS APPROACHES
To study the behavior of soils during the construction of civil
engineering structures we have to define:
 Distribution of stress state before construction
 Increment of stress due to construction in relation to:
 Deformability properties of soils

 Behavior of interstitial water

 Boundary conditions

In geotechnics we can use two approaches:

1) Micromechanical approach in which the soil is considered as an assemble
of deformable or rigid particles, with the interstitial space filled with water
or/and gas.
2) Continuous approach in which the solid, the liquid and the gas phases are
all considered continuous media overlapped one to each other.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 12

MICROMECHANICAL APPROACH
Particles (in the most simply model are assumed spherical and rigid) transmitting
forces (normal and shear components, momentum) through the contact point.
Studying the equilibrium of the assemble under a system of imposed boundary
forces, it is possible to analysis the interparticle forces, the displacements of
particles and reconstruct the deformation of the soil volume.

EXAMPLES
Elastic Normal Contact: Elastic Spring
Fn s kn Fn
Incremental Normal force Incremental Overlapping

∆Fn = kn ∆s
Fs
Elasto-Plastic Shear Contact: Elastic spring + Sliding
Frictional element φµ

∆Fs = ks ∆b with Fs < Fmax=Fntan φµ b ks

∆Fs = 0 with Fs ≥ Fmax

Fs

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 13

MICROMECHANICAL APPROACH
EXAMPLE of SIMULATION 1° phase: Generation of particle assemble
F The plate element is
Plate reproduced by special
boundary condition

Boundary Conditions are assigned at the

base (no vertical displacements) and the
rear side (no horizontal displacement)
Here the chains of forces transmitted
among the particles just after the
particle generation.
In this phase the interparticle forces
are very small and with an isotropic
distribution.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 14

MICROMECHANICAL APPROACH
2° phase: Application self weight

The thickness of chains increases with

depth due to a higher load at larger depth

3° phase: Application of load on

the plate

The stress chains modify and, due to

the slope presence, the distribution of
stress increments is not symmetrical.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 15

CONTINUOUS APPROACH
In a point Q, belonging to a continuum
P1
medium, if we assuming a plane π crossing
P2
the body, the tension in P related to plane π
dF dN
π is:
 dF 
t = lim   S
dS
dS → 0 dS  dT

being dF the force transmitted through the Q

infinitesimal surface dS around P. Ω (ρ)
Pi
The t value depends from the orientation of
the plane passing through the point of interest.

The vector t, like the force F, may be decomposed in the normal and tangent
components defined as:
 dN   dT 
σ = lim   τ = lim  
dS → 0 dS  dS → 0 dS 

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 16

CONTINUOUS APPROACH

If we need to define the stress state in a generic point Q referring to the

Cartesian space coordinates, the vector t can be substituted with a
tensor σ equal to:
Sign
Convenzione
σ x τ xy τ xz  convention
di segno
τ
  σ + σ
σ = τ yx σ y τ yz  τ
σz
τ zx τ zy σ z 
  τzx τzy
Z τxz
Due to the fact that the shear stresses τyx
on parallel faces are mutual, it is: σx
σy τyz τxy
σ=σ T
y x
i.e. the tensor is double symmetrical

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 17

CONTINUOUS APPROACH FOR A SATURATED SOIL
“The stress condition in a defined point into the space can be defined
by three main directions of stress σ1, σ2, σ3.
If the inter-granular space between each particle is full filled by water
with a pressure u, the total stress tensor can be divided into two distinct
parts. One of this, called pore pressure u, works only on water and
normally to each particle surface with the same intensity. The
differences σ1’= σ1- u; σ2’= σ2 - u; σ3’= σ3 – u are pressures, in
excess respect the pore water pressure, acting into the solid skeleton.
These stress fractions of the total stresses are defined as effective
stresses.

σ x τ xy τ xz  σ 'x τ xy τ xz  u 0 0 
     
τ yx σ y τ yz 
=  τ yx σ 'y τ yz  + 0 u 0 
τ zx τ zy σ z   τ zx τ zy σ 'z  0 0 u 
This principle is know as Principle of Effective stress by Terzaghi
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 18
CONTINUOUS APPROACH FOR A SATURATED SOIL
“… All the measureable effect, due to a changes into the stress state like
compression, distortion or variation of the shear condition, are
exclusively made by a variation of the effective stress condition.”
Closed Valve P P
Open Valve
Piston
P

Spring u0 u>u0 uu0

u0
Tank completely
filled with water

The soil is like the tank above: if the load P is applied with the valve close,
the pressure of water inside the tank increases (b), but, being the water
incompressible, the spring could not be put in compression. Only after the
valve is open (c) and the water pressure equalizes with the outside pressure
(i.e. a part of water exits), the spring could be put in compression (d).
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 19
CONTINUOUS APPROACH FOR A SATURATED SOIL
Uncoupled behavior of soil: if the permeability of soil is high,
the behavior of soil can be assumed disjointed from the
behavior of water. The analysis is performed in Drained
Condition (Drained analysis). The condition occurs generally in
soil with coarse grains relative to gravel and sand. One example
is the seepage analysis in a sandy stratum that is analyzed
independently from the soil stress.
Coupled behavior of soil: if the permeability of soil is small, the
response in time depends from the water-soil interaction, such
as in consolidation phenomena.
If the load is applied very quickly and we can suppose no
drainage, the analysis may be performed in Undrained
Condition (Undrained analysis). In this condition no volume
change occurs … This behavior is typical of silts and clays.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 20

COARSE or GRANULAR SOILS
Cobbles, gravels and sands
Mechanical interaction among particles
High permeability
Main features of their behavior:
 High transmissivity  aquifers
 Good drainage
 Low compressibility (in many cases we can neglect the volumetric
deformation because very low)
 Drained behavior under static load
 High friction angle
 Effect of density
 Possible liquefaction both in static and dynamic conditions

It is very important to know the granulometry, the grain shape

and the density

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 21

COARSE or GRANULAR SOILS
High permeability
Acquifer is a layer or a formation of high permeability.
It may be confined (artesian aquifer) or unconfined (phreatic aquifer).

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 22

COARSE or GRANULAR SOILS
High permeability Low compressibility

Consolidation coefficients (for instance cv = k γ w mv )) are very large

Generally, they require short time to adapt the internal stress

distribution to the load variation at the boundaries
(construction at the ground level, excavation, modification of
seepage rate and interstitial pore pressure, etc.)

Drained behavior in normal conditions of construction

Undrained behavior only in dynamic conditions (cyclic loads at high

frequency as earthquakes, wind, waves, vibration induced, etc.)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 23

COARSE SOILS: Shear Strength
N x In a Direct Shear Test performed at the same N,
two behaviours are possible:
y ► A monotonic trend with τf = τult , typical of
T
an hardening behaviour of LOOSE SANDS
τ ► An initial monotonic trend with a resistance
loss after peak (τf > τult), typical of a brittle
behaviour of DENSE SANDS
Displacement at constant rate

τ Peak
τ Dense Sands
Large Loose Sands Same σn

displacement, y
f displacement

τ
Vertical
ult
x
Loose Sands
peak

Displacement, x

x Dense Sands
peak Displacement, x
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 24
COARSE SOILS: Shear Strength
In DST, three tests with the same material under different normal forces N
must be performed. The data τf-σn of the tests may be reported in τ-σn for
individuating the shear law.
Generally we have: τ f = c + σ n tan φ being c the τ-value at σn=0.

The same relation may be written in effective stress as: τ f = c'+σ 'n tan φ '

τ τ
τ
f,3 σ
n,3
τ τ φ
σ ult,3
τ
f,2
τ
n,2

τ σ
ult,2
τ f,3
f,1 n,1 τ
ult,1 τ f,2

c f,1

σ σ σ
Displacement, x n,1 n,2 n,3

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 25

COARSE SOILS: Shear Strength
Sand particles
τ A τ tensione di frantumazione
begin to break
delle particelle
σ' elevata
High σ’n
Dilatancy
Effetto effect
della dilatanza AC = Colomb law
A with cohesion
AB = Colomb law
C
without
C
B
σ' bassa
Low σ’n σ'
B

For a dense sand, if the normal stress

increases the dilatancy tends to disappear
x displacement
spostamento x because the particles progressively break and
the behaviour becomes typical of loose soil.
y displacement y

dilatancy
spostamento

dilatazione

The real FAILURE CRITERION is the CURVED ONE

contraction
contrazione (blue curve) but a LINEAR CRITERION remains
more convenient, eventually with cohesion

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 26

COARSE SOILS: Shear Strength

Peak envelope

φ’CRIT = φ’CV = critical state

angle or friction angle at
constant volume
It varies in the range 30-45°
depending from gradation
and grain shape

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 27

COARSE SOILS: Shear Strength

φ 'P −φ 'CRIT = 3I R Bolton (1986)

 dε v 
 −  = 0.3I R
 dε a  max

I R = I D [(Q − ln p ') − 1]
emax − e
ID =
emax − emin

Q is a material parameter
Q = 10 for quartz and feldspar sands,
= 8 for limestone
= 7 for anthracite
= 5.5 for chalk

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 28

COARSE SOILS: Deformability
For coarse soils the elastic parameters E’, ν are evaluated in drained condition,
generally from laboratory test.

1) Deformability is strongly related to the density.

Two difficulties
2) All the geomaterials are no linear and no elastic.

Consequently the choice of significant parameters is not easy for:

a) Representatively of samples
b) Choice of the reference strain and stress at which evaluate the stiffness
parameters
c) Laboratory test reliability Soil type E’ [MPa]
 Typical values of elastic modulus are Loose sand 10-17
reported in many manuals (Bowles, etc.). Medium dense 17-25
 Typical values of Poisson ratio are in the
range 0.1-0.35. Dense sand 25-50
Very dense sand 50-85

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 29

COARSE SOILS: Normalised stiffness degradation curve
 Due to the no linearity and no elasticity of geomaterials, if we consider, for
instance, the secant moduli, their variation with strain (in semi-log scale) is
typically the one here reported (stiffness degradation curve)

Gmax

Shear stress
P

Shear strain

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 30

COARSE SOILS: Liquefaction under seepage
Considering the permeameter in the figure. The left tank contains a soil sample,
being L its thickness and γsat its saturated unit weight. On the top of soil there is
water for a level equal to hw.
Since the level in two tanks is the same, the water is firm (hydrostatic condition).
At a generic point P, at depth z into the soil, the vertical total stress, the pore
water pressure and the vertical effective stress are:

σ v γ w hw + γ sat z
= A B

u γ w ( hw + z )
hw u
C
γw
z
σ 'v = σ v − u = L P 1

= γ w hw + γ sat z − γ w ( hw + z ) D
z
=( γ sat − γ w ) z =γ ' z

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 31

COARSE SOILS: Liquefaction under seepage
If the water level in the right tank increases of H, the water flows with a hydraulic
gradient i=H/L . The total stress in P is constant but the pore pressure and the
effective stress become:
H Constant level
u γ w ( hw + z ) + γ w =
= z γ w ( hw + z ) + γ w iz γw
B
L
H
σ 'v = σ v − u = γ ' z − γ w iz
Constant level 1
A
hw u
C
If H increases too much the
z
vertical effective stress can L P
become 0. In this condition we
have:
D
σ 'v =γ ' z − γ w iz =0 z

i = ic =γ ' / γ w ic is also known as critical hydraulic gradient.

For most soils it varies in range 0.9-1.1.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 32

COARSE SOILS: Liquefaction under seepage
The situation for i=ic is generally referred to as boiling or a quick condition.
Boiling condition means zero effective stress, i.e. no force is carried out by
the solid skeleton of soils. Of course, boiling condition is possible when
seepage is opposite to gravity.
More generally, if the seepage is oriented in direction α respect the
horizontal, it generates a force for unit of volume, oriented as the flow rate
vector, and equal to:

j is called seepage pressure.

It has to be summed in a vectorial
way to the other volume forces
acting on the soil.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 33

COARSE SOILS: Typical sand boiling situation
With the flow net we can evaluate the total head at the base of volume ABCD.
If we define as hm the mean total head at the base CD, the mean hydraulic gradient
in the volume ABCD is:
im = hm / d
In order to avoid boiling condition, it must be:
d/2
H im < ic =γ ' / γ w
A B

ic γ 'd
d FS= = >1
im γ whm
D C
hD hC hm Note that here we work with a
h global safety factor. In NTC8,
EC7 and NTC18 the relation
takes into account the effect of
partially safety coefficients.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 34

FINE or COHESIVE SOILS
Silts and clays
Electrochemical interaction
Low permeability
Main features of their behavior:
 Impermeable layers
 Bad drainage and Undrained behavior under static load
 High void ratio
 High compressibility developed with time
 Low friction angle especially in critical or residual condition
 Overconsolidation state

Very important to know the plasticity, i.e. the capacity

to absorb water, which mainly depends on mineralogy

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 35

FINE or COHESIVE SOILS

Tetrahedra layer
Octahedra layer

Potassium
ions

Illite
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 36
FINE SOILS: Electrochemical interaction
Due to electrochemical interaction the fine soils
have particular features:
Particle - Not all the water can exit for gravity, like it
surface occurs in coarse soils (free water + adsorbed
(negative water);
electrical - Assemble structures depend from the
charge) chemistry of depositional environments;
- Higher water content and void ratio even if
the pore size is small;
Concentration

- Low permeability and high compressibility;

Cation
- Clay are sensible to chemistry of pore water,
to electrical fields, to freezing-thawing
process

Anion

Distance from particle surface

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 37

FINE SOILS: Atterberg limits
Liquid limit (LL): Casagrande apparatus

Water content, w (%)

Number of blows – log scale

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 38

FINE or COHESIVE SOILS: ASTM Classification

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 39

FINE SOILS: Casagrande chart

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 40

FINE SOILS and water
Fine soils are low permeability  we assume impermeable

In nature clayey layers separated different aquifer

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 41

FINE SOILS and water
If the bottom layer in an excavation is constituted by impermeable soil, the
seepage toward the trench is unable and risk of boiling does not exist.
There is indeed the risk of lifting of the excavation bottom, because the pore
pressure below the impermeable bottom remains very high.
From the vertical equilibrium of excavation bottom, the safety factory is:
Piezometer

WT γ sat BD'+2cu D' γ sat D'

FS= ≈
GRAVELLY
SAND
γ w BH γ wH
H
where the lateral friction along
D' the inner side of sheet-walls is
CLAY
neglected.

B Pore pressure
.
u = γwH D' Which is the water pore pressure
SAND
distribution in short and long
term?

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 42

FINE SOILS: Confined compression
It is the most used test for evaluate the compression and the consolidation
properties of fine soils because it is very simple. It is a one-dimensional compression
test performed under steps of constant load. Each load is maintained for permit the
consolidation under that load.
Other tests are possible: 3D compression
tests, 1D compression test under constant
strain rate or load rate, etc. Dial
gauge
D
Dead
Loading head N weight

Water
bath Rigid
H confining
ring

Porous stone for drainage

Oedometric cell Loading system with dead weight

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 43

FINE SOILS: Consolidation curve
Typical displacement development under constant vertical stress
(Consolidation curve) with the Casagrande construction to evaluate the time
of end of consolidation (t100) and the time to reach 50% of consolidation

t1 t2=4t1

Primary consolidation Secondary compression

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 44

FINE SOILS: 1D Consolidation equation

The 1D consolidation theory developed by Terzaghi arrives to write a

differential equation:

Sand

∂ 2ue ∂ue 2d z dz Clay

cv 2 = dx
∂z ∂t
Sand
In which:
ue excess pore water pressure
z depth inside the layer (according to the figure z ∈ [0, 2𝑑𝑑])
t time cured after the load application
k
cv coefficient of primary consolidation defined as cv =
mv ⋅ γ w

It can be analytically integrated imposing the initial and boundary conditions

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 45

FINE SOILS: 1D Consolidation equation
In the case of double drainage and a uniform distribution of initial excess
pore pressure with depth, the solution of Terzaghi equation is:

( )
m=∞
2ui  Mz 
ue ( z, t ) = ∑ M d   sin  exp − M 2
Tv
m =1
Being:
 d is the drainage path =H/2
 m and M are two counters with M=π(2m+1)/2
 Tv is a dimensionless time factor defined as: Tv = cv t d 2

( )
m=∞ Degree of
ui − ue ( z, t ) 2 Mz 
U z ( z, t ) = = 1− ∑  sin  exp − M Tv
2
Consolidation
ui m =1 M  d 
2d
1 m=∞
2
U(t ) = ∫
2d 0
Uz ( z , t )dz 1
= − ∑ 2
exp ( −M 2
Tv ) Mean Degree of
m=1 M Consolidation

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 46

FINE SOILS: 1D compression curve
If e0 is known, we can calculate the void ratio e in every ∆H ∆e
deformed state from the measured ∆H:
εz = =
H 0 1 + e0

e-σ’z e-logσ’z
AB = Reload to the
preconsolidation
pressure

Void ratio e [-]

Void ratio e [-]

BC = Virgin load, i.e.

stress never
experimented by the
soil
CD = Unload F F

DEF = Second reload σ’z σ’z

The passage to semi-logarithmic scale permits:

 to enlarge the curve at small stresses;

 to transform the curves (i.e., the curve BC) in quite straight segments.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 47

 FINE SOILS: Compression curve
If e0 is known, we can calculate the void ratio e in every deformed state from
the measured ∆H
Typical compression curve for an
oedometer test with load (ABC) +
e-σ’z
unload/reload cycle (CDEF).

Elasto-plastic behaviour: only a

part of total deformation is
∆σ z ' recovered in unloading.
Void ratio e [-]

∆e Moduli are not constant but

stress-dependent:
 Compressibility ratio: mv = ∆ε z ∆σ z '

F  Oedometric or
confined modulus: M = 1 / mv
σ’z

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 48

FINE SOILS: Compression curve
Moving to semi-log scale it results that curve segments becomes linear segment
and the initial load (AB) is quite parallel to the reload segment (DE)

e-logσ’z
Point of Horizontal
maximum
curvature P
Bisector
Void ratio e [-]

Tangent

σ’zo σ’p

F σ’p = preconsolidation pressure

σ’z σ 'p
OCR = Overconsolidation ratio
σ 'z0
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 49
FINE SOILS: Compression curve
In a deposit formed for gradual deposition of soil, the soil is normalconsolidated
with σ’p equal to the current effective vertical stress due to the weight of
material above (point B or point C).
If, moving from C, the soil above is eroded for natural or artificial causes, the
effective vertical stress decreases and OCR increases accordingly.

SCL = Sedimentary
Compression Line

Normal
Deposition Erosion consolidated
Void ratio e

Overconsolidated

Vertical effective stress σ’v

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 50

FINE SOILS: Drained and undrained shear strength
 Shear tests:
Triaxial cell for CIU, CID and UU tests

Direct shear test Axial Load

F
Shear Normal Piston
Contrast
force load

Membrane

Porous Stone
Drainage
and pressure Cell
transducer pressure
Shear plane

Base drainage
Preferable for sands
Suitable for every kind of soil

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 51

 FINE SOILS: Results of TX CD for Overconsolidated Clay
Phase 1: Isotropic consolidation Phase 2: Drained axial compression
3 specimens are consolidated at σc,max The failure at the maximum qf (or peak)
and then unloaded at 3 isotropic does not coincide with the ultimate or
pressures critical state

Stress, q=σ1−σ3
pa=100 kPa
σ'3=3pa

Loading
vuoti e

NORMAL

deviatorica
σ'3=2pa
deiratio,

CONSOLIDATION
LINE
σc,max Peak failure

Deviatoric
Void

σ'3=pa Rottura = picco

Critical state
Indice

σ'3=pa
Tensione
Stato critico
σ'3=2pa σ'3=3pa

Unloading qf=(σ1−σ3)f qcr=(σ1−σ3)cr

Confining
tensione Pressure, σ3
di confinamento Axial assiale
deformazione strain, ε1

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 52

FINE SOILS: Results of TX CD for Overconsolidated Clay
The line tangent to the peak state Mohr Circles traces the upper limit of all
possible stress states and it is called failure criterion. Its equation is:
τ = c’p+σ’tanφ’p where c’p and φ’p are the parameters (cohesion and friction angle)
of the peak criterion.
The line tangent to critical circles is the critical criterion with equation τ = σ’tanφ’cr
where φ’cr is the critical state angle.

τ τ = c’p+σ’tanφ’p τ = σ’tanφ’cr
φ’cr
SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 1

φ’p
c’p
σ'3f σ'1cr σ'1f σ'
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 53
FINE SOILS: Drained and undrained shear strength
 Typical results: CIU test on NC clay Stress path in
octahedral plane

Deviatoric stress
vs. deviatoric strain

Pore water pressure Stress path in plane

vs deviatoric strain p’-v (i.e. 1+e)

(Lancellotta, 2012)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 54

FINE SOILS: Drained and undrained failure circles
Total and effective Mohr circles for NC and OC clays.

EFFECTIVE
TOTAL STRESS φp’
τ STRESS CIRCLES φcr’
CIRCLES
∆uf<0 ∆uf>0

c’p
σ'3f σ'3f σ'1f σ'1f σ'
OC CLAY: ∆uf<0 NC CLAY: ∆uf>0
Effective Mohr Circle moves vs. right Effective Mohr Circle moves vs. left

The failure criterion are different for NC and OC clays: overconsolidated

clays has a failure line with c’p ≠0 and φ’p<φ’cr

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 55

FINE SOILS: examples of criterion

Tx undrained
Tx Drained Envelopment of
reconstituted
samples
Peak envelopment
Post-peak envelopment

(Lancellotta, 2012)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 56

FINE SOILS: Undrained shear strength from Tx UU
In this test, only the total stresses at failure σ1f e σ3f are used to trace the
relative total stress Mohr circle at failure.
Since the samples were unconsolidated in the first phases, the q-εa curves are
all the same and also the failure circles have the same diameter.
The enveloping line is horizontal (φ’ = φ’u = 0) and only cohesion is important,
known as Undrained Shear Strenght cu or su:

τ qu = σ1f-σ3f

SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3 φ’ = φ’u = 0

cu=qu/2
σ3f σ1f σ
NOTE: qu and cu may be also obtained by a simple unconfined compression test (green
circle), an axial compression without lateral constrain like that usually performed
on concrete blocks.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 57

FINE SOILS: Undrained strength
 The undrained shear strength cu depends on the overburden pressure
σ’vo, i.e. lithostatic effective stress, the soil plasticity but also on OCR

Ladd et al. (1977)

 cu   cu  m
 =    ⋅ OCR
σ ' σ '
 v OCR  v NC

 cu 
  = 0.11 + 0.0037 ⋅ PI ≈ 0.18 ÷ 0.25
 σ 'v NC

with PI in %, m=0.8

(Lancellotta, 2012)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 58

FINE SOILS: Undrained strength
NOTE: In some cases the most dangerous condition may be in drained
condition (long term). For instance, excavation or construction on OC soils.

 Compression for lateral σz increases

unload: σz = constant ∆u<0
 Total stress path AB σr = constant
C C’
 Effective stress path AB’ σr decreases
∆u<0
 Negative pore pressure BB’ B’
B
  temporary high resistance
COMPRESSION COMPRESSION
FOR UNLOAD FOR LOAD
 Compression for load on OC
A
soil:
 Total stress path AC ESTENSION ESTENSION
FOR UNLOAD FOR LOAD
 Effective stress path AC’
 Negative pore pressure CC’ σz decreases σz = constant

σr = constant
σr increases

(Lancellotta, 2012)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 59

Residual shear strength
Reversal direct shear test on an undisturbed sample and
on a reconstituted sample of the same clay

UNDISTURBED CLAY

RECONSTITUTED CLAY

(Lancellotta, 2012)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 60

FINE SOILS: Deformability
For fine soils the elastic parameters are evaluated both in drained (E’, ν) and
undrained (Eu, νu) condition, generally from laboratory test.
Since in undrained condition, the volume is constant:
ε
ε vol =+
ε 1 2ε 3 =
0 ⇒ ε3 =
− 0.5ε 1 ⇒ νu = 0.5
− 3=
ε1

The undrained Young modulus could be evaluated from cu or according to

the soil type from the tables here reported

Eu/cu Soil type Eu [MPa]

OCR
IP<0.3 0.5>IP>0.3 IP>0.5 Very soft clay 0.5-2
<3 800 400 200 Soft clay 2-5
3÷5 500 300 150 Medium clay 5-10
>5 300 200 100 Stiff clay 10-25
Very stiff clay 25-60
(Lancellotta, 2012)

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 61

FINE SOILS: Deformability
Like for all other geomaterials, the moduli are stress and strain-
dependent, OCR-dependent, anisotropy, etc.

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 62

1° EXAMPLE: VENICE SOILS
TREPORTI TEST SITE - collaborating institutions:
University of Padova + L’Aquila + Bologna
Georgia Institute of Technology (USA)
Magistrato alle Acque, Venezia
Consorzio Venezia Nuova, Venezia
Ministero per la Ricerca Scientifica

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 63

EXAMPLE: VENICE SOILS N-S
SECTION
EMBANKMENT GPS receiver

settlement
bench mark plate inclinometer
0
LAYER A – SOFT SILTY CLAY
rod LAYER B- MEDIUM FINE
5 extensometer SILTY SAND

10 sliding
piezometers micrometer LAYER C – SANDY SILT

15 SAND LAMINATION

20 LAYER D – MEDIUM FINE

SILTY SAND

25

30 clayey silt

silty clay
35
clay
40
0 5 10 15 20 m
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 64
 EXAMPLE: VENICE
Composition (%)
SOILS
D /D , U, I
0 20 40 60 80
50

0.001
0

0.1
GS

10
LP, wo, LL (%)
20 40
Cγcsat, C
(kN/m )
r C e ⋅10-3
3
α,ε o

60 17 18 19 20 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

cv, ch (cm2/s)
0 F.F. 0 0.2 0.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
5
SAND IGS

10 U
SILT D50 10
15 wo
LL LP
101;110 15.3 1.58

20
Depth below mean sea level (m)

20

Depth below GL (m)

25 1.86
281;165;323 11.7 2.01
65;83
190;211;201 11.1 3.74

30
30
3.32
227;206;310 11.4
35

CLAY 169;140;170 12.4

40 40 2.87

339;208;351 10.7 3.26

45 11.5
217;156;220 2.92
Cc ch DMT
50 50
Cr ch CPTU
60;78 15.6 1.51
55
cv oedom.
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks
60 of soil mechanics 62;83 15.6 1.64
65
1° EXAMPLE: VENICE SOILS

6,7 (ghiaia)
Fasi di carico (strati in sabbia da 50 cm)

6.7
6.7

6.7
6.7

6.7
6.7

6.7
6.7

6.7

6.7
6,5
6,0
Hrilevato (m)

5,5
5,0
6

4,5
4,0
3,5
3,0
4
2,5
2,0
q = 104 kPa
1,5
1,0

2
0,5

giorni
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

0
cedimento da misure topografiche N
-40
cedimento slid. defor. 3 (a 3,3m dal centro)
-80 cedimento da misure GPS 20m
SD3
-120 cedimenti 8-20 m
GPS-ASS40
-160
cedimenti (mm)

-200
-240
-280
-320
-360
-400
-440
-480
-520
9/02 1/02 1/03 4/03 6/03 8/03 1/03 1/04 3/04 6/04 8/04 0/04 2/04 3/05 5/05 7/05 0/05 2/05 2/06 5/06
12/0 21/1 30/0 10/0 19/0 28/0 06/1 15/0 25/0 03/0 12/0 21/1 30/1 10/0 19/0 28/0 06/1 15/1 23/0 04/0
data

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 66

1° EXAMPLE: VENICE SOILS
Local vertical displacement (mm/m) Accumulated displacements (mm)
0
00 10 20 30 40 50 0 100 200 300 400 500
0

10
Depth below GL (m)

15

20

25 Sept 27, 2002 (H=1m)

Nov 11, 2002 (H=2.5m)
30 Abbassamenti Jan 10, 2003 (H=4.5m)
misurati con sliding Mar 14, 2003 (H=6.7m)

35 deformometer al Jun 6, 2003 (H=6.7m)

centro Dec 3, 2003 (H=6.7m)
Oct 13, 2005 (H=6.7m)
40

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 67

1° EXAMPLE: VENICE SOILS
Vertical stress σ'v (kPa)
100 200 300
0.0
•
Vertical deformation, εz (%)

σ’y
0.4

0.8

 8.5- 9.5 m
CRsite
1.2  10.6-11.6 m
 11.6-12.6 m
 13.7-14.7 m
σ'v (kPa)
 15.7-16.8 m

1.6
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 68
1° EXAMPLE: VENICE SOILS
height (m) 6.7 6.3
6
6 5 5.4
4.57
4
4 3
3.6
2.64
2 1.72
2 1 0.73
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 days

-40 topographic survey

sliding deformeter n.3
GPS survey
-120 End of removal
settlements (mm)

-200 End of construction

Start of removal
-280

-360

-440

-520

09/02 05/03 02/04 0/04 6/05 3/06 1/06 8/07 4/08

12 / 25 / 0 4/ 16/1 2 8/ 0 10/0 20/1 02/0 13/ 0
time

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 69

2° EXAMPLE: TRIESTE BAY SOILS

POTENZIAMENTO del PORTO:

prolungamento difese a protezione della Riva
Traiana, per riduzione moto ondoso
Prolungo diga esistente di 552 m

OPERA AUSTRO-UNGARICA:
diga a parete verticale
a massi sovrapposti
su scanno in pietrame

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 70

2° EXAMPLE: TRIESTE BAY SOILS
63,00

+4.50

+1.70 +1,00
0,00 ms.l.m.m.

Cassone a tre setti

14,00
-13.00
Geogriglia
Masso di sovraccarico

3,75 3,75
5x5x0.70

0,50
-20,50

Diga formata da cassoni, prefabbricati in c.a. a setti (20,80m x10,80m e

H=13 m immersa), poggiati su scanno di materiale lapideo.
Geogriglia con tondini di acciaio a rinforzo di base

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 71

2° EXAMPLE: TRIESTE BAY SOILS

 
 


 

A1: limo-argilloso grigio inconsistente, eo≈1.8, cu,min= 6kPa



 

A2: limo-argilloso grigio poco consistente, eo =1.5  0.7, cu,min≈ 18kPa

≈21 m

 


A3: sabbia fine, sabbia limosa e limo sabbioso, Dr=50-70% 


A4: limo-argill. 

FLYSCH A3 grigio consistente

eo=1.2  0.7,
 




SEZIONE AA - 380 m cu,min= 50 kPa 





 






 




 


SEZIONE BB - 130 m

Dettaglio 0-2 m
Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 72
2° EXAMPLE: TRIESTE BAY SOILS
62
Diga di Trieste
58
Condizioni di stabilità senza intervento
Condizione di stabilità a 54

fine costruzione cassone

50

46 0

42 0.348

FS = 0,348 38
34

30
cu=6 kPa
26
cu=18 kPa
22

18
14
10
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116
Distanza (m)

Strato A1+A2 14,83

Tempo di consolidazione
Strato A4 sez. AA 2,05
t90 (anni)
sez. BB 87,35

sez. AA 2,73
Cedimenti (m) a fine consolidazione
sez. BB 3,52

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 73

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prima Isola
(4 km x 2.5 km)
costruita 1987-1994

Seconda Isola
costruita 2003-2007

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 74

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 75

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 76

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 77

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 78

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 79

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 80

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 81

3° EXAMPLE: KANSAY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Prof. Cola: Foundations _ Lesson 1: Remarks of soil mechanics 82