01.

Requirements Elicitation
Requirements elicitation is gathering information from stakeholders to understand system goals
and operations, ensuring the development team captures their needs accurately.

1.1 Steps in Requirements Elicitation

1.Identify Stakeholders : Find people involved, like users, analysts, managers, and clients.
1 Preparation: 2. Define Objectives: Set goals to understand needs, functions, and constraints.
3.Select Techniques: Pick methods based on the project and stakeholders.

1.Interviews: - Structured: Preplanned questions for specific details.

2
- Unstructured: Open conversations for varied input.
2. Workshops: - Brainstorming: Group ideas and solutions.
- Focus Groups: Detailed discussions with selected stakeholders.

3. Surveys and Questionnaires: - Open-ended: For detailed answers.

Elicitation - Closed-ended: For specific, measurable choices.
Techniques:
4. Observation: - Participant: Analyst joins to experience processes.
- Non-participant: Analyst observes without involvement.

5. Document Analysis: Review existing documents like plans and reports to gather
information.
6.Prototyping: - Low-fidelity: Basic sketches or mockups.
- High-fidelity: Detailed, functional simulations.

Analysis and 7. Use Cases and Scenarios: Describe how users interact with the system to achieve goals.
3 • Consolidation:
8. Workshops Combine
and Joint information
Application from various
Development (JAD): sources.
Collaborative sessions to define
Validation:
• Validation: Check requirements for accuracy, completeness, and
requirements.
alignment with stakeholder needs using reviews and prototypes.
4o

Documentation ••
4 Document requirements using standard formats like specifications,
user stories, and use cases.

5 Review and
• Review requirements with stakeholders, gather feedback, and
Feedback
make adjustments.
 Challenges in Requirements Elicitation

1. Stakeholder Availability: Hard to schedule time with key stakeholders.

2. Communication Barriers: Misunderstandings from jargon or unclear terms.
3. Stakeholder Conflicts: Conflicting priorities among stakeholders.
4. Incomplete Information: Stakeholders may miss or not understand their needs.
5. Changing Requirements: Needs evolve due to business or external changes.

Best Practices
1. Engage Stakeholders Early and Continuously.
2. Use Multiple Elicitation Techniques
3. Clarify Objectives and Scope
4. Document Thoroughly
5. Foster Collaboration

1.2 Requirement Engineering Analysis

Requirement analysis is the process of making sure the gathered requirements are clear,
complete, and meet the project's goals.

Key Activities in Requirements Analysis

1.Categorization and Classification
• Functional vs. Non-functional Requirements:
• Functional Requirements: Describe what the system should do
(e.g., "The system allows users to log in with email and password").
• Non-functional Requirements: Define quality, performance, and constraints
(e.g., "The system responds to queries in 2 seconds").

• Domain Requirements: Specific to the system's operating domain.

• User Requirements: Needs and goals of the end-users.
• System Requirements: Detailed system functions, services, and constraints.

2.Prioritization
• MoSCoW Method: Classifying requirements as Must have, Should have, Could have, and Won't have
• Kano Model
• Value vs. Effort Matrix
3.Conflict Resolution:
• Identify Conflicts:
• Negotiation and Mediation:
• Documentation of Decisions:

4.Feasibility Analysis
• Technical Feasibility: Can the requirements be done with existing technology?
• Economic Feasibility: Are the requirements affordable?
• Operational Feasibility: Do the requirements fit with the organization's operations?

5.Modeling and Specification

• Use Case Modeling: Create use cases to show how users interact with the system to achieve goals.
• Data Modeling: Use entity-relationship diagrams to represent data structures.
• Process Modeling: Use flowcharts or data flow diagrams to show information and control flow.
• Behavioral Modeling: Use state and sequence diagrams to depict system behavior.

6.Validation and Verification

• Test Case Development
• Prototyping:
• Reviews and Inspections
Techniques for Requirements Analysis
• Requirements Workshops: Meetings to refine requirements with stakeholders.
• SWOT Analysis: Assess strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the requirements.
• Use Case Analysis: Creating detailed use cases to explore different system interactions.
• Scenario Analysis: Creating scenarios to understand system usage in various situations.
• Gap Analysis: Identifying differences between current capabilities and desired
requirements.
Challenges in Requirements Analysis
1. Complexity: Complex systems have interdependent requirements.
2. Volatility: Requirements may change due to evolving needs or external factors.
3. Traceability: Keeping track of requirements from start to implementation and testing.
4. Stakeholder Alignment
5. Ambiguity
 Best Practices
Clear and Concise Documentation, Stakeholder Involvement, Maintain Traceability

1.3 Requirement Engineering management and documentation

Requirements management is the process of identifying, documenting, analyzing, prioritizing,

and controlling requirements.

Key Activities in Requirements Management

• Requirements Identification: Assign unique IDs and categorize by type, priority, and
stakeholders.
• Traceability: Link requirements to design, code, and tests, and map them to business goals
using traceability matrices.
• Prioritization: Rank requirements by value, risk, and cost using methods like MoSCoW and
the Kano Model.
• Change Management: Manage changes with impact analysis, approval, and version
control to track updates.
• Verification and Validation
• Stakeholder Communication:Maintain clear and continuous communication with stakeholders

Key Components of Requirements Documentation

1. Requirements Specification Documents:
• BRD: Describes business goals and stakeholder needs.
• SRS: Details functional, non-functional requirements, interfaces, and constraints.

2. Use Cases and User Stories:

• Use Cases: Describe how users interact with the system to achieve goals.
• User Stories

3. Models and Diagrams

• Use Case Diagrams
• Data Flow
• Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD):
• State Diagrams
 Best Practices for Requirements Management and Documentation
• Consistency and Standardization: Use standard templates and follow industry guidelines for
documentation.
• Clarity and Precision: Write clear, simple requirements that everyone can understand.
• Maintainability
• Accessibility

02. Software process models

are frameworks that help manage and guide software development, ensuring quality and
efficiency.

Model Name Overview Advantages Disadvantages

1.Waterfall • Waterfall Model Model is a ● Simple and easy to • Inflexible to changes

Model linear approach. understand. after a phase is
• Small to medium size projrct ● Well-documented completed.
• Phases: and easy to • Late testing
1. Requirements Analysis manage. • Poor Adaptability:
2.Syestem Design, ● Clear requirements • Lack of Customer
3.Implementation, ● Small to Medium Involvement:
4.Testing, Projects
5.Deployment,
6.Maintenance
2.V-Model • V-model is a graphical • Early detection of • Similar inflexibility to
(Validation and representation of a systems defects. the Waterfall Model.
Verification development lifecycle • Clear link between • Can be costly and time-
Model) • An extended version of the development and consuming due to
Waterfall Model, focusing on testing. extensive testing.
validation and verification,
with testing for each
development stage.
3. Iterative and • Development is divided into • Early detection and • Requires good planning
Incremental smaller iterations, correction of and design for effective
Model • Each delivering part of the problems. iteration management.
functionality. including • Flexible to changes • Risk of scope creep
planning, design, and refining if not controlled.
implementation, and requirements. • complex
testing,Evaluation &
review,Refinement.
4. Spiral Model • Combines iterative • Focuses on risk • Complex to manage and
development with the management. implement.
Waterfall Model. • Allows for iterative • Requires expertise in
• Focuses on risk analysis and refinement and risk assessment.
mitigation.
 • Phases per iteration: Planning, stakeholder
Risk Analysis, Engineering, feedback.
Evaluation.
5. Agile Model • Focuses on iterative •
Changing require:. • Challenging to scale for
development, collaboration, •
Continuous delivery large projects.
and flexibility •
Flexibility • Requires significant
• Common frameworks include •
High qulity stakeholder
Scrum, Kanban, and XP • Customer involvement and
statification commitment.
6. Scrum • An Agile framework with roles • Focuses on rapid • Requires experienced
(Scrum Master, Product delivery of high- team members.
Owner, Development Team) value features.
• Can be hard to
• ceremonies (Sprint Planning, • Promotes integrate with non-
Daily Stand-ups, Sprint teamwork, Agile processes.
Reviews, Retrospectives). accountability, and
continuous
• Work is divided into Sprints improvement.
(2-4 weeks).
7.Kanban • An Agile framework that • Highly flexible and • Lack of time-boxed
focuses on visualizing work, easy to implement. iterations may lead to
limiting work in progress less predictable
(WIP), and managing flow. Focuses on delivery times.
continuous delivery • May lack enough
• using a Kanban board to track and process structure for some
work items. improvement. teams.
8. Lean • Derived from Lean • emphasizes • Requires a cultural shift
Development manufacturing principles efficiency and and commitment to
• Derived from Lean quality. Lean principles.
manufacturing principles • Reduces • Challenging to identify
unnecessary and eliminate all forms
activities, focusing of waste.
on value creation.

9.DevOps • Integrates development (Dev) • Faster delivery of • Requires significant

and operations (Ops). software updates changes to organizational
• Focuses on automation, and features. structure and culture.
continuous integration (CI), • Improved • Needs investment in
continuous delivery (CD), and collaboration and automation tools and
monitoring. communication infrastructure.
• Aims to improve collaboration between teams.
and productivity.
 Choosing the Right Model
1. Project Size and Complexity: Large projects suit iterative or Spiral models.
2. Flexibility Requirements: Agile or Lean handles changing requirements.
3. Risk Management: Spiral is best for high-risk projects.
4. Stakeholder Involvement: Agile ensures ongoing engagement and feedback.

2.1 Waterfall Model(Example Payroll Management System)

1. Requirement Analysis: Collect and document all the project requirements.

Understand what the client needs.

(Gather requirements from HR and finance departments,

Understand client needs: Calculate employee salaries, track attendance,)

2. System Design: Plan the structure of the system ,

Define hardware, software, and overall system architecture

(Plan database for employee details (e.g., name, salary, tax rates).
Design user interfaces for HR staff to input attendance and generate reports.)

3. Implementation: Write the code according to the design plan.

Focus on developing individual modules.

(Write code, Build the system according to the design.)

4. Integration and Testing: Combine all modules and check for errors
(Test with sample data to check calculations, accuracy, and error handling.)

5. Deployment: Deliver the final product to the client, Install the system for real-world use.
(Install the system at the company’s office, Train HR staff to use the system.)

6. Maintenance: Fix issues and improve the system as needed.

(Fix any bugs or issues reported by users.Update the system)
2.2 Iterative Software Process Model

Key Characteristics of the Iterative Process Model

• Repeated Cycles: The process is divided into small cycles.
• Feedback and Evaluation: This feedback helps improve the software in the next cycle.
• Risk Management: Identify and address risks early in the process, Focus on critical and
high-risk parts.
• Incremental Improvement: Develop the software step by step, adding features
• Flexibility:This model is flexible and adaptable

Phases of the Iterative Process Model

1. Planning: Set goals and scope for the iteration, Decide which features to develop, Plan tasks,
timelines.
2. Analysis and Design: Study requirements for the iteration., Design the system architecture.
3. Implementation: Write and code the planned features, Combine the new code
4. Testing: Check the software for bugs and fix them.
5. Evaluation and Review: Share results with stakeholders and gather feedback.
6. Refinement: Use feedback to improve the software.

2.3 Incremental Software Process Model

The Incremental software process model is a development approach where the system is
designed, implemented, and tested incrementally until the entire product is finished.

Key Characteristics of the Incremental Process Model

• Incremental Delivery: The system is built in small parts, each adding more functionality.
• Customer Feedback: After each part is delivered, the customer gives feedback.
This feedback helps improve the product
• Prioritization: High-priority features are developed and delivered first
• Risk Management: Risks are identified early in each increment.
 Phases of the Incremental Process Model(Example: developing an e-commerce website)

1. Initial Planning: Set the overall system design and identify key increments.
Create a high-level plan for the order
(e.g., user registration, product catalog, shopping cart, payment processing).

2. Increment Planning: Define the goals, scope, and requirements for each increment.
Make detailed plans for design, implementation, and testing of each part.
(Define the objectives and scope for user registration.)

3. Analysis and Design: Study the requirements and design the system
(Develop the design for the user registration feature)

4. Implementation: Develop and code the planned features.

(Build and integrate the user registration feature.)

5. Testing: Test the increment to identify and fix defects

(Validate the user registration functionality)
6. Integration: Combine the new increment with the previous ones to form a complete system.
7. Review and Feedback: Deliver the increment to the customer Gather feedback.
(Deliver the increment to the customer and gather feedback)
8. Refinement: Plan the next increment based.

2.4 Evolutionary Development Software Process Model

The evolutionary model is a combination of the Iterative and Incremental models of the
software development life cycle.

Key Characteristics of Evolutionary Development

● Iterative Approach: Development is divided into iterations or increments.
● Incremental Delivery:
● Continuous Feedback: Stakeholders give feedback during development.
● Flexibility and Adaptability:
● Risk Management: Risks are tackled step by step during the project

Types of Evolutionary Development Models

● Prototyping Model
● Incremental Model
● Iterative Model
 Challenges of Evolutionary Development
● Complexity: Managing multiple iterations
● Coordination:
● Scope Management: Controlling scope creep
● Documentation and Maintenance: updated and managing software versions.

2.5 Prototyping Software Process Model

Prototyping is the process of creating a working model of a product or system to be
developed.

Key Characteristics of the Prototyping Model

● Prototype Development: A simple version of the software is created from initial
requirements.
● Iterative Process
● Rapid Feedback and Iteration:
● Risk Reduction: Detects and reduces risks early.
● Flexibility and Adaptability: Handles changing or unclear requirements.

Process Steps in the Prototyping Model

1. Requirements Gathering: Initial requirements are collected from stakeholders.

2. Prototype Development: A simple prototype is created based on initial requirements.
3. Prototype Evaluation: Feedback is collected on usability, functionality, and design.
4. Prototype Refinement: improved based on feedback.
5. Repeat Iteratively: Steps 2 to 4 are repeated until the prototype meets
6. Final Implementation: The final version is developed, adding more features

2.6 Test Driven Development Software Process Model

Key Characteristics of Test-Driven Development (TDD)

• Red-Green-Refactor Cycle: Red: Write a failing test to define the required functionality.
Green: Write the code needed to pass the test.
Refactor: Clean up the code to improve clarity without
changing how it works.
• Incremental Development
• Continuous Testing:
• Code Quality and Design:
• Immediate Feedback:
 Process Steps in Test-Driven Development (TDD)
• Write a Test: Define a test case
• Run the Test: Execute the test case
• Write the Code: Implement the login functionality
• Run Tests and Refactor: Run all existing tests,Repeat the Cycle: Follow the same process

Advantages Disadvantages
Improved Code Quality: Time-Consuming
Faster Feedback Overhead:
Reduced Debugging Time Not Suitable for All Projects:
Enhanced Design:
Confidence in Changes

2.7 Spiral Model Software Process Model

Key Characteristics

• Risk management
• Iterative development
• Flexibility
• Evaluation
• Flexible and Adaptive

Phases of the Spiral Model

1. Identification of Objectives :Set clear goals for the current phase of development.
2. Risk Analysis :Assess potential risks and create strategies to reduce them.
3. Development and Testing :Build and test the software based on the objectives.
4. Evaluation and Planning :Review results, learn from the process, and plan for the next
phase.

Advantages Disadvantages
Risk Management Complexity
Flexibility Cost and Schedule Estimation
High-Quality Software Documentation Overhead
Customer Feedback Potential for Scope Creep

Process Steps in the Spiral Model

Objective Setting, Risk Assessment, Development and Testing, Review and Evaluation,
Planning for the Next Spiral.
03. UML(Unified Modeling Language)
• UML is a standard way to visually represent software systems.
• It helps developers, designers, and managers understand, communicate, and validate
different parts of the system.

Types of UML

1. Use Case Diagram

2. Class Diagram
3. Sequence Diagram
4. Activity Diagram
5. State Machine Diagram
Usage of UML Modeling

1. Communication:UML helps stakeholders understand and discuss the system.

2. Design and Analysis:It helps plan the system's structure and behavior.
3. Documentation:UML documents system details and decisions.
4. Validation:It ensures the system’s design and requirements are correct.

Benefits of UML Modeling

1. Clarity and Precision

2. Standardization
3. Analysis and Design Aid
4. Documentation

3.1 Use Case Diagram

A use case describes a sequence of actions.
Purpose:Use cases capture the system's functional requirements from the user's perspective.
Elements:

• Actor: A user or external system interacting with the system.

Can be a user, another system, or any external entity.
• Use Case: A specific feature or function the system performs.
• Relationship: Describes how actors interact with use cases to achieve goals.
Association,<<Include>>,<<Exclude>>
 Benefits of Use Case
• Identifying errors
• Identifying real needs
• Communication
• Validation
• Managing scope: Use cases can help manage scope

3.2 Class Diagram

A class diagram is a UML diagram that shows a system's structure. It includes classes, their
attributes, methods, and relationships. It is used to design and visualize the system's blueprint.

Components of a Class Diagram

• Class: A blueprint for creating objects.
• Attributes: The details or properties of an object.
• Operations (Methods): The actions or behaviors that an object can perform.
• Relationships: Association, Aggregation, Composition, Inheritance, Dependency

For example, in a Car class:

• Attributes might include color, make, model, and speed.

• Operations might include start(), stop(), accelerate(), and brake().

Usefulness of Class Diagrams

• Design and Planning: Organizes how the system will be built.

• Communication: Shares information between team members.
• Analysis and Understanding: Helps understand the system's needs and connections.
3.3 Sequence Diagrams
A Sequence Diagram shows how things (objects) communicate with each other step by step
in a process.

Components of Sequence Diagrams

• Actor: A person or thing using the system (stick figure).
• Object: A thing inside the system (rectangle with name).
• Lifeline: Shows how long an object exists (dashed vertical line).

• Message: A communication between objects to exchange information.

Synchronous Message: The sender waits for the receiver to finish.
Asynchronous Message: The sender continues without waiting.
Return Message: The response or result after an operation.
• Activation (Execution) Bar: Shows when an object is performing an action.

3.4 State Machine Diagram

A State Machine Diagram Shows how an object or system changes states.

Components of State Machine Diagrams

• State: A situation an object is in (rounded rectangle).
• Transition: An arrow showing how the object moves to another state, triggered by an
event.
• Event: Something that triggers a state change.
• Guard Condition: A condition that must be true for the state change.
• Actions: Activities that happen during the state change.

3.5 Activity Diagrams

• Activity diagrams in UML show how tasks or actions flow in a process.
• They include steps, decisions, parallel tasks, and how activities are synchronized.
• These diagrams help visualize how processes or workflows work in systems or
businesses.
Components of Activity Diagrams

• Initial Node: The starting point of the diagram (filled circle, labeled "Start").
• Activity (Action): A task or operation in the process (rounded rectangle with the activity
name).
• Control Flow: Represents the sequence in which activities are performed.
(Shown as arrows connecting activities)
 • Decision Node
• Merge Node
• Join node
• Final node: Represents the end point

04. Software Design Guidelines

Software design guidelines help developers create systems that are simple, modular,
reusable, secure, scalable, maintainable, and user-friendly.

1. Modularity and Encapsulation: Create self-contained parts for easier reuse and maintenance.
2. Separation of Concerns: Divide tasks into layers (e.g., UI, logic, data) for clarity and easier updates.
3. Design Patterns: Use proven solutions like Singleton or Factory for common problems.
4. Scalability and Performance
5. Documentation and Communication
6. Design for Maintainability
7. User Interface (UI) Design

4.1 Separation of Concerns

Separation of concerns means dividing a program into parts, each focusing on a specific task,
to make it simpler, easier to maintain, and reusable.

1. Definition and Purpose

• Definition:
Separation of concerns divides a program into parts with minimal overlap in functionality.

• Purpose: Make code modular, organized, and easier to maintain.

2. Benefits
• Modularity: Design modules for specific tasks.
• Maintainability: Easy to update one part without affecting others.
• Reusability: Use components in different parts or projects.
• Testing: Easier testing by isolating parts and reducing dependencies.

3. Guidelines and Best Practices

• Identify Concerns, Use of Layers, Encapsulation, Define Interfaces.
 4. Examples of Separation of Concerns
• Separate HTML/CSS (presentation), JavaScript (client-side logic), and server-side code
(business logic, data access).
• Desktop Application: Separate user interface components (UI)
• Backend Services: Separate service layers (business logic), data access layers , and
communication layers .

5. Challenges and Considerations

Balance Complexity, Maintain Consistency, Performance.

4.2 Coupling
Coupling in software design measures how much one module depends on another. Lower
coupling makes software easier to maintain, scale, and modify.

Types of Coupling
• Content Coupling:
• Common Coupling:
• Control Coupling
• Data Coupling:
• Message Coupling:

Impact of Coupling
• Maintainability: Hard to update with high coupling.
• Testability: Hard to test with high coupling.
• Flexibility: Low coupling makes reuse and replacement easier.
• Scalability: Low coupling helps scale modules independently.

Managing Coupling
• Encapsulation: Hide data and functions to reduce external access.
• Abstraction: Use interfaces to minimize dependencies.
• Dependency Injection: Provide dependencies from outside to reduce coupling.
• Design Patterns: Use patterns to reduce coupling and improve flexibility.
• Layered Architecture: Organize the system into clear layers.
• Modularity: Break the system into independent, focused modules.
 4.3 Cohesion
Cohesion refers to how closely related and focused the elements within a module are in
achieving a common goal or functionality.

Types of Cohesion

1. Functional Cohesion: All elements in the module work together for one clear task.
Example: A payroll calculation module.
2. Sequential Cohesion: Elements work in a sequence, with each step depending on the
previous one.
Example: A module that reads, processes, and outputs data.
3. Communicational Cohesion: Elements share and operate on the same data.
Example: A module that processes customer data for multiple reports.
4. Procedural Cohesion, Logical Cohesion:

4.4 Modularity

Modularity means breaking a system into separate, independent parts that handle specific
tasks and interact through clear interfaces. It improves reusability, maintainability, and
flexibility.

Key Characteristics

• Encapsulation: Hides internal details and shows only necessary functions.

• Abstraction: Simplifies complex tasks to focus on key features.
• Independence: Modules are self-contained, so changes don't affect others.
• Reusability: Modules can be reused, saving time and effort.
• Scalability: Easy to add or change components as the system grows.

Benefits of Modularity

• Maintainability: Easy to update one module without affecting others.

• Flexibility: Easy to adapt to changes.
• Debugging and Testing: Easier to find and test issues in separate modules.
• Collaboration: Developers can work on different parts at the same time.

Strategies for Achieving Modularity

• Single Responsibility Principle (SRP):

• Encapsulation and Information Hiding:
• Layered Architecture:
• Dependency Injection:
• Design Patterns:
 Challenges of Modularity

Overhead, Complexity Management, Consistency:

4.5 Interface Design

Interface design defines how different software parts communicate.

This makes the system modular, maintainable, and reusable.

Key Aspects of Interface Design

• Clarity and Simplicity:
• Consistency:
• Explicitness:
• Minimalism:
• Conservation of Dependency Principle:
Guidelines for Interface Design
• Define Clear Contracts:
• Use Meaningful Names:
• Document Interfaces:
• Versioning and Compatibility
• Error Handling
• Mockability for Testing
Benefits
• Modularity and Encapsulation
• Ease of Maintenance
• Flexibility and Reusability

4.6 Information Hiding

Information hiding means keeping system details hidden to reduce complexity, improve
organization, and protect sensitive information.

Key Concepts of Information Hiding

• Encapsulation: Combines data and methods, hiding details and showing only needed
functions.
• Visibility Control: Limits access to parts of the system.
• Abstraction: Hides complex details, showing only the important features.
 Benefits of Information Hiding
• Modularity: Defines clear boundaries between components.
• Encapsulation: Prevents direct access to data, using interfaces for access.
• Reduced Complexity: Simplifies code by focusing on essentials and hiding details.
• Security: Limits access to sensitive data, reducing risks.
• Flexibility: Allows updates to internal details without affecting external interfaces.

Techniques for Implementing Information Hiding

• Access Control:
• Encapsulation:
• Interface Design:
• Module Boundaries
• Separation of Concerns

4.7 Abstraction
Abstraction means hiding complex details and showing only the essential features of a system

Key Concepts
• Focus on What, Not How: Abstraction shows what an object does, not how it works.
• Levels of Abstraction: High-Level: Focuses on the big picture.
Low-Level: Deals with specific details.
• Encapsulation and Abstraction
• Achieving Abstraction: Interfaces: Define operations without implementation.

Benefits of Abstraction
• Simplicity and Manageability
• Flexibility
• Modularity
• Security:
4.8 Generality
Generality in software engineering means creating systems or components that can be used in
different contexts without major changes. it promotes reusability, flexibility, and scalability
Key Aspects
• Flexibility and Adaptability: Generality allows systems to work in various contexts with
minimal changes.
• Reusability: Encourages reusing components, saving development time and effort.
• Parameterization: Allows components to be customized based on specific needs.
• Abstraction and Interfaces: Hides details and focuses on essential functions, promoting
integration and flexibility.

Benefits of Generality
• Cost Efficiency
• Scalability:
• Maintenance: