4

You havelearnt
Use of Uompuler nData
Prorcessing and Mapjinoy
various methods of data
ean use to analyse
Ist have observedthethat geographical processingin the
and
representation
yOu ever thought of a these nethods phenomena preceding that you
and chapters.
are time You
representation method of data consuming tedious. Have
that can save tinne and
computer for word processing, processing andIf their graphical
improve
more versatile asit then you must haveefficiency? you have used a
from one place io lacilitates the onscreen editing noticed that the
of the text, copy computer is
computer may also beanother,
Or evem delete the and nove it
unwanted text, Similarly. the
and drawing of maps,used for data processing. preparationof diagrams/graphs
software. In other words,provided you have an access to the related
a computer can be used application
fora wide range of applications.
It must. however, be clearly
instructions it receives from theunderstood
users.
that a computer carries out the
In other words, it canot
function on its owIn. In the present chapter. we will discuss the use ofperform any
in data processing and computers
mapping.
Whal can aComputer do?
computer is an electronic device. It consists of various sub-systems. like
nory. micro-processor. input system and output system. AIl these sulb
stems work together to make it an integrated system. Itis an extremely powerful
evice, which is apt to have an important effect on the systems of dataprocessing,
apping
períorm and analysis
simple Açomputer
arithmetic is a fastsuch
operations, and aas,versatile machine
addition, that can
subtraction,
muliplication and division. and can also solve complex mathematical, formulae.
It also performs simple logical operations. distinguishing zero from non-zero
DPUs Irom minus and discharge the results. In short, a computer is a data
asor that can perform substantial computation, including numerous
or logical operations, without intervention by ahumnan operator during
arithrun.meic
the
 computercan be
AC
conceptual clarity,
diagrams. It makes your job0
that you have the basic
through maps and
make it distinct from TA
Provided represent data computer COI
effectively to advantages of a ag
very following
extremelyfast.CUhe of
comnputatiorn and data processing, al
manual methods:) the speed normally not possible
indcreases which s
t substantially huge volume of data,
can handle data at will.
manually. retrieve the
facilitates copy, edit, save
and
and correction of data easilv
3. lt checking Compit
lt further enables validation, becomes extremely simple. drawine
A data by
Aggregation and analysis of comparative analysis, whether
6. perform
makes it very easy to shades), heading
maps or graphs.
bar/pie or types of
The type of graph or map (i.e., be changed very easily.
B formats can that you will
indexing and other advantages that a computer offers, computer
There are many other out your practical work
using a
while carrying
observe yourselves
Hardvare Configuration and Software Requirements
mapping comprises hardware and
data processing and
Acomputer as an aid to configurations storage, display, and input and
hardware comprise
software. The software are the programs that are
made of
output sub-systems, whereas processing and mapping, hence,
electronic codes. The computer-aided data application software.
requires both hardware components and related
Hardwar
The hardware components of acomputer include:
Part la) ACentral Processing Unit (CPU) and Storage System
Geography, (b) A Graphic Display Sub-system
(c) Input Devices
(d) Output Devices

in A
Central Processing Unit and Storage System)
Work (The core of modern computers consists of a central
processing unit (CPU), which
facilitates the execution of program instructions for processing
peripheral equipment. All data together with the operating data and controlling
Practical system and the
application programs occupy space in disk storage unit, which
working memory. functions as
The total storage capacity
depends upon the types of activity for
computer is to be used. The hardware which uie
mapping should be in the range of 1 GBstorage capacity for data processing atu
Memory (RAM) 32 MB or more. Besides tothe4 GB or more and the Random Acce
Such as floppy disks, CD, pen disk storage, the
permanently large drives and magnetic tapes secondary storay
quantities
The operating system is a of data that is not actively are also used to sto
data processing inna basic program, which being pprocessed.
and UNIX are in generalcomputer.
use, with theoperating systemsadministers
The
like
the interte
Windows beingthe MS-DOS, Windows.
most preferred one.
A Graphic Display System or Monitor
Agrraphic display system or monitor serves as the user's prime visual
ommunication medium in all computers, Ahigh resolution display systen witlh
oreater range of possible display colours and Look-up Tables (L¯T) for rapid
alteration of çolour patterns is generally preferred in graphlc and mapping
applications.
(Trnput Devices
The instruction and the statistical data are entered into the computer using the
kevboard functions. The keyboard is an important input device that resembles
a typewriter. It has various keys for different purposes. While working on a
Personal Computer (PC) you will notice a flash point on the sereen. This is known
as cursor. When you press a key on the keyboard, a character is displayed at
the point where the cursor is flashing and the cursor moves one position forward.
Besides, scanners and digitisers of different size and capabilities are also used
for spatial data entry
Qutput Devices
The output devices include a variety of printers, such as ink-jet, laser and colour
Taser printers; and the plotters that are available in different sizes ranging from
A3 to A0 size.)

Computer Software
Computer software is a written program that is stored in memory. It performs
specific functions as per the instructions given by the user. A data processing
and mapping software requires the following modules:
" Data Entry and Editing Modules
" Coordinate Transformation and Manipulation Modules
" Data Display and Output Modules ise
The DataEntry and Editing Modules of
(These inbuilt modules in the data processing and mapping software facilitate
data entry system interface, database creation, error removal,
the
projection
scale and Computer
manipulations, their organisation and maintenance of the data. Any of these and
other related data entry, editing and management çapabilities might be performed
using displayed menus and icons on the screen.yThe
present day commercial
provide
nData
packages, such as MS Excel/Spread sheet, Lotus l-2-3, and d-base hand, Arc
On the other
capabilities for data processing and generation of graphs.and analysis.
View/Arc GIS, Geomedia, possess modules for mapping Processing
Coordinate Transformation and Manipulation Modules)
cheate
(The present day softwares provide a wide range of capabilities used to spatial and
Tayers of spatial data, coordinate transformation, editing and linking the
data sets with the related non-spatial attributes of data. Mapf
Data Display and Output Modules
he datadisplay and output operations vary over a range of functions and are
ery much dependent on the skills developed in the field of computer graphks.
ome of the common capabilities that the present day softwares provide are:
 ane
selectedareas and scale
Zooming/Windowing to
display of change
Colourassignment/changeoperatlon
operatiorn display
perspective
dimenslonaland themes displav
" Three display of various markers
Selective stylingand pointinterfacing with plotter
" Polygon shading,Iine commandsfor
deviceinterface
devices
Output organisation for an
"
printers based menu easy
User Interface(GU)
Graphic
interface

ComputerSoftrarefor YourUse data processing softwares funct

have been
paragraphs, a number of capabilities and
In the preceding discuss the
However, it would be difficult toconstraints of time and space. W
referred. softwares under the followed in data processing and
each one of these
of procedure that is prodro
therefore, describe the diagrams using MS Excel or Spreadsheet represent
preparation of graphs andus to feed data, compute various statistics and
The spreadsheet enables statistics through graphical methods.
the raw data or computed
MS Excel or Spreadsheet of the
1 - 2 -3, andd- base are some
As mentioned earlier, MS Excel, Lotus drawing graphs and diagrams.
Important softwares used for data processing, and available software program in
MS Excel being most widely used and commonly carry out the
all parts of the country has been chosen among other software to
58 data processing. Besides, it is also compatible with map-making software as one
can easily fed data in MS Excel and attach it to the map-making software to
Part-II
crate maps.)
MS Excel is also called a spreadsheet programme. A spreadsheet is a
Geography, rectangular table (or grid) to store information. The spreadsheets are locatedin
Workbooks or Excel files,)
Most of the MS Excel screen is devoted to the display of the worksheet, which
consists of rows and columns. The intersection of a row and column is a
in rectangular area, which is called a cell., In other words, a worksheet is made up
Work of cells. Acell can contain a numerical value, a formula (which after calculation
provides numerical value).or text. Texts are generally
Practical entered in the cells., Avalue entry can either be a used for labelling numbes
result of a formula. The value of a number (entered direcuy)
(arguments) of the formula change. formula will change when the compone
An Excel worksheet
contains 16,384 rows, numbered 1
256 columns, represented
AZ, BA by default through
through BZ, continuing to IA letters A through 1.638*
through Z, AA throu
workbook consists s of and
three through 1Z. By default, an Excel
to 256
worksheets.
large number
worksheets. If you
of data andmeans that in the samnerequire, you
This can insert more, up
store a
like.
Fig.4.1 shows file/workbook
charts. how an excel
you can
workbook looks
 Meu

Menu
lcons A1
H

Cell
Cell
Address
Column
|Open Worksheet

Other Worksheets
Cell
Address
Column)

Raad

Workbook
Fig. 4.I MS Excel

Excel
Data Entry and Storing Procedures in enter,
The data entry and storing procedures are very simple in Excel. You can may also
cell to another and save them. You 59
copy and move any data from one
or a complete file, if it is not required for
delete incorrect or unwanted data entry that you would require for entering
further use. The elementary functions of Excel
Table 4. 1. You can learn more on your
data and storing them are described in
it
options by yourself. Further, you will find
own by exploring other menus andnumber pad given on the right side of your
easier to feed data if you use the
you need to press 'enter key' or 'down
keyboard. For entering data column-wise, pressing right arow key after typing
arrow' after typing a number. While row-wise
a number can enter
data.

Data
Data Processing and Computation
further use. You can easily add, subtract,/,
Often raw data need to be processed for . and
the keyboard signs of +, ,elements
multiply, and divide numbers using operators in
and they connect
respectively. These signs are known as 5F6
aformula or expression. For example, if you want to solve the expression essingand
it out in steps below:
e8-5, then you can easily work
the help of mouse).
Step 1: Click on any cell (with expression. Thus, the expression becones =
Step 2: Tvpe =, followed by the
5+6-8-5.
result in the same cell that yo
Step 3 : Press enter key, and you will get the
had chosen in Step 1. in excel by first typing
Note: The numerical operations can only be performed
sign)
 Table 4. l: Important Functions for Entering and Storing Data

secondary
Instructlons Menu

S.
Function
Menu Urom Keyboarcutae
No.
Flle
dropdown list) Short
For opening New
new fle Crl N
Flle Open
For opening
an existing
nle
Save a file Give a file name and File Save
2 define where you Ctrl S
want to store it (by
default, it is c:\....\my
documents\)

Copy, move Select the set of data Edit

Copy
3.
and paste a by pressing the left
Ctrl C
set of data mouse button and
dragging it over the
set of the data you
want to select
4. Cut, move Select the set of data Edit Cut
and paste a by pressing the left
Ctrl X
set of data mouse button and
dragging it over the
set of the data you
want to select
5 Paste a set Take the cursor to Edit
of data
Paste Ctrl V
the cell where you
want to paste it
Geography |6. For
undoing Edit Undo Ctrl Z
|the last
action"
7 For redoing
in
Work the last
action
Edit Repeat Ctrl Y

Practical Note: You cannot

undo or redo ans action
fyou have saved the file after the last action
These operators that
The
expressions connect elementsare in a formula are solved in an order
enclosed in
'exponents,'division','multiplication'
'brackets',,'addition'
solvedandfirst
'subtraction.
and are Forexampl
followed k.
by the
expressiwillon/formula within acell given as =A8/(A9 +A4) wil be solved ustng
Excel as under:
It
value of A8firstby add the
the sum.values entered in cellss A9 and A4, andthen wwill dividethe
shareFurther,
of
if you
urban want to
percentage supplement
percentas
calculwillate the populatioofn the total population,
you to your understanding
in
on the
youhave
require the data onurban population in
that case. Todost
1 various states ofIndia. eo
urban population and total populationfor
 some
introducedto and correlation in Chapter
such a
Youhavecentral
measuresof
been dispersion behind these techniques.
alreadytendency,
concept
understoodthe to
and
compute
rationalestatistics will be
these
2.YTheoumus
useof
discussed in the
have functions inbuilt statistical and
worksheet
subsequentparagraphs.

In MS
Excel,
there are
functions are
numerous
locatedin
Insert menu. To use the
dropdown
(Function)fromthe
matf1ist.uncthenation,ica
formula Note
dBek
that
functions. These andchoose f, cell where you want the to
onthe
Insert menu, locatedinthe
should be
applicationof
statistical functions are given below. appeat.
yourcursor
examples of
Some mode
Central Tendencies medianand Arithmeticr
representedby used method for calculating the mean
mean,
Centraltendencies
are commonly name average. As an central,
average, is a
also called MS Excel, itis denoted
by its
intensity
popular
in India duringivarious decades example,
tendency. In to be undertaken)
calculate mean cropping following steps are
we shall functionin Excel. The intensity data in a worksheet, as shown tn
the average year-wise cropping
: Enter
(Step I
Fig.4.4.
cell B12 using mouse.
Step 2: Click on
choose f, (Function) from dropdowm lke
Menu and
Step 3: Click on Insert Function dialogue box.
this will open Insert
a category menu on the dialogue bor
from select
Step 4: Select Statistical forth the statistical functions available in Excel inthe
This will bring
box,
box below in the same dialogue
62
Part-1l
Geography,
Selecta Function, click on Average and press OK button.
Step 5: In the box
Function Argument.
This will open another dialogue box called
the first decade CI_50s (which
Step 6 : Either enter the cell range of data of
the Number 1bor
shows year-wise cropping intensity in 1950s) in
inPractical
Work on Function Argument dialogue box of data, or drag cursor presSITg
the left button of mouse over the cell range of data.
Step 7: Press OK button on the Function Argument dialogue box.
cellB12.
calculates mean cropping intensity for the decade 1950sin
where you had put your cursor in the beginning.
Step 8: Now, calculate the mean for other decade either following Steps 1-7
given above or dragging cursor right handward in the samne
selecting the small square from cancopy
rectangle
the cell B12 and paste it on D12, of cell B12 or you
F12, H12 and d J12. This will give
you the mean value of cropping intensity for the decades 1960s,1970s.
1980s and 1990s,
These steps are further respectively
explained in Fig. 4.4 through Fg.4.6.
 a Microsoft Exceldata
S) Fe Edt Ve hsert Fgrmat Iools Data Wndow Helo

I18
BC D
1 yr 50s CI 50s yt 60s CI 60s H
2 1950-51 111.11960.61 yr.70s CI 70s Yr Bos vt 90s CI90s
K
1147 1970-71 1182 1900-81 1232 100os
3 1951-52 1116 1961.62 115 4 1971-72 1299
4 1952.53 111.5 1962-63 1182 198182 1245 19AL9 1207
5 1953-54 112 41963-64 115 1972.73 1182 198283 1232 1o
115 1973-74 130,1
6 1954-55 1127 196465 1193 198384 1267 -94(P 131 1
1153 1974-75 1192 198486
7 1955-56 114.1 1965-66 114 1975-76 34.95(P 1315
s95657 1142 1966-67 1147 1976-77
120 9 1985-06
120 1905.87
1257199596(P
1264 196-97(P
1318
9 1957.58 113 1967-68 117 1 1977-78
12131967-88
1328
10 1958-59 115 1963-69 1162 1978-79 1223 19eR.00 1273 1997-98(P 34
11 1959-60 115 1969-70 1169 1979-80
128 5 199099(P 135 4
122 1 1909.90
12 113.06 115,43 119.97
128.1 1999-00(P 1349
13 125 89 132 03

Fig. 4.4 : Calculation of Mean Using Statistical

Function in MS Excel

Select average for function

Insert Function Insert FL nction

Search for a function: Serchfor hfunction:
Type a brief description of what you want to do and then Type a tief desoription of what you want to do and then
dck Go dckGo
Or select a çategory: atistical or selecta çategory: (Satistical
Most. ReCently Used
Select a function: Select a fuctio
inaocisl

Date &. Tie

AVERAGEA Math &Trig AVERAGEA
EETADIST Tookuo Reference
Databas eNCMOLST
aHIDIST Text aHIDEST
AVERAGE(nunber1,number2,)
AVEDEV(urnber1,informabion
Returns the aver age of the absckte demaions of dota points from their )of ts araumerks, wich can be
ner E O references thet cortain nunbers
mean. Arguments Can be runbers or names, arrays, or references that
contain numbers.

Helo cn ths fuoction Cancel Hebon thi hstion Cancel

Fig. 4.5 : Selection of Statistical Functiorn

Function Arguments 2X Define your data

FAVERAGE
range for which
-(111.1;111.6;111.s you have to calculate
Numbert e3:812
mean
Number2
-113.06
mean) of s arguments, whidh can be rumbers or names,
Keturns the average (arithmetic
hat contain numbers.
arrays, or references
numeric arguments for which you want
Numberl: nunber l,number2.... are 1 to 30

Formula rest 113.06

CConcol
telo.on thes hunction

Range in Function Arguments dialogue bax

Pig. 4.6 : Defining
 Thecomputation of meanfor the givendata reveals that there has beeh
croppingintensity over
decadal different
impresstve
Aeneral,
increase
and
in mean
1980s onwards
Revolution" underwenta spatlal
particular. In fact.
spreadand a tremendous increase In the
in

which
tookplace,
faciltated cultivation in the arid
area unde
during 1980s
decadest
tube-well
well
Using
as
irrigation
almost
during the the
seasons.
dry same procedure usedfor calculating mean, as outline
standarddeviation. and correlation,
regons
above,youcan
calculate
provided in
median,
Flg.4.7 andFlg. 4.8. Some tiro
for this are |Isert Functlon
SeMch fo a furdion
fune abrief description of wh you r t to do avd
dthen
ya eto d
bf eend
select a çategory: Sstitics
alect a fctiog:
G4DIST
tsfurteo
CHTEST
cONFIDENE
sTANCAIOtEE
STDCY coUNTA
STCOA CORREL(arrayl ,array2)
Returns the correlation coetficient betveen two dsta sets.
Pumber umber2,)
population gven as
tes sandvd drvistion based on the ertre
Mgunents foores logcal vokues and tet)
Helo cn this fyoctkn Cno
Cancel
ton thtecton

Fig. 4.7 :Function for Standard Deviation

Fig. 4.8 Function for Correlation

64
(Construction of Grayls
Part-II You know that the dáta in tabular form, at times make it difficult to draw inferencs
about whatever is being presented. On the other hand, the representation of the
Geography data in graphical form enhances our capabilities to make meaninghul
comparisons between the phenomena represented, and present a simplified vier
of the characteristics depicted. In other words, graphs and diagrams make us to
decipher the contents of data easily. For example, it would be difficult to make
sense of the Cropping Intensity in India if the data for all 50 years are
in in a presented
tabular form. However, through a line graph or bar diagram, we can easly
Work draw meaningful conclusions about the trend in Cropping Intensity in
India.
Practical Data Tyypes and Some Suitable Graphical
I. Time series data are Methods of their Presentation
2. Bar diagrams and represented through line graphs or bar diagram
or frequencies of histograms are, generally, used for showing shares
3. Compound bar various units.
of various units.diagrams, and pie charts are used for
4.
showing sha
Maps are used for
location-wise representation of data. This
comprehending spatial ep
patterns in the data.
The selection of a
of data. In Chapter 3,suitable
you havegraphical method is important for theepresentatiat
of data learnt about graphs and andthe kind
in Excel.
suitable for. Here, you willlearn how diagrams, constructed
graphs and diaagrams are
 ComputerAssisledMappiny
The maps may also be drawvn using a combination of computer hardware and the
mapping software. The computer assisted mapping essentially requires the creation
alongwith its integration with attribute or non- spatial
It further involvesthe verification and structuring of fthe stored data) What is most
ofa spataldatabase data
important in this context is that the data must be geometrically registered to a
generally accepted and properly defined coordinate system and coded so that
they can be storedin the internal database structure within the computer. Hence
purpOses
must be taken while using the computer lor mapping
care
(Spatial Data)data represent
(The spatial a geographical space. They are characteriseddby the
points, lines and polygons. The point data represent positional l characteristics of
wells, tube.
some of the geographical features, such as schoOls, hospitals,
towns and villages, etc., on the map.In other words, if we want to present the
but with
objects on a map iD dimensionless scale
occurrence of the
featuree
location, we use points. Similarly, lines are used to depict linear etc. Poe referenceto
roads, railway lines, canals, rivers, power and communication lines,
are made of a number of inter-connected lines, bounding a certain area. and a
used to show area features such as administrative units (countries, districts
states, blocks); land use types (cultivated area, forest lands, degraded/waste
lands, pastures, etc) and features, like ponds, lakes, etc.
Non-spatial Data
(The data describing the information about spatial data are called non-spatial or
attribute data. For example, if you have a map showing positional location ofyour
68
school, you can attach the information, such as the name of the school, subject
Part-II stream it offers, number of students in each class, schedule of
and examinations, available facilities, like library, labs, admissions, teaching
words, you will be defining the attributes of the equipment, etc In other
Geography, data are also known as spatial data. Thus, Don-spatial
attribute-data.
Sources of
Geographical Data
The geographical data are
or digital form (scanned available in analogue (map and aerial
in
Work
images).
The procedure of creating photograprs
in Chapter 6. spatial data in the computer has
been discuSs
Practical
Mapping Softvare and their Functions
There are anumber of
ArcView, Geomedia, GRAM, commercially
Idrisi,
available mapping softwares, such as ArcGIS,
downloadable softwares
However, it would that can Geometica,
be etc. There are also afewfreely
softwares under the
be
difficult to discussdownloaded
the with the help of Internet.
of each one of these
the
procedure
A in constraints
general used in
of time capabilities
and space. We will,
therefore. describe
mapping
through onscreen software provides choropleth formapping using ga mapping software.
transformat
and analysis. of digitisation functions
ion scale and projection,scanned
of spatial and attribute data input
errors.
data maps, corrections of
presentatiot
integration, map design,