4

FIFTH EDITION
Longman Academic
Writing Series
ESSAYS

Alice Oshima
Ann Hogue
with Lara Ravitch
 CONTENTS

To the Teacher...................................................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgments...............................................................................................................xiii
Chapter Overview............................................................................................................... xiv

PART I: WRITING A PARAGRAPH

Chapter 1 Paragraph Structure.......................................................................2

Introduction ...................................................................................................................3
Analyzing the Model .....................................................................................................3

Noticing Vocabulary: Word Families ......................................................................4

Parts of a Paragraph .................................................................................................5

The Topic Sentence ......................................................................................................5
Supporting Sentences ...............................................................................................11
The Concluding Sentence .........................................................................................14

Applying Vocabulary: Using Word Families .............………………………………17

The Writing Process ................................................................................................17

Writing Assignment: A Paragraph about Communication ................................18

Self-Assessment .......................................................................................................20

Expansion ....................................................................................................................21
Timed Writing: A Paragraph about a Communications Medium .......................21
Writing on an Assigned Topic ....................................................................................21

Chapter 2 Unity and Coherence ...................................................................22

Introduction .................................................................................................................23
Analyzing the Model ...................................................................................................23

Noticing Vocabulary: Synonyms 1 .......................................................................24

Unity ...............................................................................................................................24

  iii  
 Coherence ...................................................................................................................26
Repetition of Key Nouns............................................................................................27
Consistent Pronouns..................................................................................................30
Transition Signals........................................................................................................31
Logical Order ...............................................................................................................40

Applying Vocabulary: Using Synonyms 1 ............................................................42

Writing Assignment: A Paragraph about Health and Medicine ........................42

Self-Assessment .......................................................................................................44

Expansion ....................................................................................................................45
Timed Writing: A Paragraph about a Medical Topic .............................................45
Responding to a Reading ..........................................................................................45

Chapter 3 Using Outside Sources...............................................................46

Introduction .................................................................................................................47

Analyzing the Model ................................................................................................47

Noticing Vocabulary: Synonyms 2 .......................................................................48

Using and Citing Sources ......................................................................................48

Plagiarism.....................................................................................................................48
Correct Citations.........................................................................................................49

Quotations ...................................................................................................................52
Reporting Verbs and Phrases ...................................................................................52
Punctuating Direct Quotations ..................................................................................53
Using Direct Quotations as Support ........................................................................55
Changing Direct Quotations to Indirect Quotations ..............................................56

Paraphrasing ..............................................................................................................58

Analyzing the Model ................................................................................................58

Plagiarism and Paraphrasing ....................................................................................60
Writing a Successful Paraphrase ..............................................................................61
Using Paraphrases as Support .................................................................................64

Summarizing ...............................................................................................................66

Analyzing the Model ................................................................................................66

Writing a Successful Summary .................................................................................67
iv  Contents
 Applying Vocabulary: Using Synonyms 2 ............................................................69

Writing Assignment: A Summary of an Article ....................................................70

Self-Assessment .......................................................................................................71

Expansion ....................................................................................................................72
Timed Writing: A Summary of a Reading ...............................................................72
Responding to a Reading ..........................................................................................72

PART II: WRITING AN ESSAY

Chapter 4 From Paragraph to Essay.........................................................74

Introduction .................................................................................................................75

Analyzing the Model ................................................................................................75

Noticing Vocabulary: Nouns and Noun Suffixes ................................................77

Parts of an Essay ......................................................................................................78

The Introductory Paragraph ......................................................................................79
Body Paragraphs ........................................................................................................86
The Concluding Paragraph ........................................................................................87

Patterns of Organization .......................................................................................89

Organization and Thesis Statements .......................................................................89
Organization and Body Paragraphs .........................................................................90

Outlines of Essays ....................................................................................................96

Applying Vocabulary: Using Nouns and Noun Suffixes ....................................97

Writing Assignment: An Essay about Education ................................................98

Self-Assessment .......................................................................................................99

Expansion ..................................................................................................................100
Timed Writing: An Essay about Education ...........................................................100
Using Quotes and Paraphrases to Support Ideas ...............................................100

Contents  v  
 Chapter 5 Process Essays..............................................................................101
Introduction ...............................................................................................................102

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................102

Noticing Vocabulary: Word Parts and Word Families ......................................105

Organization .............................................................................................................106
Thesis Statements for a Process Essay ................................................................106
Body Paragraphs in a Process Essay ....................................................................108
Transition Signals for Chronological Order ...........................................................109

Applying Vocabulary: Using Word Parts and Word Families ..........................111

Writing Assignment: A Process Essay about Earth Science ..........................112

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................114

Expansion ..................................................................................................................114
Timed Writing: A Process Essay ............................................................................114
Writing from a Diagram ............................................................................................115

Chapter 6 Cause / Effect Essays ...............................................................116

Introduction ...............................................................................................................117

Analyzing the Models ............................................................................................117

Noticing Vocabulary: Collocations 1 ..................................................................120

Organization .............................................................................................................121
Block Organization ...................................................................................................121
Chain Organization ...................................................................................................123
Transition Signals for Cause / Effect Relationships .............................................124

Applying Vocabulary: Using Collocations 1 ......................................................129

Writing Assignment: A Cause / Effect Essay about Psychology ...................130

Self Assessment ......................................................................................................131

Expansion ..................................................................................................................132
Timed Writing: A Cause / Effect Essay..................................................................132
Writing a Summary and Response.........................................................................132

vi  Contents
Chapter 7 Comparison / Contrast Essays...........................................133
Introduction ...............................................................................................................134

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................134

Noticing Vocabulary: Antonyms ..........................................................................136

Organization .............................................................................................................137
Points of Comparison ...............................................................................................137
Point-by-Point Organization ....................................................................................138
Block Organization ...................................................................................................138
Comparison and Contrast Signal Words ...............................................................140

Applying Vocabulary: Using Antonyms ..............................................................147

Writing Assignment: A Comparison / Contrast Essay about Culture ............147

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................150

Expansion ..................................................................................................................150
Timed Writing: An Essay about Child / Parent Relationships ...........................150
Writing a Summary and Response.........................................................................151

Chapter 8 Argumentative Essays ..............................................................152

Introduction ...............................................................................................................153

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................153

Noticing Vocabulary: Collocations 2 ..................................................................155

Organization .............................................................................................................156
The Elements of an Argumentative Essay .............................................................156
The Introductory Paragraph ....................................................................................158

Statistics as Support .............................................................................................160

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................160

Applying Vocabulary: Using Collocations 2 ......................................................165

Writing Assignment: An Argumentative Essay about Space Travel................166

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................167

Contents  vii  
 Expansion ..................................................................................................................168
Timed Writing: An Essay about Technology ........................................................168
Rebutting an Argument ............................................................................................168

PART III: SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Chapter 9 Types of Sentences.....................................................................170

Introduction ...............................................................................................................171

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................171

Independent and Dependent Clauses ............................................................173

Independent Clauses ...............................................................................................173
Dependent Clauses ..................................................................................................173

Kinds of Sentences ................................................................................................174

Simple Sentences .....................................................................................................174
Compound Sentences .............................................................................................175
Complex Sentences .................................................................................................182
Compound-Complex Sentences ............................................................................184

Sentence Types and Writing Style ...................................................................185

Editing Practice .......................................................................................................187

Writing Practice .......................................................................................................187

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................188

Chapter 10 Parallelism and Sentence Problems............................189

Introduction ...............................................................................................................190

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................190

Parallel Structure in Sentences ........................................................................191

Parallelism with Coordinators: And, Or, But ........................................................192
Parallelism with Correlative (Paired) Conjunctions ..............................................192

Sentence Problems ................................................................................................194

Sentence Fragments ................................................................................................194
Choppy Sentences ...................................................................................................196

viii  Contents
 Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices ...............................................................199
Stringy Sentences .....................................................................................................201

Editing Practice .......................................................................................................203

Writing Practice .......................................................................................................204

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................204

Chapter 11 Noun Clauses................................................................................205

Introduction ...............................................................................................................206

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................207

That Clauses .............................................................................................................207

Sentences Beginning with It ....................................................................................208
Special Verb Tenses in That Clauses .....................................................................210

If / Whether Clauses ..............................................................................................214

Question Clauses ....................................................................................................216

Editing Practice .......................................................................................................218

Writing Practice .......................................................................................................219

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................220

Chapter 12 Adverb Clauses............................................................................221

Introduction ...............................................................................................................222

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................222

Kinds of Adverb Clauses .....................................................................................223

Time Clauses .............................................................................................................224
Place Clauses ............................................................................................................225
Distance, Frequency, and Manner Clauses ..........................................................226
Reason Clauses ........................................................................................................228
Result Clauses ...........................................................................................................230
Purpose Clauses .......................................................................................................233
Contrast Clauses ......................................................................................................235
Conditional Clauses ..................................................................................................239

Contents  ix  
 Editing Practice .......................................................................................................240

Writing Practice .......................................................................................................242

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................242

Chapter 13 Adjective Clauses......................................................................243

Introduction ...............................................................................................................244

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................244

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs .......................................................................245

Position of Adjective Clauses .................................................................................245
Verb Agreement in Adjective Clauses ....................................................................246

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses .....................................246

Punctuation of Adjective Clauses ...........................................................................246

Kinds of Adjective Clauses .................................................................................247

Relative Pronouns as Subjects ...............................................................................247
Relative Pronouns as Objects .................................................................................250
Possessive Adjective Clauses ................................................................................252
Relative Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions .....................................................255
Relative Pronouns in Phrases of Quantity and Quality ........................................257
Adjective Clauses of Time and Place ....................................................................259

Editing Practice .......................................................................................................262

Writing Practice .......................................................................................................263

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................263

Chapter 14 Participles and Participial Phrases...............................264

Introduction ...............................................................................................................265

Analyzing the Model ..............................................................................................265

Kinds of Participles ................................................................................................266

Participle Forms.........................................................................................................266

Participial Phrases .................................................................................................267

Reduced Adjective Clauses ....................................................................................267
Position and Punctuation of Participial Phrases ..................................................267

x  Contents
 Present Participial Phrases ......................................................................................268
Past Participial Phrases ...........................................................................................269
Perfect Form Participial Phrases ............................................................................271
Participial Phrases and Writing Style .....................................................................272
Reduced Adverb Clauses ........................................................................................274

Editing Practice .......................................................................................................277

Writing Practice .......................................................................................................278

Self-Assessment .....................................................................................................278

APPENDICES
Appendix A Chapter Readings ..............................................................................279

Appendix B Connecting Words and Transition Signals .....................................291

Appendix C Punctuation Rules ..............................................................................299

Appendix D Correction Symbols ...........................................................................309

Appendix E Research and Documentation of Sources ......................................312

Appendix F Peer Review / Writer’s Self-Check Worksheets .............................320

Index ....................................................................................................................................337
Credits .................................................................................................................................343

Contents  xi  
 TO THE TEACHER

Welcome to the new edition of Level 4 in the Longman Academic Writing

Series, a five-level series that prepares English language learners for academic
coursework. This book, formerly called Writing Academic English, is intended for
high-intermediate students in university, college, or in secondary school programs. It
offers a carefully structured approach that focuses on writing as a process. It teaches
rhetoric and sentence structure in a straightforward manner, using a step-by-step
approach, high-interest models, and varied practice types.

Like the previous editions, this book integrates instruction in essay organization
and sentence structure with the writing process. It carefully guides students through
the steps of the writing process to produce the well-organized, clearly developed
essays that are essential to academic writing in English. You will find a wealth of
realistic models to guide writers and clear explanations supported by examples that
will help your students through typical rough spots. These explanations are followed
by the extensive practice that learners need to assimilate writing skills and write
with accuracy and confidence. There are interactive tasks throughout the text—pair
work, small-group activities, and full-class discussions—that engage students in
the learning process and complement the solitary work that writers must do. The
tasks progress from recognition exercises to controlled production and culminate in
communicative Try It Out activities.

In the first part of this book, you will find a quick review of paragraph writing
and summarizing. The second part of the book offers comprehensive chapters on
process, cause/effect, comparison/contrast, and argumentative essays. Sentence
structure, with a special emphasis on subordinated structures, appears in the third
part of the book. Finally, the extensive appendices and a thorough index make the
text a valuable and easy-to-use reference tool.

What’s New in This Edition

Instructors familiar with the previous edition will find these new features:
● Chapter objectives provide clear goals for instruction;

● Two new vocabulary sections, Noticing Vocabulary and

Applying Vocabulary, explain vocabulary from the writing

models and support its use in the Writing Assignment;
● Selected writing models have been updated or replaced, while

old favorites have been retained and improved;

● Try It Out! activities challenge students to be creative and apply

the skills they have studied;

● Writing Tips contain strategies that experienced writers use;

● Self-Assessments ask students to evaluate their own progress;

● Timed Writing practice develops students’ writing fluency.

xii  
The Online Teacher’s Manual
The Teacher’s Manual is available on the Pearson English Portal. It includes
general teaching notes, chapter teaching notes, answer keys, reproducible writing
assignment scoring rubrics, and reproducible chapter quizzes.

Acknowledgments
We sincerely appreciate the contributions of the many people who have
helped shape the fifth edition of this book. First and foremost, we would like to
acknowledge Lara Ravitch, for her tireless dedication to this book and the many new
models, practices, activities, and assignments that she contributed.

We are also grateful to the members of the Pearson ELT team for the expertise
and dedication they brought to this project, particularly Amy McCormick, Lise
Minovitz, and Eleanor Kirby Barnes. I would also like to thank Barbara Weisberg and
Meg Brooks for their time, support, and guidance in developing this book.

To the many reviewers who contributed to our planning for this edition and those
whose thoughtful comments and suggestions on the previous editions also helped to
shape this book, we extend our heartfelt thanks: Mark Alves, Montgomery College,
Maryland; Angelina Arellanes-Nuñez, University of Texas at El Paso; Dorrie Brass,
Annapolis, Maryland; Robyn Brinks-Lockwood, Stanford University, California;
Tony J. C. Carnerie, University of California San Diego, California; Marsha
Gerechter Abramovich, Tidewater Community College, Virginia Beach, Virginia;
Patty Heises, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Alex Jones, Seattle,
Washington; Ruth Moore, University of Colorado at Boulder, Colorado; David Ross,
Intensive English Program, Houston, Texas; Diana Savas, Pasadena City College,
Pasadena, California; Jacqueline Smith, Brooklyn, New York; Barbara Smith-
Palinkas, Tampa, Florida; Anita Sokmen, Director, English Language Programs
Extension Courses & Marketing, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.

We would also like to thank the following people for their feedback on our online
survey: Eric Ball, Langara College, British Columbia, Canada; Mongi Baratli, Al
Hosn University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Jenny Blake, Culture Works
ESL, London, Canada; Karen Blinder, English Language Institute, University of
Maryland, Maryland; Bob Campbell, Academic Bridge Program, Doha, Qatar;
Nancy Epperson, Truman College, Illinois; Kemal Erkol, Onsekiz Mart University,
Çanakkale, Turkey; Russell Frank, Pasadena City College, California; Jeanne Gross,
Cañada College, California; Lisa Kovacs-Morgan, English Language Institute,
University of California at San Diego, California; Mary Ann T. Manatlao, Qatar
Foundation, Academic Bridge Program, Doha, Qatar; Brett Reynolds, Humber
Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning, Ontario, Canada; Lorraine C.
Smith, CUNY Queens College, New York.

Alice Oshima
Ann Hogue

To the Teacher   xiii  

 CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Longman Academic Writing Series, Level 4, Essays offers a carefully
structured approach to high-intermediate academic writing. It features
instruction on paragraph and essay organization, sentence structure,
grammar, and the writing process.

NEW!
Four-color design makes the lessons even more engaging.

CHAPTER
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS
8
OBJECTIVES
Realistic writing models present the
To write academic texts, you need
to master certain skills. type of writing students will learn to
In this chapter, you will learn to:
● Analyze an argumentative essay produce in the end-of-chapter Writing
● Construct an introduction for an
argumentative essay Assignments.
● Use transitions of contrast
● Identify and rebut opposing
arguments
● Support your ideas
using statistics INTRODUCTION
● Write, revise, and edit an
argumentative essay about An argumentative essay is an essay in which you agree or disagree on an issue,
space travel using reasons to support your opinion. Your goal is to convince your reader that your
opinion is right. Argumentation is a popular kind of essay question because it forces
students to think on their own: They have to take a stand on an issue, support their
stand with solid reasons, and support their reasons with solid evidence. At the end
of this chapter, you will write an argumentative essay about whether it is wise or
practical to attempt to send a human mission to Mars.

ANALYZING THE MODEL

The writing model is about the role of technology in the modern workplace.
Read the model. Then answer the questions.

! Writing Model
Changes in technology have had a dramatic effect on many
different areas of life, including the workplace.

REPLACED BY A ROBOT
1 Ever since the invention of computers, technology has done more and
more of the job of the average worker. From mathematical calculations
152
to mailing lists, computers have become more efficient, in more areas,
than their human colleagues. Although some argue that computers will
never replace people, others are concerned about the advanced robotic
technology that computers make possible. Indeed, it is likely that the use
of more and better robots will someday result in fewer jobs for humans.
However, this should not be seen as a problem. Rather, as technology
improves, employers in all fields should look to maximize their robotic
workforce and minimize human error.

2 Until now, many have argued that robots can only replace humans
in certain less-skilled jobs. They might, for example, be able to perform

NEW! routine tasks on an assembly line. These opponents of a mechanized

workforce may not be aware that technology has progressed in the areas

Chapter objectives provide clear of decision-making and creativity. Some robots’ work in these areas is
almost equal to that of humans. In fact, some interactive computers are
so well-designed that it will soon be possible to talk with them almost
goals for instruction. endlessly before realizing that they are not human (Loftus). A computer
even won the game show Jeopardy not long ago. These computers are
clearly capable of more than simple tasks.

3 Others argue that, even though computers may someday be able

to approximate human behavior, humans will always be able to do
the job better. While that may be true for a general-purpose robot,
highly-specialized machines can often do specific tasks better than a

(continued on next page)

Argumentative Essays 153

xiv Chapter Overview

 NEW!

!Noticing Vocabulary: Word Families

Noticing Vocabulary points out
Good writers use a wide range of vocabulary. You can quickly improve your useful words and phrases from the
vocabulary by studying word families. Word families are groups of words that are
related. Words in a word family often have similar meanings but are different parts
of speech. For example, notice the word successful in the model. The words success,
writing models.
succeed, successful, and successfully belong to the same word family.

PRACTICE 1 Identifying Words in Word Families

A Look at the writing model again. Find and underline the words in the chart.
Then complete the chart. Use a dictionary as needed.

Verb AdjectiVe AdVerb

---------- aggressive aggressively
agree
create
---------- disrespectful
dominate
influence
----------
NEW!
passive
submit
Applying Vocabulary allows students
---------- unproductive
use to practice the new vocabulary and
then use it in their writing assignments.
B Notice the word endings in the chart in Part A. List the ending(s) for each part
of speech.

Verbs: -ate
Adjectives:

Adverbs:

!Applying Vocabulary: Using Word Families

You have learned that recognizing words in word families can help you build your
vocabulary. You also identified several patterns for word endings. This information can
help you use the correct form of a word in your writing.

PRACTICE 10 Reviewing Words in Word Families

Before you begin your writing assignment, review the word families chart on
page 4. Then fill in the blank in each sentence with the word from the chart that
4 CHAPTER 1 best fits. Think about the meaning and part of speech.

1. My neighbor’s dog is very . He bites everyone who comes

near him.

2. The team took a(n) approach to the negotiations, agreeing to

everything the other side proposed, and making no demands.

3. Some people try to the conversation; they never let anyone

else speak.

4. Employees who behave in salary negotiations do not point

out how they can contribute to the company, do not clearly state their financial

NEW!
expectations, and, as a result, are not likely to receive a competitive wage.

5. In American culture, it is not appropriate to try to a teacher’s

decision about your grade by giving him or her presents or compliments.
Writing Tips provide useful strategies Writing Tip
to help students produce better writing. If there’s a word you want to use in your writing, but it’s the wrong part of
speech, check your dictionary. You may be able to find a word from the same
word family that fits your sentence.

THE WRITING PROCESS

Writing is a process, and like any process, it consists of a series of steps. While the exact
number of steps in the process may vary, this book will take you through six of them.
You will be following these steps as you do the writing assignments in each chapter, so
it is important that you have an idea of how each step in the process works.

Step 1: Prewrite to get ideas.

The first step in the writing process is to choose a topic and generate ideas. This is
called prewriting because you do it before you begin writing. Even if a topic has
already been assigned, you will still need to generate ideas about it in order to decide
what you want to write.
There are many different methods you can use to come up with ideas to get started. You
will have an opportunity to practice different techniques in your chapter assignments.

Paragraph Structure 17

Chapter Overview xv
 Organization sections explore essay structure
in a variety of organizational patterns.

CHAIN ORGANIZATION
The other organizational pattern you can use to write about causes and effects is chain
organization. Writing Model 2 on page 119 uses this organizational style.

In Writing Model 2, causes and effects are linked to each other in a continuous chain.
One event (a change in seasons), causes another event (decreased sunlight), which
causes a third event (disturbance in both hormonal balance and the body’s natural
clock), which in turn causes a fourth event (the development of depressive symptoms),
and so on. Each new cause and its effect are links in a chain, with the effect of one
event becoming the cause of the next event. Depending on the complexity of the ideas
in each link, you can devote an entire paragraph to one link, or you may include
several links in one paragraph, or you may describe the entire chain in one paragraph.
Chain organization usually works better than block organization when the causes and
effects are too closely linked to be separated. Notice the chain pattern in this diagram.

Introduction How Fertile Land Becomes Desert

Cause People move into new areas and clear land for
agriculture by cutting down trees.

Effect The tree roots no longer hold the soil in place.

Practice activities reinforce learning

Cause The tree roots do not hold the soil in place.

Effect The topsoil washes away during heavy rains.

and lay the groundwork for the
Cause The topsoil washes away during heavy rains. end-of-chapter Writing Assignment.
Effect There is no good soil to grow crops in.

Cause There is no good soil to grow crops in.

Effect People move to new areas and clear land for

agriculture by cutting down trees.
Conclusion
PRACTICE 3 Analyzing Chain Organization
Writing Tip Fill in the boxes to complete the flowchart, which illustrates the cause / effect
chain described in Writing Model 2.
The type of organization you choose depends on your topic.
● A chain pattern is usually easier if the causes and effects are very closely
interrelated, as in an explanation of a natural phenomenon such as Less sunlight
a thunderstorm.
● The block pattern is usually easier with larger, complex topics such as global
Body produces
warming or homelessness.
● Sometimes you will want to use a combination of block and chain organization. more and +
Writing Model 1 on pages 117–119 uses mostly block organization, but in
paragraphs 4, 5, and 6, you will find chain organization. less

Cause / Effect Essays 123

Lack of energy, oversleeping, weight gain, anxiety

TRY IT OUT! Choose one of the topics and, on a separate sheet of paper, write two outlines:
one for block organization and one for chain organization.

topics
● The psychological causes of Internet addiction

NEW!
● The effect of job loss on mental health
● The psychological effects of violent video games and movies

Try It Out! activities challenge students TRANSITION SIGNALS FOR CAUSE / EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS

to apply what they have learned. Just as certain transition signals show time order and logical division, certain words
and phrases signal cause / effect relationships. You may already know many of them.
This chart and the one on page 126 will help you review them.

cause signal Words

Coordinators Examples

Transition Signals sections provide for Bison were indispensable to the Native American tribes, for this
one animal provided them with nearly everything they needed
tools for improving the flow of ideas in for survival: meat, clothing, shelter, tools, and weapons.
(Note: When used in this way, for has the same meaning as

different types of essays. because.)

However, you must use a comma in front of for, and you must
not use a comma in front of because.
Subordinators Examples

because Bison were indispensable to the Native American tribes as this

since one animal provided them with nearly everything they needed
for survival: meat, clothing, shelter, tools, and weapons.
as

124 CHAPTER 6

xvi Chapter Overview

Chapter 3 provides instruction on
using and citing outside sources
and avoiding plagiarism.

CORRECT CITATIONS
The purpose of a citation is not only to avoid plagiarism, but also to refer your readers
to the source of your information. That way, they can read the original source if they
want to learn more about the topic. It is important to be accurate in your citations.
There are a number of different ways of citing information. In general, you will want
to follow whatever guidelines your instructor gives you to complete an assignment.
However, for most of your academic work, you will find this two-stage process useful
and sufficient for citing your sources:
The same chapter teaches other
1. Insert a short reference in parentheses at the end of each piece of borrowed
information. This short reference is called an in-text citation.
essential tools for research-based
2. Prepare a list describing all your sources completely. This list is titled “Works
Cited” and appears as the last page of your paper.
writing, such as paraphrasing,
quoting, and summarizing.
In-Text Citations
Here are three examples of in-text citations and of their corresponding entries in a
works-cited list. In the first example, notice the position and punctuation of the citation—
at the end of the last sentence of the borrowed information, before the final period.
According to the National Geographic “Enduring Voices” project, a language
dies every two weeks (“Disappearing Languages”).

The phrase “Disappearing Languages” in quotation marks and parentheses at the end of this
sentence is the first element of the title of an article from which the preceding information
was taken. There was no author. If there had been an author, the author’s last name—rather
than part of a title—would have appeared inside the parentheses, with no quotation marks. WRITING A SUCCESSFUL PARAPHRASE
Because the article was found on the Internet, it did not have a page number.
To paraphrase correctly, you first need to make sure that you fully understand the
Here is an example of an in-text citation for an article with an author and page number: original passage. Use this method to write a good paraphrase.
● Read the original passage several times until you understand
(Bryson 17)
it fully. Underline the key words. Look up unfamiliar words
If you include a quotation in your writing that you found in someone else’s work, and find synonyms for them. It is not always possible to find
indicate the source of that quotation. Your in-text citation will say qtd. in, which is an synonyms for every word, especially technical vocabulary. In this
abbreviation for quoted in: case, use the original word.
● Take notes while you read. Write down only a few words for each
(qtd. in Bryson 17)
idea—not complete sentences. Here are one writer’s notes on the
original passage about universal language:

6,500 languages—technology helps—

but difficult to communicate—universal language—
all people can learn—benefits: school, economy,
friendship

● Make a brief outline:

Using Outside Sources 49 A. World Languages - over 6,500

1. There are difficulties communicating with people who don’t speak
your language.
2. universal language would help people communicate.
B. Benefits
1. Education
2. Economy
3. Friendship

● Write your paraphrase from your notes. Don’t look at the original
while you are writing.
● Check your paraphrase against the original to make sure
you have not copied vocabulary or sentence structure too closely.
Above all, make sure that you have not changed the meaning of
the original or given any wrong information.
● Add in-text citations. Also add a works-cited list if appropriate.

Using Outside Sources 61

Chapter Overview xvii

 Step-by-step Writing Assignments make
the writing process clear and easy to follow.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT

Your assignment for this chapter is to write an essay of five or more paragraphs on a
topic related to education. Choose one of the topics from the list to write about. Use
the writing model on pages 75–76 to help you. To complete the assignment, follow the
steps in the writing process.

toPIcs
● Criteria to consider when choosing a major
● Qualities of a successful student
● Factors that make a class productive and enjoyable

Prewrite STEP 1: Prewrite to get ideas.

After selecting your topic, use a prewriting strategy such as
Peer Review and Writer’s Self-Check
●

listing (Chapter 1) or clustering (Chapter 2) to generate ideas.

● Look for related points in your list or cluster diagram. If you find

●
anything that is completely off topic or repeated, cross it out.
Group similar ideas together. These groups will become your
Worksheets at the back of the book help
body paragraphs.
students collaborate and sharpen their
Organize STEP 2: Organize your ideas. revision skills.
● Decide how you want to organize your essay. Do you want to
use a comparison / contrast pattern? A logical division of ideas?
● Write a thesis statement for your essay. Be sure it indicates the
organization pattern you plan to use.
● Use ideas from your prewrite to make an outline as you did
in Practice 10. Put your thesis statement at the top. Then, next
to letters A, B, and C, write sentences that will form the topic
sentences of your body paragraphs.
● In the spaces under A, B, and C, add details you will use in your
body paragraphs.
● Begin by reading over your essay to get a general overview. As
you read, make sure that
Write STEP 3: Write the first draft.
your essay has a thesis statement;
● Use your outline to write your first draft. Remember to include
the thesis is developed with enough supporting information;
the three parts of the essay that you studied in this chapter: an
introductory paragraph (including the thesis statement), body you support your opinions with facts and examples;
paragraphs, and a conclusion. your conclusion supports your thesis statement.
● Don’t worry if you think of new ideas as you write. You can add ● Make notes in the margin about anything you want to improve.
or delete ideas later. Just be sure that your new ideas support ● Ask a classmate to read and give you feedback on your first
your thesis. draft using the Chapter 4 Peer Review on page 327.
● Discuss your classmate’s suggestions and decide which ones
to take.
Revise STEP 4: Revise the draft.
● Review the content and organization of your draft. Do not try to
correct errors in format, mechanics (capitalization, punctuation, Proofread STEP 5: Edit and proofread the draft.
and spelling), grammar, and sentence structure at this stage. You ● Make sure that you have identified all of the changes you want
will do this in Step 5.
to make in content and organization. Then review your essay for
errors in format, mechanics, grammar, and sentence structure.
98 CHAPTER 4
Use the Chapter 4 Writer’s Self-Check on page 328 to help you.
● When you find an error, make a note on your paper using the
correction symbols from Appendix D on pages 309–311.

Write STEP 6: Write a new draft.

● In your new draft, include the changes you identified in Steps 4
and 5.
Proofread your new draft again carefully. Make sure it is neat
NEW!
●

and error free.

● Hand in your essay to your teacher.

Self-Assessment encourages
SELF-ASSESSMENT
students to evaluate their progress. In this chapter, you learned to:
Identify the parts of an essay
Analyze an essay’s introduction and conclusion
Construct an appropriate thesis statement
Support the thesis statement with body paragraphs
Organize an essay, using transition signals as necessary
Write, revise, and edit an essay about education
Which ones can you do well? Mark them

Which ones do you need to practice more? Mark them

From Paragraph to Essay 99

xviii Chapter Overview

 NEW!
EXPANSION Timed Writing activities help
TIMED WRITING prepare students to write well
In this expansion, you will write an essay in class. As you write, focus on using the
techniques for logical division essays that you learned in this chapter. You will have
on tests.
50 minutes. To complete the expansion in time, you will need to budget your time
accordingly. Follow this procedure.
1. Read the writing prompt (or the prompt your teacher assigns) carefully. Choose
one topic to write about. Make sure you understand the question or task. You may
want to underline the key words in the prompt. (5 minutes)
2. Brainstorm to get ideas, write a thesis statement, and make a rough outline to
organize your ideas. (10 minutes)
3. Write your essay. Be sure to include an introductory paragraph with your thesis
statement, body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. (25 minutes)
4. Check your essay for errors. Correct any mistakes. (10 minutes)
5. Give your paper to your teacher.
Prompt: Write a logical division essay about one of these topics:
● Different kinds of teachers
NEW!
● Benefits of learning a new language

● Three educational experiences that inspired you

Additional writing tasks encourage
USING QUOTES AND PARAPHRASES TO SUPPORT IDEAS students to further develop the
Write an essay about the challenges of education in a new culture. Use information
given by students who have had this experience and experts in the field of
writing skills in each chapter.
international education. Quote, summarize, and paraphrase your outside sources as
appropriate.
● If possible, interview individuals about the topic of your

essay. Write down their answers. Then look at their answers

to see which will help to explain and expand the ideas you are
discussing in your essay.
● Use the Internet to find information about your topic. Find two

or three websites with detailed information or expert opinions

that you think will make your ideas clearer to the reader.
Remember to include in-text citations and a works-cited list to inform your readers
about your sources. In doing so, you not only show your readers that you can
speak authoritatively on the topic, but you also give them a chance to do further
reading themselves.

PART
SENTENCE
100 CHAPTER 4 III STRUCTURE

NEW!
Separate chapters on Sentence
Structure provide practice with
the most challenging structures
for high-intermediate students.
The chapters can be taught in
any order.

169

Chapter Overview xix

Simple explanations and clear examples
enable students to improve their grasp of
subordinate structures and their punctuation.

Questions about the Model

1. When do people with a fear of public speaking become paralyzed? Underline the
adverb clause in sentence 3 that provides this information. What word introduces
this clause?
2. Why do individuals with this fear sometimes take classes? Double underline the
adverb clauses in sentences 7 and 8 that provide this information. What words
introduce each clause?
3. Where do these individuals see unfriendly faces? Triple underline the clause in
sentence 4 that provides this information. What word introduces this clause?
4. What contrast is established by the adverb clause in sentence 9? What words
introduce this clause?

KINDS OF ADVERB CLAUSES

These are the various kinds of adverb clauses. In the pages that follow, you will study
and practice each kind.
● Time clauses answer the question “When?”
Editing practice allows students to sharpen
● Place clauses answer the question “Where?”

● Clauses of manner answer the question “How?”

their revision and proofreading skills.
● Distance clauses answer the question “How far?”

● Frequency clauses answer the question “How often?”

● Purpose clauses answer the question “For what intention?”

● Result clauses answer the question “For what effect?”

● Conditional clauses answer the question “Under what

circumstance?”
● Contrast clauses of direct opposition show how one thing

differs from another.

● Contrast clauses of concession show an unexpected result.

Punctuation of Adverb Clauses

EDITING PRACTICE
The punctuation of an adverb clause depends on the order of the clauses. When an Find and correct eleven more errors in adjective clauses in this essay. Look for these
adverb clause comes first in a sentence, put a comma after it. When an adverb clause kinds of errors:
follows an independent clause, do not separate the clauses with a comma.
whose
adveRb Clause independent Clause incorrect relative I telephoned the student who his wallet I found in the parking lot.
Because humans are curious animals, they constantly explore their world.
live
Pronoun

independent Clause adveRb Clause disagreement of verb People who lives in earthquake zones need earthquake insurance.
Humans constantly explore their world because they are curious animals. and antecedent
incorrect rePetition of My friend whom I loaned my car to him returned it with several dents.
nouns or Pronouns
incorrect comma usage Cell phones , which always seem to ring at inappropriate times ,
should be turned off during concerts, lectures, and naps.

El Niño

1 Scientists have been studying an ocean event who is the cause of drastic changes in weather
occurs
Adverb Clauses 223 around the world. 2 This event is an increase in the temperature of the Pacific Ocean that occur

around Christmas off the coast of Peru. 3 Hence, the Peruvian fishermen whom first noticed it

named it El Niño, a name that means “the Christ child” in Spanish. 4 The causes of this rise in

ocean temperatures are unknown, but its effects are obvious and devastating.

5 For example, El Niño threatens Peru’s anchovy harvest, which could mean higher prices for

food. 6 The warm water of El Niño keeps the nutrient-rich cold water which provides anchovies

with food down at the bottom of the ocean. 7 Anchovies are the primary source of fish meal which

is the main ingredient in animal feed.

8 In addition, guano1 from birds who feed off the anchovies is a major source of fertilizer. 9 As

a result of decreasing supplies of anchovies and guano, the prices of animal feed, and fertilizer rise.

10 This causes farmers, who they must pay more for feed and fertilizer, to charge more for the food

they produces. 11 Food prices have soared as a result of El Niños in past years.

12 El Niño has other global effects. 13 It can cause heavy rains, floods, and mudslides along the

coasts of North and South America and droughts in other parts of the world. 14 In the 1982–1983 El

Niño, West Africa suffered a terrible drought which caused crop failures and food shortages. 15 Lack

of rain also created problems for Indonesia whose forests burned for months during the 1997–1998

El Niño. 16 Indeed, El Niño is an unpredictable and uncontrollable phenomenon of nature, that we

need to study it in order to prepare for and perhaps lessen its devastating effects in the future.

1
guano: droppings from birds and bats

262 CHAPTER 13

xx Chapter Overview
PART
WRITING A
I PARAGRAPH

1
CHAPTER
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
1
OBJECTIVES
To write academic texts, you need
to master certain skills.

In this chapter, you will learn to:

● Identify the parts of a paragraph
● Construct an appropriate
topic sentence
● Support the topic sentence with
details and examples
● Distinguish facts from opinions
● Use a concluding sentence to
complete a paragraph
● Write, revise, and edit
a paragraph about
communication

It is important to pay attention to your communication

style if you want to be successful.

2
INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, you will focus on the structure of a good paragraph. A paragraph
is a group of related sentences that discusses one (and usually only one) main idea.
A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences or more.
The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long
enough to develop the main idea clearly. At the end of this chapter, you will write a
well-structured paragraph on the topic of communication. For an example of a
well-structured paragraph, look at the model.

ANALYZING THE MODEL

The writing model discusses communication styles.
Read the model. Then answer the questions.

! Writing Model
1 2 3 4 5 6

Communication Styles That Don’t Communicate

1 Studies show that certain styles of interpersonal communication are less effective than
others. 2 Which styles are the ones to avoid? 3 These same studies indicate that the two least
effective styles are aggressive and passive communication. 4 On the one hand, an aggressive
style involves speaking in a disrespectful manner, expressing anger, or trying to dominate the
conversation. 5 For example, a business executive might tell her coworker that his ideas for
a new product are terrible. 6 Then she might interrupt him when he tries to explain his ideas.
7 This approach hinders successful communication. 8 It also creates barriers between people.
9 A passive communication style, on the other hand, can be equally unproductive. 10 A passive
style might lead a person to hide his or her beliefs, speak quietly, and submit to all demands.
11 Someone working on a fashion design project, for instance, might agree to use a fabric that he
thinks is unattractive. 12 He would not express his true feelings to the group. 13 In short, ineffective
communicators can fail to influence others either by being too forceful or by hiding their opinions.

Questions about the Model

1. What is the main idea of the paragraph?
2. In which sentence does the writer state the main idea?
3. How does sentence 3 support the main idea?
4. What points does the writer make about an aggressive style?
5. In which sentence does the writer introduce an example of an aggressive style?
6. What points does the writer make about a passive style?
7. In which sentence does the writer introduce an example of a passive style?

Paragraph Structure   3  

 !Noticing Vocabulary: Word Families
Good writers use a wide range of vocabulary. You can quickly improve your
vocabulary by studying word families. Word families are groups of words that are
related. Words in a word family often have similar meanings but are different parts
of speech. For example, notice the word successful in the model. The words success,
succeed, successful, and successfully belong to the same word family.

PRACTICE 1 Identifying Words in Word Families

A Look at the writing model again. Find and underline the words in the chart.
Then complete the chart. Use a dictionary as needed.

Verb Adjective Adverb

---------- aggressive aggressively
agree
create
---------- disrespectful
dominate
influence
---------- passive
submit
---------- unproductive
use

B Notice the word endings in the chart in Part A. List the ending(s) for each part
of speech.

Verbs: -ate
Adjectives:

Adverbs:

4  CHAPTER 1
PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

Paragraphs generally include three parts. All paragraphs have a topic sentence and
supporting sentences. Most paragraphs also have a concluding sentence.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

Every good paragraph has a topic sentence. A topic sentence is the most important
sentence in a paragraph.

The topic sentence briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss. For this
reason, the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The
writer can see what information to include (and what information to exclude). The
reader can see what the paragraph is going to be about and is therefore better prepared
to understand it. For example, in the writing model, the topic sentence alerts the reader
to look for communication styles that are ineffective.

Here are three important points to remember about a topic sentence:

● A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains at least

one subject and one verb. These examples are not complete sentences
because they do not contain a subject and a verb:
 Communicating with colleagues.
incomplete

 How to improve online social networks.

incomplete

● A topic sentence contains two parts: a topic and a controlling idea.

It names the topic and then limits the topic to a specific area to be
discussed in the space of a single paragraph.
topic controlling idea
Communication with colleagues requires sensitivity and understanding.
topic controlling idea
Improving online social networks can help professionals communicate.

● A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because

it gives only the topic and the controlling idea. It does not give any
specific details.

This is a general statement that could serve as a topic sentence:

The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious.

This sentence is too general. It doesn’t provide much guidance about what the
paragraph will be about.
English has been influenced by other languages.

On the other hand, this sentence is too specific. It could serve as a supporting
sentence but not as a topic sentence.
The slang expression so long (meaning “good-bye”) is probably a corruption
of the Arabic salaam.

Paragraph Structure   5  

 The Position of Topic Sentences
The topic sentence is usually (but not always) the first sentence in a paragraph.
Experienced writers sometimes put topic sentences in other locations, but the best spot
is usually right at the beginning. Readers who are used to the English way of writing
want to know what they will read about as soon as they begin reading.
Synonyms, words with the same basic meaning, do not always have
the same emotional meaning. For example, stingy and frugal both mean
“careful with money.” However, calling someone stingy is an insult, but
calling someone frugal is usually a compliment. Similarly, a person wants
to be slender but not skinny. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing
words as many so-called synonyms are not completely synonymous.

At times, a topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph. In this case, the
paragraph might begin with a series of examples or facts. Then the topic sentence at
the end would be the conclusion drawn from these examples or facts.
Mediation is now a popular way to solve disagreements between children
in school. A mediator can also help a divorcing couple discuss finances or
improve communication between employees and company executives. These
are a few ways that mediators can help opposing parties come to agreement.

PRACTICE 2 Choosing Topic Sentences

Decide which sentence in each group is the best topic sentence and label
it best. Then look at the other sentences in the group and label them
TG (too general), TS (too specific), or I (incomplete ).

Group 1
TS a. A lunar eclipse is an omen of a coming disaster.
TG b. Superstitions have been around forever.
best c. People hold many superstitious beliefs about the moon.
I d. Is made of green cheese.

Group 2
a. The history of astronomy is interesting.
b. I ce Age people recorded the appearance of new moons by making
scratches in animal bones.
c. F
 or example, Stonehenge in Britain was built 3,500 years ago to track the
movement of the sun.
d. Ancient people recorded lunar and solar events in different ways.

Group 3
a. It is hard to know which foods are safe to eat nowadays.
b. In some large ocean fish, there are high levels of mercury.
c. Undercooked chicken and hamburger may carry E. coli bacteria.
d. Not to mention mad cow disease.
e. Food safety is an important issue.
6  CHAPTER 1
 Group 4
a. H
 ybrid automobiles more economical to operate than gasoline-
powered cars.
b. The new hybrid automobiles are very popular.
c. H
 ybrid cars have good fuel economy because a computer under the
hood decides to run the electric motor, the small gasoline engine, or the
two together.
d. The new hybrid automobiles are popular because of their fuel economy.

PRACTICE 3 Recognizing Topic Sentences

Read the sentences in each group and decide which is the topic sentence.
Label it TS (topic sentence). (Hint: Remember that the topic sentence is the
most general statement in a paragraph.)

Paragraph 1
a. A notes / memo function lets you make quick notes to yourself.
b. Other capabilities include word processing, spreadsheets, and email.
c. A
 voice recorder that uses a built-in microphone and speaker works like a
tape recorder.
d. B
 asic tools include an appointment calendar, an address book, to-do lists,
and a calculator.
e. M
 P3 playback lets you listen to digital music files, and a picture viewer
lets you look at digital photos.
f. M
 ost smart phones have tools for basic tasks as well as for
multimedia functions.
g. A few models also include a built-in digital camera and keyboard.

Paragraph 2
a. T
 welve years after Sputnik, the United States caught up by becoming the
first nation to land a man on the moon.
b. T
 he Europeans have joined the competition, vowing to land European
astronauts on the moon by 2025 and on Mars by 2035.
c. T
 he number of nations competing in the “space race” has grown since the
early days of space exploration.
d. China joined the competition in 2003 when it launched Shenzhou 5.
e. I nitially, the former Soviet Union took the lead when it sent the first man
into Earth orbit in the spaceship Sputnik in 1957.
f. F
 or almost 50 years, the United States and Russia were the only
competitors in the contest to explore space using manned spacecraft.
(continued on next page)

Paragraph Structure   7  

 Paragraph 3
a. A
 nother important change was that people had the freedom to live and
work wherever they wanted.
b. T
 he earliest significant change was for farming families, who were no
longer isolated.
c. T
 he final major change brought by the automobile was the building of
superhighways, suburbs, huge shopping centers, and theme parks such as
Disney World in Florida.
d. The automobile revolutionized the way of life in the United States.
e. T
 he automobile enabled them to drive to towns and cities comfortably
and conveniently.
f. I n fact, people could work in a busy metropolitan city and drive home to
the quiet suburbs.

Paragraph 4
a. In time, this melted part rises as magma1.
b. The formation of a volcanic eruption is a dramatic series of events.
c. As the plate2 sinks, friction and Earth’s heat cause part of it to melt.
d. The magma produces heat, steam, and pressure.
e. First of all, most volcanoes are formed where two plates collide3.
f. Then one of the plates is forced under the other and sinks.
g. W
 hen the heat, steam, and pressure from the magma finally reach the
surface of Earth, a volcanic eruption occurs.

The Two Parts of a Topic Sentence

As noted earlier, a topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlling
idea. The topic names the subject of the paragraph. The controlling idea limits or
controls the topic to a specific area that you can discuss in the space of a single
paragraph.

The reader immediately knows that this paragraph will discuss how easy it is to
prepare convenience foods and perhaps will give some examples (canned soup, frozen
dinners, and so on).
topic controlling idea
Convenience foods are easy to prepare.

The reader of this topic sentence expects to read about various ethnic foods popular in
the United States: tacos, egg rolls, sushi, baklava, pizza, and so on.
controlling idea topic
Immigrants have contributed many delicious foods to U.S. cuisine.

1
magma: hot melted rock below the surface of the Earth
2
plate: one of the very large sheets of rock that forms the surface of the Earth
3
collide: (to) crash violently into someone or something

8  CHAPTER 1