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Live Stream 14/09/20 1800 Singapore Time

Essential Understandings

1. IB expectations
2. Types of errors
3. Significant figures
4. Precision Accuracy Reliability Validity
5. Scientific Notation
6. Adding, subtracting uncertainty
7. Multiplying, Dividing uncertainty
8. What to do when………..
9. A critical look at the uncertainty treatment in a recent IA

Live 14/09/2020

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What does the IB guidance state ?

The treatment of errors and uncertainties is also directly relevant to:

● Exploration​(“The methodology is highly appropriate to address the research
question because it takes into consideration all, or nearly all, of the significant factors
that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.”)
● Analysis​(“The report shows evidence of full and appropriate consideration of the
impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.”)
● Evaluation​(“Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of
the data and sources of error, are discussed and provide evidence of a clear
understanding of the methodological issues involved in establishing the conclusion.”)

● Within practical work, students should be able to:

● design procedures that allow for relevant data to be collected, in which systematic
errors are minimized and random errors are reduced through the choice of
appropriate techniques and measuring instruments, and by incorporating sufficient
repeated measurement where appropriate
● make a quantitative record of uncertainty range
● state the results of calculations to the appropriate number of significant figures. The
number of significant figures in any answer should reflect the number of significant
figures in the given data
● propagate uncertainties through a calculation so as to determine the uncertainties in
calculated results and state them as absolute and/or percentage uncertainties. Only
a simple treatment is required.
● For functions such as addition and subtraction, absolute uncertainties can be added;
for multiplication, division and powers, percentage uncertainties can be added. If one
uncertainty is much larger than the others, the approximate uncertainty in the
calculated result can be taken as due to that quantity alone
● The uncertainty requirement can be satisfied by drawing best-fit curves or straight
lines through data points on the graph. (Note: Chemistry students are not expected to
construct error bars on their graphs. However, students, probably those who also
study IB physics, often construct error bars and there is no requirement to discourage
them from doing so.)
● justify your conclusion by discussing whether systematic errors or further random
errors were encountered. The direction of any systematic errors should be
appreciated. The percentage error should be compared with the total estimated
random error as derived from the propagation of uncertainties
● comment on the precision and accuracy of measurements when evaluating their
procedure
● suggest how the effects of random uncertainties may be reduced and systematic
errors eliminated. Students should be aware that random, but not systematic, errors
are reduced by taking repeated readings.

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What is human error ?

Not​dropping a solution or mistaking a reading because you were not level with the scale.

It is the limitations as humans as a measuring device ! Timing, reading scales…...

What are systematic errors ?

These are errors that are caused by ​poor design​, or some inherent fault or limitation in the
apparatus. They may also be due to poor experimental techniques - see above !

They cannot be reduced by repetition, but they can be improved by changing the experimental
design, by improving the measuring techniques etc.

A dataset with a systematic error can be very reliable, but not accurate

Note : it might not be possible to identify a systematic error in a dataset !

Typical systematic errors include

● Reading the position of the meniscus of a liquid incorrectly

● Losing heat to the environment in a thermochemistry experiment

● Using dirty pipettes, which retain drops of solution, reducing the volume delivered.

● A balance being out of calibration

What are random errors ?

All measurements have an associated random uncertainty. We are limited by both the accuracy of
the instruments that are used in measurement and by our own capabilities.

Anomalies : circle and highlight - great for discussion in Evaluation. If you have time re do and
check.

Gross Error

Carelessness or equipment failure.

Take care here !

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Q: Is parallax error random or systematic ? Is it both ?

Errors on Standard Laboratory Equipment - Random Errors

Beaker 100ml Uncertainty =?

Volumetric flask Volumetric flask Uncertainty = ​+/- 0.12cm3

Pipette Uncertainty = +/- 0.05 cm3

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Thermometer Uncertainty = ​+/- 0.5C but delta T = +/-1.0C

Significant Figures

What are significant digits? Well, they're sort of the "interesting" or "important" digits.

● All non-zero numbers ARE ​significant​. ...

● Zeros between two non-zero ​digits​ ARE ​significant​. ...
● Leading zeros are NOT ​significant​. ...
● Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal ARE ​significant​. ...
● Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown ARE ​significant​.

In data tables this means :

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Multiplying Uncertainty

Decimal Places ​- precision only to the least number of decimal places in any value
being considered.

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Precision​ expresses the degree of reproducibility or agreement between repeated

measurements. The more measurements you make and the better the ​precision​,
the smaller the error will be.

Accuracy

Reliability

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Validity

Scientific Notation

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Experimental uncertainties should be stated to 1- significant figure. The uncertainty

is just an estimate and thus it cannot be more precise (more significant figures) than
the best estimate of the measured value.

The LEAST number of ​significant figures​ in any number of the problem

determines​ the number of ​significant figures​ in the answer.

Absolute Uncertainty​ – the absolute uncertainty is the number which, when

combined with a reported value, gives the range of true values. For instance, a
length may be reported as 7.3 mm ± 0.2 mm. Here, the reported value is 7.3 mm and
the absolute uncertainty is 0.2 mm; the range of true values is 7.1 mm to 7.5 mm.
Absolute uncertainties always have the same units​ as the reported value with which
that are associated.

Relative Uncertainty​ – The relative uncertainty is the ratio of the absolute

uncertainty to the reported value. A length of 100 cm ± 1 cm has a relative
uncertainty of 1 cm/100 cm, or 1 part per hundred (= 1% or 1 pph). ​Relative
uncertainties are always unitless.​ Multiplying the relative uncertainty by the reported
value yields the absolute uncertainty. For instance, a mass of 2.042 g which has a
relative uncertainty of 3 parts per thousand (3 ppt) should be reported as 2.042 g ±
0.006 g.

Max / Min Range Method - ½ range method

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Standard deviation
Chi Square
T Test
Propagating Errors

Random errors (uncertainties) in raw data feed through a calculation to give an error in the
final calculated result. There is a range of protocols for propagating errors. A simple protocol
is as follows.

● When adding or subtracting quantities, the absolute uncertainties are added.

For example, if the initial and final burette readings in a titration each have an
uncertainty of ± 0.05 cm3 then the propagated uncertainty for the total volume is (±
0.05 cm3) + (± 0.05 cm3) = (± 0.1 cm3).
● When multiplying or dividing quantities, the percentage (or fractional) uncertainties
are added.
For example:
molarity of NaOH(aq) = 1.00 M percentage uncertainty = [0.05/1.00] × 100
(± 0.05 M) = 5%

volume of NaOH(aq) = 10.0 cm3 percentage uncertainty = [0.1/10.00] × 100

(± 0.1 cm3) = 1%

● Therefore, calculated moles of NaOH in solution = 1.00 × [10.00/1000] = 0.0100

moles (± 6%)
● The student may convert the calculated total percentage uncertainty back into an
absolute uncertainty or leave it as a percentage.

Note:

A common protocol is that the final total percentage uncertainty should be cited to no more
than one significant figure if it is greater than or equal to 2%, and to no more than two
significant figures if it is less than 2%.

There are other protocols for combining uncertainties such as “root sum of square”
calculations. These are not required in IB chemistry but are acceptable if presented by a
student.

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Adding / Subtracting Uncertainties

When adding or subtracting measured values, the final answer cannot contain more
decimal places than the least precise value.

● For functions such as addition and subtraction, absolute uncertainties can be added;

Work out the total uncertainty when you add or subtract two quantities with their own
uncertainties by adding the absolute uncertainties. For example:

(3.4 ± 0.2 cm) + (2.1 ± 0.1 cm) = (3.4 + 2.1) ± (0.2 + 0.1) cm = 5.5 ± 0.3 cm

(3.4 ± 0.2 cm) − (2.1 ± 0.1 cm) = (3.4 − 2.1) ± (0.2 + 0.1) cm = 1.3 ± 0.3 cm

Can then convert to percentages so can combine for a final value.

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Multiplying / Dividing Uncertainty

When multiplying or dividing measured values, the final answer can contain only as
many significant figures as the least precise value.

"When multiplying or dividing - add the percentage uncertainties."

(3.4 cm ± 5.9%) × (1.5 cm ± 4.1%) = (3.4 × 1.5) cm​2​ ± (5.9 + 4.1)% = 5.1 cm​2​ ± 10%

(3.4 cm ± 5.9%) ÷ (1.7 cm ± 4.1 %) = (3.4 ÷ 1.7) ± (5.9 + 4.1)% = 2.0 ± 10%

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If maximum and minimum gradients do not go through all the errors bars there are
systematic errors in your IA.

In Eval must comment on this to gain top marks.

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Powers

"When raising to a power - multiply the percentage uncertainty by the

power"

(if the power is negative, merely discard the negative sign for the uncertainty calculation)

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Logs

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Ln

A recent IA ​- a critical look

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Further Reading / Credits

Lawrence Kok Ppt

Ellesmere College

Worked examples

Worksheet with answers

Uncertainty using logs

Exponent uncertainty video tutorial

Half range uncertainty

Rich T

Synopsis

Mr M 4 Chem YouTube LiveStream 14/09/20