The tools and techniques of R programming

Lesson-7
Data Structures in R

By
Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA

Techno India University, West Bengal,India

For any query,Email-Id:[email protected]

September 2, 2024

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Objective of this Lesson

This lesson aims to provide with a detailed knowledge of all the data struc-
tures supported by R. These data structures equip R to handle all types
of data that we face in our practical life in a simple, compact and lucid
manner. It is these data structures that have enriched R for use as a very
useful tool in all sorts of programming.
Prerequisite: Knowledge of a programming language will become an added
advantage.

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Definition of a data structure and the exclusive data
structures supported by R
A data structure is a specific logical model for organizing and storing
data in the main memory of a computer. R is very rich in supporting
a variety of data structures which makes it a very powerful programming
language for handling all types of data processing activities. These data
structures are very robust and versatile. This lesson is meant for studying
these data structures in detail.
R supports six different types of data structures and manipulation of data
through the structures. These data structures can be classified in two prim-
itive ways,namely,
1 Based on the nature of data they contain and

2 Based on their organization.

According to the first way of classification, the data may be either homoge-
neous i.e. comprising data of same type or heterogeneous i.e. consisting
of data of different types.On the basis of the second way of classification,
they are organized either in one dimensional form, or in two dimensional
form or in multidimensional form.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Table showing the data structures in R
The following table shows the data structure according to their classifica-
tions.
Organization of data Homogeneous data structure Heterogeneous data structure
1 dimensional(1-d) Atomic vector,factor list
2 dimensional(2-d) matrix dataframe
Multidimensional(n-d) array

Atomic Vector: An atomic vector(simply called a vector) is a basic data

structure defined to contain a set of values of same data type. It is the most
elementary data structure in R. Even when we define a variable in R or point out
a certain value as we have used in programming in the preceding chapters, we use
a vector of single element without knowing details about it. We also used multi-
element vectors using the colon operator such as v=2:9, storing the set of values
from 2 to 9. We have also used the seq() operator to generate a sequence of values
as in a for loop illustrated before. It also creates a vector.Formally,the R function
c( ) [short for combine] is used to create a vector as illustrated below:
>v1=c(12,45,67)
># this hash symbol is used to write comments of the user.
>#let us now print the values of the vector
>v
[1] 12 45 67
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 4 / 101
 Atomic Vectors-Illustration of its creation-Contd.
So,we have observed how to create a vector using the c() function.
Let us now create a vector using : operator.
>v=2:10 # This stores the whole numbers from 2 to 10 in v
>v # Naming a vector implies showing its content
[1] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 # The values stored in v are displayed.
Let us now create a a vector using the seq() function having the format:seq(start-
value,stop-value,step-value)
The syntax is:seq(from = 1, to = 1, by =
to - from
length.out - 1 ,
length.out = NULL, along.with = NULL, . . . )
Where length.out implies the number of values.
>vec=seq(5,10,0.5)
>vec
[1] 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
>vv=seq(1,15,length.out=5)
>vv
[1] 1.0 4.5 8.0 11.5 15.0
>seq(1,15,length.out=6)
[1] 1.0 3.8 6.6 9.4 12.2 15.0
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 5 / 101
 Atomic Vectors-Defining Empty/Blank Vectors
Any one of the following methods can be used to define an empty vector:
1 Using vector() method

2 Using c() method

3 Using numeric() method

4 Using rep() method

5 Assigning NULL to an existing vector.

The methods are illustrated below:

>bv=vector()
>bv
logical(0)
>length(bv)
[1] 0
>bv=c()
>bv
NULL
>length(bv)
[1] 0
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Atomic Vectors-Defining Empty/Blank
Vectors-Contd.
>is.null(bv)
[1] TRUE
>bv=numeric(0)
>bv
numeric(0)
>length(bv)
[1] 0
Now, let us use the generic function rep() that replicates the values in the
input data.
>bv=rep(NULL, 0)
>bv
NULL
>length(bv)
[1] 0
Now, we take the previously defined vector v.
>v
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Atomic Vectors-Defining Empty/Blank
Vectors-Contd.
[1] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
>length(v)
[1] 9
>v=NULL
>v
NULL
>length(v)
[1] 0
Accessing vectors
Vector elements are accessed using index of vectors, which can be numeric, char-
acter or logical vectors.Using this index value, we can access or alter/change each
and every individual element present in the vector. Index value starts at 1 and ends
at n where n is the vector length. The other methods of accessing vectors are the
following ones:
1 Using Vector
2 Using Boolean and Negative Values
3 Using Character Vectors as Index
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Accessing vectors–CONTD.
Let us observe accessing vector elements using the elements of another
vector.
>metros=c(’Kolkata’,’Mumbai’,’Delhi’,’Chennai’)
>vect=c(1,3)
>metros[vect]
[1] ”Kolkata” ”Delhi”
>metros[c(2,4)]
[1] ”Mumbai” ”Chennai”
Accessing the Vector elements using Negative values and the Boolean
values. In R Vectors, Negative index position is used to omit those values.
>vect=c(-1,-3)
>metros[vect]
[1] ”Mumbai” ”Chennai”
>vt=c(TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,TRUE)
>metros[vt]
[1] ”Kolkata” ”Chennai”

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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 Accessing vectors-Naming the elements
Let us now observe accessing the R Vector elements using Character Vec-
tors as Index values. Here, we declare a vector with elements having
names in alphabetic characters that can help us extract the vector elements
using the names as shown below:
>v=c(”W”=5,”X”=14,”Y”=23,”Z”=-32)
>v[”X”]
X
14
>v[”Z”]
Z
-32

Let us now try in a different way as under:

>vect=c(W=7,X=9,Y=11,Z=13)
>vect[W]
Error: object ’W’ not found
>vect
WXYZ
7 9 11 13
>vect[”W”]
W
7
>vect[”X”]
X
9

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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 Atomic Vectors-Naming the elements-Continued
Let us now define a vector of strings:
>No students passed In BCA BATCHES=c(”A”, ”B”, ”C”)
If we want to use the string values as the labels of the values in v1, we can use the
names() function as shown below:
>names (v1)=No students passed In BCA BATCHES
># Now let us print the vector with labels
>v1
The output will be:
A B C
12 45 67
So, we can assign names to the data elements of a vector in the way illustrated
above. The naming task can be performed in three other different methods also as
depicted below:
Method-1: Naming while defining the vector:
>v1=c(A=12,B=45,C=67)
>v1
A B C
12 45 67

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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 Atomic Vectors-Naming the elements-Continued
Method- 2: Naming with strings while defining the vector:
>v1=c(”A”=12,”B”=45,”C”=67)
>v1
A B C
12 45 67
Method-3. By creating a modified copy of a vector with use of setNames()
function:
>v=setNames(5:7, c(”A”, ”B”, ”C”))
>v
A B C
567
Thus, we observe that the second way of defining vectors with labels is the
most straightforward and time-saving. Another important point about the
names of the vector elements is that the names need not be unique. But,
it will be found to be useful during character subsetting of vectors to be
discussed later.

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 12 / 101
 Atomic Vectors–properties
All vectors possess three basic properties as stated below:
1 Type, describing what it is. This can be seen by the library function:
typeof()
2 Length, stating the number of elements it contains. It can be
obtained by the library function length( )
3 Attributes, containing additional arbitrary metadata( facts about the
object i.e. vector etc.). It can be obtained by the function:
attributes( )
There is one more function that is often used with vectors : it is str(). It is
used to print the structure of a vector with data types and sizes as shown
in the figure below.
>str(v1)
Named num [1:3] 12 45 67
- attr(*, ”names”)= chr [1:3] ”A” ”B” ”C”

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

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 Atomic Vectors–datatypes
The datatype of the data stored in a vector can checked by using the function
typeof(). The atomic nature of a vector can be checked by using the logical
function is.atomic( ).The following functions can also be used to check a
specific datatype of an atomic vector:
is.numeric()
is.integer()
is.logical()
is.character()
is.double()
is.complex()
is.raw()
The numeric type actually refers to data of double type. To specify
integer values in a vector, we need to put L beside a number. For
logical vectors, we need to store TRUE or FALSE value. If T or F is
specified, the datatype becomes double.
The attributes() function is used to assign some user-defined description
to a vector.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
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 Atomic Vectors–accessing the data types
The structure() function can be used to define a vector along with an
attribute optionally. The use of all these functions have been illustrated
below:
>v=c(1,2,3,4)
>typeof(v)
[1] ”double”
>v11=c(1L,2L,3L,4L)
>typeof(v11)
[1] ”integer”
>v12=c(TRUE,FALSE,T,F)
>typeof(v12)
[1] ”double”
>is.logical(v12)
[1] FALSE
>v13=c(TRUE,FALSE)
>typeof(v13)
[1] ”logical”
>v14=c(T,F)
>typeof(v14)
[1] ”double”
>v15=c(”A”,”B”,”C”)
>typeof(v15)
[1] ”character”
>length(v15)
[1] 3
>attribute(v15)
Error in attribute(v15) : could not find function ”attribute”
>str(v15)
chr [1:3] ”A” ”B” ”C”
>str(attributes(v15))
NULL
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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 Atomic Vectors–Continued
>attributes(v15)
NULL
>attr(v15,”This is a character vector”)
NULL
>attr(v15,”attribute”)=”This is a character vector”
>attributes(v15)
$‘attribute‘
[1] ”This is a character vector”
>attr(attributes(v15))
Error in attr(attributes(v15)) : either 2 or 3 arguments are required
>str(attributes(v15))
List of 1
$ attribute: chr ”This is a character vector”
>str(v1)
chr [1:2] ”RAM” ”SHYAM”
>str(v)
num [1:4] 1 2 3 4
>structure(1:5)
[1] 1 2 3 4 5
.atomic(v)
[1] TRUE
>v16=c(1.24,4.45,9.3456)
>typeof(v16)
[1] ”double”
>v17=c(2+3i,4+5i)
>typeof(v17)
[1] ”complex”
>vv=c(as.raw(20),as.raw(36))
>typeof(vv)
[1] ”raw”
>vv
[1] 14 24

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

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 Atomic Vectors–Continued
We can define a vector with values containing further vectors of same type which
can be done in a recursive manner.Since, vectors do not possess any recursive
property, all such references of vectors will form a single set of values for the
starting vector. This is illustrated below:
>vvv=c(1,2,3,c(4,5,6,c(7,8,9,c(10,11,12,13))))
>vvv
[1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Coercion of the elements of a vector

In programming languages, the term coercion means implicit conversion of the
data type of a value. As by definition of a vector, we know that it will always
contain a sequence of values of the same data type. So, if a user tries to store
values of different data types in a vector, it will convert the values into a single data
type automatically by upgrading all logical to numeric,numeric to character and
integer to numeric in case of such necessity. This is illustrated below:
>s=c(2,3,6,”a”)
>s
[1] ”2” ”3” ”6” ”a”
>y=c(”a”,”b”,True)
Error: object ’True’ not found This is because TRUE is misspelled in terms of case of the letters.
>y=c(”a”,”b”,TRUE)
>y
[1] ”a” ”b” ”TRUE”
>f=c(4.0,6.11,7.56,8)
>f
[1] 4.00 6.11 7.56 8.00

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

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 Atomic Vectors–Continued
We may combine two vectors also. Coercion of the vector elements occurs
in case the data types of the vectors differ. This is illustrated below:
>v1=c(1,2,3)
>v2=c(’A’ ,’B’,’C’)
>z=c(v1,v2)
>z
[1] ”1” ”2” ”3” ”A” ”B” ”C”
Creation of subsets of a vector
We can take a subset of a vector and store it in a new vector. Such breaking
up of a vector into chosen parts resulting in the creation of new vectors is
referred to as vector subsetting. The following R codes illustrate the idea:
>x=5:9 # Observe how the colon(:) operator is also used to create a vector
>x
[1] 5 6 7 8 9
>v=x[c(1,3,5)] # Vector subsetting to create a new vector with the first, third
and the fifth element.
>v
[1] 5 7 9
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 Atomic Vectors–Continued–Creation of subsets of a
vector
There are five ways to subset a vector as illustrated below:
Let us define a vector as under:
vec=c(3.1,4.2,5.3,7,4)
Positive integers return elements at the specified positions as
illustrated below:
>vec[c(2,4)]
[1] 4.2 7.0 # Elements of the second and the 4th positions are shown
>vec[c(3,2)]
[1] 5.3 4.2 # Elements of the third and the second positions are
shown, order being immaterial
>vec[order(vec)]
[1] 3.1 4.0 4.2 5.3 7.0 # Shows the elements in a sorted form
>vec[c(1,1)]
[1] 3.1 3.1 # Duplicate values are shown if position numbers are
duplicated
>vec[c(2.3,5.9)]
[1] 4.2 4.0 # Real numbers used to point out positions are truncated
to integers silently
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
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 Vectors–Creation of subsets of a vector-Contd.
Negative integers omit elements at the specified positions
This is illustrated below:
>vec[-c(2,1)]
[1] 5.3 7.0 4.0 # Values of first and second locations are omitted
>vec[c(-3,5)] # Mixing of positive and negative integers are disallowed resulting in error.
Error in vec[c(-3, 5)] : only 0’s may be mixed with negative subscripts
>vec[c(-2,-3)] # positions to be omitted can also be specified
[1] 3.1 7.0 4.0
>vec[c(1,0)] # The subscript of a vector can never be zero; so it is just ignored
. [1] 3.1

Logical vectors select elements where the corresponding logical value

is TRUE. This is probably the most useful type of subsetting because
we write the expression that creates the logical vector.
This is illustrated below:
>vec[c(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE,FALSE,TRUE)]
[1] 3.1 5.3 4.0 #Values of the positions indicated by TRUE are only returned
>vec[c(TRUE,TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,TRUE,TRUE)] # If non-existent position is indicated, it returns NA
[1] 3.1 4.2 4.0 NA
>vec[c(TRUE)] # if the number of logical values mentioned is less than the number of elements in the vector,then
the value is recycled for for all the available positions in the vector.
[1] 3.1 4.2 5.3 7.0 4.0
>vec[c(TRUE,FALSE)] # same reason as the preceding one.
[1] 3.1 5.3 4.0
>vec[c(1,NA,4)]
[1] 3.1 NA 7.0 # subscript NA indicates that the position is not available,so,the output is also NA to point out
missing value.
>vec[]
[1] 3.1 4.2 5.3 7.0 4.0
>vec[0]
numeric(0)
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
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 Vectors–Creation of subsets of a vector-Contd.
If the vector is named,we can also use the names as the subscripts.
This is illustrated below:
>vec=setNames(vec,LETTERS[1:5]) # Assigning names with the first five
letters of the English alphabet
>vec # Printing the vector with the assigned names
A B C D E
3.1 4.2 5.3 7.0 4.0
>vec[c(”A”,”C”,”E”)] # Using names as subscripts
A C E
3.1 5.3 4.0
[c(”A”,”A”)] # The names can be repeated to get the repeated value as
obtained with integers
A A
3.1 3.1
>vect=c(RAM=5,RAHIM=7) # A new vector with new names of the el-
ements
>vect[c(”RA”,”RA”)] # The names used as subscripts must have exact
matches with the assigned names
<NA><NA>
NA NA #This happens because the names do not match exactly.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
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 Subsetting and Assignment in Atomic Vectors
All subsetting operators can be combined with assignment operation to
modify selected values of the input vector as illustrated in the figure below:
vec=c(2,3.5,5,6,7.1,8)
>vec[c(2,3)]=c(3.9,4.8) # Two new values are being assigned
>vec
[1] 2.0 3.9 4.8 6.0 7.1 8.0
>vec[-c(1,2)]=8:5 #Number of values to be inserted must match with the number of vector elements being referenced
>vec
[1] 2.0 3.9 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0
>vec[c(2,NA)]=c(2,3) # NA is not allowed with integer subsetting and hence results into an error
Error in vec[c(2, NA)] = c(2, 3) :
NAs are not allowed in subscripted assignments
>cvec=c(’M’,’S’,’D’,’W’,’D’,’W’,’S’,’S’,’M’,’M’,’W’,’S’) # A character vector is defined
>lookup=c(M=’Married’,S=’Single’,D=’Divorced’,W=’Widowed’) # A character vector with labels is defined
>lookup[cvec] # The elements of cvec are being used for subsetting
M S D W D W S
”Married” ”Single” ”Divorced” ”Widowed” ”Divorced” ”Widowed” ”Single”
S M M W S
”Single” ”Married” ”Married” ”Widowed” ”Single”
>unname(lookup[cvec]) # This is to remove the names from the display with the function unname()
[1] ”Married” ”Single” ”Divorced” ”Widowed” ”Divorced” ”Widowed”
[7] ”Single” ”Single” ”Married” ”Married” ”Widowed” ”Single”
>append(cvec,’U’) # This is to add a new element at the end of the vector.
[1] ”M” ”S” ”D” ”W” ”D” ”W” ”S” ”S” ”M” ”M” ”W” ”S” ”U”
>cvec=c(cvec[1:13],’U’,’U’) # This is another way of adding elements to a vector;1:13 implies existing number of elements
>lookup=c(lookup[1:4],U=’Undefined’) # Adding another value with a new label
>lookup
M S D W U
”Married” ”Single” ”Divorced” ”Widowed” ”Undefined”

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 >lookup[cvec] # Having a lookup again
M S D W D W
”Married” ”Single” ”Divorced” ”Widowed” ”Divorced” ”Widowed”
S S M M W S
”Single” ”Single” ”Married” ”Married” ”Widowed” ”Single”
<NA> U U
NA ”Undefined” ”Undefined”
>unname(lookup[cvec])
[1] ”Married” ”Single” ”Divorced” ”Widowed” ”Divorced” ”Wid-
owed”
[7] ”Single” ”Single” ”Married” ”Married” ”Widowed” ”Single”
[13] NA ”Undefined” ”Undefined”
>order(cvec)
[1] 3 5 1 9 10 2 7 8 12 14 15 4 6 11 13 # Here the integer values
correspond to the values in alphabetic order

Insertion and Deletion of elements to/from a vector

We may insert or delete elements in a vector. The following examples
illustrate the techniques which are self explanatory.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
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 Insertion and Deletion of elements to/from a vector
>v3=c(1,2,3)
>v3=c(v3[1:2]) # This is to delete the third element and reassign the newly
created vector to the previous vector location.
>v3
[1] 1 2
>v3=c(v3[1:2],7,v3[3]) # This is to insert the element 7 in the vector v3 and
by mistake, we mention the same location resulting in inserting a fourth element
without value.
>v3
[1] 1 2 7 NA
>v3=c(v3[1],9,v3[2]) # This is to express that the new value 9 is to be inserted
after the element v[1] and at the location v[2].
>v3
[1] 1 9 2
>v3=c(v3[1:3],165) # This is to insert the value 165 after the first 3 elements
of the vector.
>v3
[1] 1 9 2 165

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Appending to a vector
The append(v, element) can be used to add an element at the end of a vector.
Vector manipulation
Vector arithmetic
All the arithmetic operations shown in the section 1.3.1 can also be applied on
vectors to work on each of the elements. So, we can perform addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, modulo operation and exponentiation operations on each
of the vector elements with a scalar value or with the corresponding elements of
another vector provided that the vector elements are of numeric or integer data
type.Two vectors of same length can be added, subtracted, multiplied or
divided to generate a resulting vector with the output.
Some of these operations have been illustrated below:
>q=c(1,2,3)
>q
[1] 1 2 3
>r=c(5,6,7)
>q*r
[1] 5 12 21
>q-r
[1] -4 -4 -4
>qˆr
[1] 1 64 2187
>r%%q
[1] 0 0 1
>q*5
[1] 5 10 15

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 24 / 101
 Vector recycling and sorting
If two vectors of different lengths are used to perform some vector arithmetic,
then, it is performed by R by recycling the elements of the shorter vector to
equalize the length. This illustrated in the figure below:
>v1=c(1,2,3,4)
>v2=c(1,2)
>v=v1+v2
>v
[1] 2 4 4 6
>v2
[1] 1 2

Thus, it is seen that, v2 becomes:v2(1,2,1,2) internally before the addition

process.
Vector sorting
We can also sort the elements within a vector either in ascending (increasing)
order or in descending (decreasing) order, by using the sort() function. This
is illustrated below:
>v
[1] 2 4 4 6
>t=sort(v,decreasing=TRUE)
>t
[1] 6 4 4 2
>x=c(2,4,-3,-2,0,7,9,1)
>y=sort(x)
>y
[1] -3 -2 0 1 2 4 7 9

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 25 / 101
 Sorting of character vectors and Defining a blank
vector
The character vectors can also be sorted similarly as illustrated in the figure below:
>l=c(’Ram’,’Shyam’,’Jadu’,’Madhu’)
>m=sort(l)
>l
[1] ”Ram” ”Shyam” ”Jadu” ”Madhu”
>m
[1] ”Jadu” ”Madhu” ”Ram” ”Shyam”

Defining a blank vector: Sometimes, we need to define a vector for reserving

spaces for a large number of values which will become available at a later stage.
This can be done with the vector( ) function with the following syntax:
User-defined-vector-name=vector(mode=’datype of the values to be in-
serted’,length=value/variable)
For example, if we write: primes=vector(mode=’integer’,length=100)
Then, the vector primes becomes a vector of length 100 to hold integers.Such
vectors are very useful in programming as we shall see later.

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 26 / 101
 The R any() and all() functions and the use of
%in% operator
The R any( ) function is used to check one or more vectors to see if a
certain given condition is true or false for any of the elements in the vectors.
The all() function checks similarly except that it checks the condition for
all the values and returns TRUE or FALSE. The following figure illustrates
the idea:
x=c(2,4,-3,-2,0,7,9,1)
>any(x>7)
[1] TRUE
>all(x>9)
[1] FALSE

This operator is used to compare the values of two vectors to determine

whether the elements of the shorter vector exists in the longer vector. The
comparison is done elementwise and returns the logical values TRUE or
FALSE for each of the elements in the common positions of the two vectors.
Its use has been illustrated in the figure below:
>x=c(1:20)
>y=c(15:40)
>x%in%y
[1] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
[13] FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 27 / 101
 Manipulation of strings in a vector
There are many string manipulation functions in R. We discuss here some of the
important ones.
grep(): This function is basically used for searching a pattern in a vector of strings.
The syntax is:
grep(pattern, v),
where, ‘pattern’ is any string to be matched with any part of the strings in the
vector ‘v’ of strings and returns the position numbers of the strings in ‘v’ where
the pattern is found.For example,
>v=c(”computer science”,”computer applications”,”biological science”,”phys
science”,”philosophy”)
>grep(”science”,v)
[1] 1 3 4
>grep(”Engineering”,v)
integer(0)
It may be observed that in the first use of grep(), the pattern ‘science’ is found to
be present in the strings of the vector v at the position number1:1,3,4; and hence
the output. On the contrary, in the second example, the pattern “Engineering” is
found nowhere in the vector v; that is why, R returns integer(0).

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 28 / 101
 grep() in finding regular expressions
There is another use of the function and it is find out a regular expression.
We know that a regular expression is a kind wild card that shortly represents
a broad class of strings. In this case,the syntax is:
grep(“[string]”, x), where x is either a string or a vector.
The function checks whether any of the characters in the [string] matches
with occurrences of the strings in the vectors and if a match is found, it
returns the element number of the vector. Its use has been illustrated below:
>grep(”[aeiouAEIOU]”,”Education”)
[1] 1
>grep(”[pu]”,v)
[1] 1 2 4 5

Here, the vector v is as defined above.

In a wildcard, a period (.) represents any single character. So, if a reg-
ular expression contains a period preceded and followed by some character,
it implies any substring in the elements of a vector preceded and followed
by the same characters with any character in place of the period. This is
illustrated below:
>grep(”p.t”,c(”computer”,”calculator”))
[1] 1
>grep(”p.t”,v)
[1] 1 2

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 29 / 101
 grep() in finding regular expressions –Contd. and
nchar() explained
If the period itself is searched then it must be preceded by the escape character
backslash; but the backslash(\) itself is to be escaped; so, double backslash(\\)
will be required for such a search. This is illustrated below:
>grep(”.”,c(”compu.book”,”tompu.took”,”calcu”))
[1] 1 2 3 # This is a wrong output. It has occurred because the period was not escaped, so, it interprets ‘.’ As a wildcard
character or meta character. It should have been written as follows to search for the period:
grep(”\\.”,c(”compu.book”,”tompu.took”,”calcu”))
[1] 1 2
The nchar().This function returns the number of characters in a given string. If the
string represents a vector of strings, then the function returns an array of integers
corresponding to the lengths of each of the strings in the vector. The syntax of
the function is:
nchar(x)
where, x is either a string or a vector of strings.The following examples illustrates
the use of the function:
>nchar(”abcdef”)
[1] 6
>nchar(v)
[1] 16 21 18 16 10
Here, v is as defined in the preceding illustration.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 30 / 101
 Illustrative Uses of strsplit() Contd. and the
regexpr()
[1] ”comput” ” science”
[[2]]
[1] ”comput” ” applications”
[[3]]
[1] ”biological science”
[[4]]
[1] ”physical science”
[[5]]
[1] ”philosophy”
y=”ter”
>strsplit(v,y)
[[1]]
[1] ”compu” ” science”
[[2]]
[1] ”compu” ” applications”
[[3]]
[1] ”biological science”
[[4]]
[1] ”physical science”
[[5]]
[1] ”philosophy”

regexpr(): The syntax of the function is:

regexpr(string-to-be-matched/variable–containing-the–string,
String/variable/vector –of-strings where matching is to-be- found)
The function returns a number of values as illustrated below.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 31 / 101
 Illustrative applications of regexpr()
The first value indicates the starting position number where a match has been
located, the length of the match,type of the value and whether the “useBytes”
parameter is TRUE or FALSE. Some applications of the function have been demon-
strated below:
regexpr(y,v)
[1] 6 6 -1 -1 -1
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] 3 3 -1 -1 -1
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
regexpr(”ter”,”computer-tomputer”)
[1] 6
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] 3
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
regexpr(”ua”,”equater”)
[1] 3
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] 2
z=regexpr(y,v)
z
[1] 6 6 -1 -1 -1
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 32 / 101
 The gregexpr() in R
gregexpr(): The syntax of the function is as stated below:
gregexpr(string-to-be-matched/variable–containing-the–string,
String/variable/vector –of-strings where matching is to-be- found)
This function returns the same form of output as the regexpr() except that
it returns the result for all the occurrences of the string. This is illustrated
below with the variable y and the vector v.
>gregexpr(y,v)
[[1]]
[1] 6
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] 3
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
[[2]]
[1] 6
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] 3
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
[[3]]
[1] -1
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] -1
attr(,”index.type”)
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 33 / 101
 The output of gregexpr() contd.
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
[[4]]
[1] -1
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] -1
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
[[5]]
[1] -1
attr(,”match.length”)
[1] -1
attr(,”index.type”)
[1] ”chars”
attr(,”useBytes”)
[1] TRUE
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 34 / 101
 An illustrative application of vectors

Example: It is required to develop an R script to count the number of

vowels and consonants from a given alphabetic string.
Task Analysis: A given alphabetic string is stored in an atomic vector as a
whole. So it is required to store it in a vector of size equal to the number
of characters in the string. We use here the library function nchar() to
find out the number of characters in the given string and then separate the
characters one by one by using another library function substr() having the
syntax:substr(vector, start-position,stop-position) to store the charac-
ters in a vector of size nchar() that has been defined earlier. Now, we can
make the comparison with all the vowels stored separately in a vector named
vowels. The rest of the thing is very easy to understand.The code of the
developed script is shown below:

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 35 / 101
 The R script determining the number of vowels and
consonants in an alphabetic string
string=vector(mode=”character”,length=20)
s=readline(prompt=”Enter any string”)
n=nchar(s)
for(i in 1:n){
string[i]=substr(s,i,i)}
vowels=c(’a’,’e’,’i’,’o’,’u’,’A’,’E’,’I’,’O’,’U’)
vcnt=0;ccnt=0
for(i in 1:n){
for(j in 1:10){
if(string[i]==vowels[j]){
vcnt=vcnt+1}}}
ccnt=n-vcnt
cat(”The number of vowels in the given string is: ”,vcnt,”and the
number consonents is: ”,ccnt)

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 36 / 101
 The Concatenation Function paste()

Paste() : This functions basically concatenates two or more strings. It can also
be used to concatenate two or more vectors of strings. Strings of the vectors of
shorter lengths are concatenated recursively with those of the longest one. The
syntax of the function is:
paste( . . . ,sep=” “,collapse=NULL)
Where, . . . implies one or more R objects, to be converted to character vectors
sep is character string to separate the terms.
collapse an optional character string to separate the results.
Paste converts its arguments via as.character () to character strings by sep. If
the arguments are vectors, they are concatenated term by term to give a character
vector result.Thus,the paste() function takes multiple elements from the multiple
vectors and concatenates them into a single element.
paste0(. . . ,collapse) is equivalent to paste(. . . ,sep=” “,collapse). Thus,the
paste0() function has space as its default separator.
If a value is mentioned for the collapse option, the values in the result are then
separated by the value in the concatenated string.

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 37 / 101
 The Paste() function in R...Contd.
Let us check the following R statement with paste() function without using
the optional parameters:
>paste(’Ramesh’,’is’,’a’,’farmer’)
This statement shows the following output:
[1] ”Ramesh is a farmer”
Using paste() with a separator argument
The sep parameter in the paste() function makes use of the value or the
symbols to separate the elements.This is as illustrated below:
>paste(’Ramesh’,’is’,’a’,’farmer’,sep=’-’)
The above statement returns the following output:
[1] ”Ramesh-is-a-farmer”
The paste() function with collapse argument
When the paste() function is applied to a vector, the sep parameter
does not work.Here comes the collapse parameter, which is highly useful
while dealing with the vectors. It is used to specify the symbol or values
which separate the elements in the vector when the elements are concated
into a single element. The following example illustrates this:
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 38 / 101
 The use of paste() function—Contd.
When we write:
>paste(c(’Ramesh’,’is’,’a’,’farmer’),sep=’-’)
R shows the following output:
[1] ”Ramesh” ”is” ”a” ”farmer”
We observe that the ’sep’ parameter has no effect on the concatenated
string;but when we write:
>paste(c(’Ramesh’,’is’,’a’,’farmer’),collapse=’-’)
The result returned is:
[1] ”Ramesh-is-a-farmer”
which is as desired.
The paste() function with both separator and collapse arguments
We will now see how sep and collapse arguments will work together.The
sep value will deal with the values which are to be placed in between the
set of elements and the value with the collapse argument will make use of
specific value to concatenate the elements into single string.The statement:
>paste(c(’Ramesh’,’is’,’a’,’farmer’),1:4,sep=’-’,collapse=’and’)
returns the following output:
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 39 / 101
 The use of paste() function—Contd.
[1] ”Ramesh-1andis-2anda-3andfarmer-4”
Use of the paste0() function in R
We know that the Paste0() function acts just like paste function but with
a default separator space.The following example illustrates its use:
>paste0(’File’,1:10)
[1] ”File1” ”File2” ”File3” ”File4” ”File5” ”File6” ”File7” ”File8”
[9] ”File9” ”File10”
Now let us note how paste0() function works with the collapse parameter
as in the example below:
>paste0(’File’,1:10,collapse=’,’)
The output returned is:
[1] ”File1,File2,File3,File4,File5,File6,File7,File8,File9,File10”
Thus, we note that the collapse argument in the paste0() function is
the character, symbol, or a value used to separate the elements.
Thus, it is observed that the paste0() function returns a string with a
default separator and a specified collapse argument as well.

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 40 / 101
 More illustrative uses of paste()

>v=c(”computer science”,”computer applications”,”biological sci-

ence”,”physical science”,”philosophy”)
>paste(v,v1)
[1] ”computer science RAM” ”computer applications SHYAM”
[3] ”biological science RAM” ”physical science SHYAM”
[5] ”phylosophy RAM”
>v2=c(”Book”,”TOOK”)
>paste(v,v1,v2)
[1] ”computer science RAM Book” ”computer applications SHYAM
TOOK”
[3] ”biological science RAM Book” ”physical science SHYAM TOOK”
[5] ”phylosophy RAM Book”
>paste(”The quick brown”,” fox”, ” jumped over the”, ” lazy dog”)
[1] ”The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog”

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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2, 2024
in R 41 / 101
 The Substr() or substring() and the strsplit()
Substr() or substring(). This function is used to extract character or
strings from a given string or a vector of strings for which the starting and
the ending position are required to be mentioned. The basic syntax is:
Substr(x, starting-position-number,ending-position number)
Where x is a string or a vector.In case of a vector, the function returns an
array of substrings separated from each of the string elements.
The following R statements illustrate the use of the function:
substring(”Mathematics”,3,5)
[1] ”the”
>substr(v,2,5) [1] ”ompu” ”ompu” ”iolo” ”hysi” ”hylo” Here, the vector v is as defined above.

strsplit() . This function is used to split a given string or a vector containing

strings into a list of substrings where the given ‘split-string ‘is found. The
syntax of the function is:
strsplit(x,”split-string”/variable containing some string)
where x is either a single string or a vector of of strings. The following figure
illustrates the application of the function.
>isbn=”978-93-5023-920-9”
>strsplit(isbn,”-”)
[[1]]
[1] ”978” ”93” ”5023” ”920” ”9”
>strsplit(v,”er”)
[[1]]
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 42 / 101
 Illustrative Example 6.5 on R User-defined functions
Example-6.5. It is required to develop a function in order to check whether
a given string is a palindrome or not.
Task Analysis: A given string is said to be a palindrome if the reversed
form of the string equals the given string. The reversed form can be obtained
by using the substr() function from the last to the first character as shown
in the Code below:
# Testing for a Palindrome
str=readline(prompt=”Enter any string for testing: ”)
l=nchar(str)
rstr=””
for(i in seq(l,1,-1)){
s=substr(str,i,l);l=l-1
rstr=paste(rstr,s,sep=””,collapse=NULL)}
if(str==rstr){
print(”It is a palindrome”)
} else {
print(”It is not a palindrome”)}
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 43 / 101
 Concept of LIST in R
A list is a data structure in which the elements may be of same or different
data type. It can also be considered as a special type of vector that can
data of same or different types.It is created by using the list ( ) function as
shown below:
>l=list(2,3,4,5)
>l
[[1]]
[1] 2
[[2]]
[1] 3
[[3]]
[1] 4
[[4]]
[1] 5
>ls=list(”Ram”,”shyam”,40,35,TRUE)
>ls
[[1]]
[1] ”Ram”
[[2]]
[1] ”shyam”
[[3]]
[1] 40
[[4]]
[1] 35
[[5]]

We can also create a list by assigning names to each of the elements as

shown below:
>lt=list(Vector=c(2,4,8),Name=”Arka Roy”, Age=25,List=list(6,’r’,T))
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 44 / 101
 Concept of LIST in R Contd.
>lt
$‘Vector‘
[1] 2 4 8
$Name
[1] ”Arka Roy”
$Age
[1] 25
$List
$List[[1]]
[1] 6
$List[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$List[[3]]
[1] TRUE
The names can also be assigned in the following ways:
names(lt)=c(”Vector”,”Name”,”Age”,”An Inner List”)
>print(lt)
$‘Vector‘
[1] 2 4 8
$Name
[1] ”Arka Roy”
$Age
[1] 25
$‘An Inner List‘
$‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
[1] 6
$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 45 / 101
 Concept of LIST in R Contd.
Lists are called super data types because they allow different objects,
such as matrices, vectors, data frames, and other lists, to be included under
one name (the name of the list) in an ordered way. None of these objects
needs to be related in any way.So, we can store practically anything in a
list.
The internal representation of a list is actually quite different from that of
a vector. It is actually a vector of references as depicted below for a list l1
defined as l1=list(1,2,3):

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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 Concept of LIST in R Contd.
The concept is particularly important when we modify a list as shown below:
l2=l1 This assignment can be depicted pictorially as shown below:

Figure: The internal structure of a list referenced by two different names

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The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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 Concept of LIST in R Contd.
So,when we write: l2[[3]] = 4, the referencing to the values is changed as
shown below:

Figure: The internal structure of a list referenced by two different names with common and uncommon values

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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in R 48 / 101
 Creation of an Empty List

An empty list can be created though any one of the following three methods:
1 Using the list() function
2 Using the vector () function
3 Storing the NULL value in an existing list
Let us have some illustrative examples underneath.
Example-1.A list of length zero.
>blank list=list()
>blank list will show list()
>length(blank list) will show [1] 0

Example-2. A list of any desired length.

>blank list2=vector(mode=’list’, length=5)

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 Concept of list Contd.
>blank list2 will show the following output:
[[1]]
NULL
[[2]]
NULL
[[3]]
NULL
[[4]]
NULL
[[5]]
NULL

>length(blank list2)
[1] 5

Example-3. Emptying an existing list in R

>list=list(12,list(1,’A’,’B’,”C”,’’),Name=’ABC’)
>list=list(12,13,Name=’ABC’)
>list will show the following:
[[1]]
[1] 12
[[2]]
[1] 13
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
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in R 50 / 101
 Concept of list Contd.

$Name
[1] ”ABC”
>list>>-NULL
Error: cannot change value of locked binding for ’list’
>list=NULL
>list
NULL
>list=list(12,list(1,’A’,’B’,”C”,’’),Name=’ABC’)
>list=NULL
>list
NULL
>length(list)
[1] 0

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
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in R 51 / 101
 Concept of LIST in R Contd.
Like vectors, lists use copy-on-modify behaviour; the original list is left un-
changed, and R creates a modified copy. This, however, is a shallow copy:
the list object and its bindings are copied, but the values pointed to by the
bindings are not. The opposite of a shallow copy is a deep copy where the
contents of every reference are copied. Prior to R 3.1.0, copies were always
deep copies.
R uses references with character vectors also.
Let us take a vector x defined as:
x = c(”a”, ”a”, ”abc”, ”d”)
Then, we may represent it pictorially as shown below:

Figure: The internal structure of a character vector

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 52 / 101
 Pictorial Presentation of a character vector
R actually uses a global string pool where each element of a character vector
is a pointer to a unique string in the pool as shown below:

Figure: The internal structure of a character vector

We can request ref() to show these references by setting the character

argument to TRUE:
ref(x, character = TRUE)
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 53 / 101
 Accessing the components of a list
The elements of a list can be accessed by using subscripts as illustrated
below :
>lt[[1]]
[1] 2 4 8
>lt[[2]]
[1] ”Arka Roy”
>lt[[3]]
[1] 25
>lt[[4]]
[[1]]
[1] 6
[[2]]
[1] ”r”
[[3]]
[1] TRUE
>lt[[5]]
Error in lt[[5]] : subscript out of bounds
The number of subscripts must be less than or equal to the number of elements in a list.
The subscripts may also be written within single pair of square brackets to get the same output as illustrated below:
>lt[1]
$‘Vector‘
[1] 2 4 8
>lt[2]
$‘Name‘
[1] ”Arka Roy”
>lt[3]
$‘Age‘
[1] 25
>lt[4]
$‘An Inner List
‘ $‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
[1] 6
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 54 / 101
 Accessing Contd.
$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE

We observe that the components of a list can be broken down into smaller
components but the same thing cannot be done in case of a vector. So, the
normal vectors that have been defined earlier can be called atomic
vectors, whereas, the lists can be called recursive vectors.
Manipulation of the elements of a list
We can enhance a list by adding values to the desired location. Here, the
location is too mentioned by the name of the list followed by the subscript of
the desired location within square brackets ([ ]). If the subscript mentions
a location which is far outside the current list, the skipped locations will
contain a special value called NULL which means value is not available in
the location. If we mention some location that already contains some value,
that value will be replaced with the new value. These are illustrated in the
machine sessions below:
>lt[1]=5 # This replaces the current value at the first location of the list.
>lt # Let us now have a look at the elements of the list
$‘Vector‘
[1] 5
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 55 / 101
 Manipulation of the elements of a list–Contd.
$Name
[1] ”Arka Roy”
$Age
[1] 25
$‘An Inner List‘
$‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
[1] 6
$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE
>lt[5]=”Latest Value” # Enhancing the elements in the list by putting a new one.
>lt[6]=’Next Value’ # Enhancing the elements in the list by putting another new value.
>lt # Listing the current elements of the list.
[1] 6
$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE
[[5]]
[1] ”Latest Value”
[[6]]
[1] ”Next Value”
>lt[8]=”A New element” # Inserting a value at the 8th location when the list has elements upto the 6th location.
>lt[7] # As the there is no value at the 7th location, R shows NULL.
[[1]]
NULL
$‘Vector‘
[1] 5
$Name
[1] ”Arka Roy”
$Age
[1] 25
$‘An Inner List‘
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 56 / 101
 Manipulation of the elements of a list–Contd.
$‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
[1] 6
$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE
[[5]]
[1] ”Latest Value”
[[6]] [1] ”Next Value”
>lt[2]=’Pranab Roy’ # Changing an existing value
>lt # listing again
$‘Vector‘
[1] 5
$Name
[1] ”Pranab Roy”
$Age
[1] 25
$‘An Inner List‘
$‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
We can also delete an element from a list by storing NULL in the location as shown below:
>lt[1]=NULL
>lt[1] # This shows the value which was previously at location 2 because the value at location 1 is not available now and the
value of the second location comes to the first location and similar phenomenon occurs for the remaining locations reducing the
size of the list by one.
$‘Name‘
[1] ”Pranab Roy”
>lt[5]=NULL
>lt
$‘Name‘
[1] ”Pranab Roy”
$Age
[1] 25
$‘An Inner List‘
$‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 57 / 101
 Manipulation of the elements of a list–Contd.
[1] 6
$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE
[[4]]
[1] ”Latest Value”
[[5]]
NULL
[[6]]
[1] ”A New element”

Another manipulation of lists can be done by merging multiple lists. This

can be done by using the list () function. This is illustrated below:
l=list(12,45,67,c(’A’,’B’,’C’))
>merged list=list(lt,l)
>merged list
[[1]]
[[1]]$‘Age‘
[1] 25
[[1]]$‘An Inner List‘
[[1]]$‘An Inner List‘[[1]]
[1] 6
[[1]]$‘An Inner List‘[[2]]
[1] ”r”
[[1]]$‘An Inner List‘[[3]]
[1] TRUE
[[1]][[3]]
[1] ”Latest Value”
[[1]][[4]]
NULL
[[1]][[5]]
[1] ”A New element”
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 58 / 101
 Conversion of lists to vectors

A list can be converted into a vector by using the unlist() function when
all the values of the list will be upgraded to the same data type as men-
tioned earlier in case of vectors. This is illustrated in the following listing of
commands and the values of the vectors.
>v1=unlist(lt)
>v2=unlist(v2)
>print(v1)
Age An Inner List1 An Inner List2 An Inner List3
”25” ”6” ”r” ”TRUE” ”Latest Value” ”A New element”
>v2
[1] ”A” ”B” ”C”

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 59 / 101
 Factors in R
In R, a factor is a data structure used for predefined, finite number of values.
The data values are called categorical data. Categorical data are also known as
nominal or qualitative data. A variable representing a categorical data is called a
categorical or nominal variable. Examples of categorical or nominal variables are
colors (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Red), Gender (Male, Female, Other), Nationality
(Indian, British, French) , Response(Yes, No), Marital-Status(Single, Married,
Divorced, Widowed) etc. The label or description of a categorical variable is
called its level. The levels cannot be ordered. It is because of the insensibility of
assigning numerical values to the different categories and hence ordering on the
basis of that. However, the levels may be numbered arbitrarily for ease of handling.
In R, factors may be defined as special vectors that hold categorical data.
The function factor () transforms a vector into a factor. The factor stores the
nominal values as a vector of integers in the range [ 1... n ] (where n is the number
of unique values in the nominal variable), and an internal vector of character strings
(the original values) are mapped to these integers. Let us now have an illustrative
session for factors in R.

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 60 / 101
 An illustrative session for factors in R
M Status=c(rep(”single”,20),rep(”Married”,30),rep(”Divorced”,10))
>Marital Status=factor(M Status)
>Marital Status
[1] single single single single single single single single single
[10] single single single single single single single single single
[19] single single Married Married Married Married Married Married Married
[28] Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Married
[37] Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Married
[46] Married Married Married Married Married Divorced Divorced Divorced Divorced
[55] Divorced Divorced Divorced Divorced Divorced Divorced
Levels: Divorced Married single

R now treats Marital Status as ordinal variable. R associates 1s to 10

Divorced values, 2s to 30 Married values and 3s to 20 Single values. This
is done in alphabetical order of the categorical values namely, Divorced,
Married and Single. If we want to see the summarized value of the factor,
we use the summary() function as shown below:
>summary(Marital Status)
Divorced Married single
10 30 20

If we want to see the different labels of the categorical values, we use the
levels() function as illustrated below. To see the internal structure of an
R object, we use the str() function, Let us see their effects below:
>levels(Marital Status)
[1] ”Divorced” ”Married” ”single”
>str(Marital Status)
Factor w/ 3 levels ”Divorced”, “Married”,..: 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 61 / 101
 Data Frames in R
A data frame in R is a two dimensional tabular representation of data in
rows and columns where columns are of same size with same or different
data types called mode. It is a natural way of representing data from
relational database tables, Excel sheets, vectors or factors of equal length
etc. data sets. The data sets may either be qualitative or quantitative i.e.
categorical or numerical. It is like a list with components as columns of a
table. Columns in a data frame are usually named which are often referenced
as variables. The rows of a data frame may also be named, if the user likes.
The data. frame ( ) function is used to create a data frame.
The following R statement shows the creation of a data frame.
data.frame(Name=c(”Ram”,”Ramesh”,”Mamata”),Marital Status=
c(”Married”,”Divorced”,”Single”),Age=c(35,37,62))
Name Marital Status Age
1 Ram Married 35
2 Ramesh Divorced 37
3 Mamata Single 62

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 62 / 101
 Data Frames in R–Salient Points to be borne in
mind
A data frame is a table of data or a two-dimensional array-like structure in
which each column contains values of one variable represented by a column
name and each row contains one set of values for each column variable.
The common characteristics of a data frame may be pointed out briefly
as under:
The column names should be non-empty.
The row names should be unique.
The data stored in a data frame can be either of numeric, factor or
character type.
Each column being an atomic vector with a common width should
contain the same number of data items of same data type
It can be expanded by adding columns and rows
It can be initially defined as an empty one also so that data can be
filled in later conveniently
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 63 / 101
 Empty DataFrames
An empty dataframe is an initialized dataframe without any rows.
There are two basic methods of creating empty dataframes in R. They are:

1 By creating a matrix with column names

2 By initializing columns with empty vectors

Let us illustrate method 1 first.

Here, we create an empty data frame by using the following steps:
We first define a matrix with 0 rows and as many columns as we
would like.
Then we use the data.frame() function to convert it to a data frame
and the colnames() function to give it column names.
Then we use the str() function to analyze the structure of the
resulting data frame.
In R,we proceed as under:
>df=data.frame(matrix(ncol=4,nrow=0))
>colnames(df)=c(’Column Name1’,’Column Name2’,
’Column Name3’,’Column Name4’)
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 64 / 101
 Empty DataFrames–Contd.
>df
[1] Column Name1 Column Name2 Column Name3 Column Name4
<0 rows>(or 0-length row.names)
>str(df)
’data.frame’: 0 obs. of 4 variables:
$ Column Name1: logi
$ Column Name2: logi
$ Column Name3: logi
$ Column Name4: logi
The second method is basically the task of making the specification of the
data types(class types) for each column and naming them, but having no
rows contained in the dataframe.To be more specific, we follow the following
steps:
We define a data frame as a set of empty vectors with specific class
types.
We next specify stringsAsFactors=False so that any character
vectors are treated as strings, not factors.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 65 / 101
 Empty DataFrames–Contd.
To illustrate the concept in R,let us first create an empty dataframe with
three columns comprising Date,File and User. This can be stated as under:

df = data.frame(Date=as.Date(character()),File=character(),
User=character(),stringsAsFactors=FALSE)
>str(df)
’data.frame’: 0 obs. of 3 variables:
$ Date: ’Date’ num(0)
$ File: chr
$ User: chr
In general, it is the task of initializing the desired columns of the dataframe
with empty vectors.
The following example illustrates the creation of a dataframe with five empty
vectors:
df = data.frame(Doubles=double(),Ints=integer(),Factors=factor(),
Logicals=logical(), Characters=character(),stringsAsFactors=FALSE)

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 66 / 101
 Empty DataFrames–Contd.
>str(df)
’data.frame’: 0 obs. of 5 variables:
$ Doubles : num
$ Ints : int
$ Factors : Factor w/ 0 levels:
$ Logicals : logical
$ Characters: chr
If there is already an existent data frame, say df, that has the columns we
want, then we can just create an empty data frame by removing all the rows
by using the statement as stated below:
empty df = df[FALSE,]
It may be noticed that df still contains the data, but empty df doesn’t.

Number of rows and columns in a data frame

We can use the nrow() function to know the number of names in a data
frame. Similarly,the ncol() function can be used to know the number of
columns.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 67 / 101
 Illustrative Data frames
Let us consider creating the following dataframe:
social status=data.frame(Persons=c(”Ram”,”shyam”,”Jadu”),
Monetary status=c(”Poor”,”Middle class”,”Rich”),
Educational status=c(”Highly Educated”,”Moderately Educated”,
”Lowly educated”),Age=c(30,40,50))
>social status
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50

To see the dimension of the data frame, we use the dim() function as illustrated
below:
>dim(social status)
R shows the following for this statement:
[1] 3 4
Entries from a data.frame can be pointed out with subscripts written within square
brackets and separated by comma implying row number followed by column number
with the variable holding the data.frame. This is illustrated in the figure below:
>social status[1,3]
[1] Highly Educated
Levels: Highly Educated Lowly educated Moderately Educated
>social status[3,2]
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 68 / 101
 Insertion of Rows and Columns in a R Data Frame
[1] Rich
Levels: Middle class Poor Rich
New components can be inserted into a data.frame, if required, as shown below:
social status$Bank Balance=c(10000,80000,500000)
>social status
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 1e+04
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 8e+04
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 5e+05

We may also add further rows in an existing data.frame. This can be done by defin-
ing additional row values and then using a function named rbind( ) as illustrated
below.
>ss=data.frame(Persons=c(”Madhu”,”Jidu”,”Sidhu”),Monetary status=
c(”Poor”,”poor”,”Rich”), Educational status=c(”Highly Educated”,”Lowly
Educated”,”Moderately Educated”),Age=c(35,45,55),Bank Balance=
c(25000,35000,90000))
>ss=rbind(social status,ss)
>ss
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 69 / 101
 Insertion of Columns in a R Data Frame Contd.
New columns can also be inserted into a data frame by using a column
binding function named cbind(). We illustrate the concept below:
Marital Status=c(”MARRIED”,”MARRIED”,”MARRIED”,”MARRIED”,”Single”,”Divorced”)
>cbind(ss,Marital Status)
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 MARRIED
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 MARRIED
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 MARRIED
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 MARRIED
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 Single
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 Divorced
>final ss=cbind(ss,Marital Status)
>final ss
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 MARRIED
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 MARRIED
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 MARRIED
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 MARRIED
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 Single
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 Divorced
>Marital Status=c(TRUE,TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,TRUE,TRUE)
>cbind(ss,Marital Status)
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 70 / 101
 Addition of Columns in a R Data Frame Contd.
There is still a third way of adding new columns into a data frame as
illustrated below:
ss[[”Marital Status”]]=Marital Status
>ss
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE

However, the cbind( ) function can be used to add more than one column
at a time into an existing data frame as illustrated below:
x=c(1,2,3,4,5,6)
>y=c(7,8,9,10,11,12)
>cbind(ss,x,y)
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status x y
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE 1 7
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE 2 8
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE 3 9
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE 4 10
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE 5 11
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE 6 12

Now, if we want to change the column name Marital Status to Married,

we need to write the statement in the following way:
>colnames(ss)[which(names(ss)==”Marital Status”)]=”Married”
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 71 / 101
 Deletion of columns from a Data Frame
To remove an entire column from a data.frame in R,we can follow any one
of the approaches illustrated below:
1. Storing NULL in the desired column of the data frame ss defined initially
with 3 rows:
>ss$Age=NULL
Let us now check the deletion: >ss
Persons Monetary status Educational status Bank Balance
1 Madhu Poor Highly Educated 25000
2 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 35000
3 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 90000

Let us redefine the data frame as under,

>ss=data.frame(Persons=c(”Madhu”,”Jidu”,”Sidhu”),
Monetary status=c(”Poor”,”poor”,”Rich”),Educational status=
c(”Highly Educated”,”Lowly Educated”,”Moderately Educated”),Age=
c(35,45,55),Bank Balance=c(25000,35000,90000))
2. The following example shows the storing of NULL value using the sub-
setting option:
>ss[[4]]=NULL
>ss
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 72 / 101
 Deletion of columns from a Data Frame–Contd.
Persons Monetary status Educational status Bank Balance
1 Madhu Poor Highly Educated 25000
2 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 35000
3 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 90000

3. The subsetting can also be done in the following way:

>ss[2]=NULL
To check the outcome, we write:
>ss
This shows the following table:
Persons Educational status Age Bank Balance
1 Madhu Highly Educated 35 25000
2 Jidu Lowly Educated 45 35000
3 Sidhu Moderately Educated 55 90000

4. Use of negative column number in the subsetting also removes the column
as shown below:
>ss= ss[,-3]
>ss
This removes the Age column.
The following illustrated format also removes the 3rd column:
>ss=ss[-3]
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 73 / 101
 Deletion from a Data Frame–Contd.
5. For deletion of multiple columns at a time, we need to use a list of NULL
values as stated below:
>ss[2:4]=list(NULL)
>ss
This shows the following table:
Persons Bank Balance
1 Madhu 25000
2 Jidu 35000
3 Sidhu 90000

6. Deletion by using the column names is to be done as shown below:

>ss=subset(ss,select=-Educational status)
For deletion of rows,we use the index number of the row as shown below:
>ss=ss[-1,]
>ss
Persons Monetary Status Bank Balance
2 Jidu poor 35000
3 Sidhu Rich 90000

For the removal of multiple rows at a time, we make use of the subset function as shown below:

>subset(ss,Monetary status!=”Poor”&Age>50)
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 74 / 101
 Insertion of columns at any desired position of a
dataframe
We have observed that cbind() function enables us to add a column always after
the existing columns of a dataframe. Now, if we want to insert a column at any
desired column position in a dataframe, we can do it by using an in-built R function
add column() having the following syntax:
add column(Name of existing dataframe,New column definition,.before|.after
Here, option-1|option-2 implies that any one of the options is to be used and the
braces are not part of the actual use in a statement.
Here, we shall need to install the ’tibble’ package and its library shall have to
be loaded before the use of the function. An illustrative example has been shown
below:
>library(tibble)
>df=data.frame(A = 10:14, B = 21:25, C=33:37)
This creates the following dataframe:
A B C
1 10 21 33
2 11 22 34
3 12 23 35
4 13 24 36
5 14 25 37

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 75 / 101
 Insertion of columns and rows at any desired
position of a dataframe
Let us now insert a new column after the column number 2. We issue the
following command for this purpose:
>df=add column(df, D = 43:47, .after = 2))
>df
A B D C
1 10 21 43 33
2 11 22 44 34
3 12 23 45 35
4 13 24 46 36
5 14 25 47 37

Now, to insert a row at any desired row position of a dataframe,we develop

a function as shown below:
insertRow = function(existingDF, newrow, row number) {
existingDF[seq(r+1,nrow(existingDF)+1),] =
existingDF[seq(r,nrow(existingDF)),]
existingDF[r,] = newrow
existingDF
}
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 76 / 101
 Insertion of rows at any desired position of a
dataframe
Let us use the function as illustrated below with the dataframe df defined
above.
>r=2
>rw=seq(4)
>insertRow(df,rw,r)
This generates the following dataframe with the newly inserted row:
A B D C
1 10 21 43 33
2 1 2 3 4
3 11 22 44 34
4 12 23 45 35
5 13 24 46 36
6 14 25 47 37

We can also assign the resulting dataframe to the existing one to make the
changes permanent in the dataframe.
>df=insertRow(df,rw,r)

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 77 / 101
 Retrieval of data from a dataframe depending on
requirement
Let us consider the dataframe airquality that comes with the R system and
readily available for use.
Let us first check its structure as shown below:
>str(airquality)
’data.frame’: 153 obs. of 6 variables:
$ Ozone : int 41 36 12 18 NA 28 23 19 8 NA ...
$ Solar.R: int 190 118 149 313 NA NA 299 99 19 194 ...
$ Wind : num 7.4 8 12.6 11.5 14.3 14.9 8.6 13.8 20.1 8.6 ...
$ Temp : int 67 72 74 62 56 66 65 59 61 69 ...
$ Month : int 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 ...
$ Day : int 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...
Now,to retrieve the data of the first five rows from the dataframe,we write:
>airquality[1:5,]
This gives us the following result:
Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day
1 41 190 7.4 67 5 1
2 36 118 8.0 72 5 2
3 12 149 12.6 74 5 3
4 18 313 11.5 62 5 4
5 NA NA 14.3 56 5 5
Now,if we want to see the data of the columns 2 to 4 for the first 3 rows, we write the following:
>airquality[1:3,2:4]
This gives us the following output:
Solar.R Wind Temp
1 190 7.4 67
2 118 8.0 72
3 149 12.6 74

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 78 / 101
 Customized Retrieval of data from a dataframe
Contd.
Let us now retrieve the data of row numbers:1,5 and 9. For this purpose, we write the following statement:
>airquality[c(1,5,9),]
It may be noted that we have used here a vector comprising the desired row numbers.
This gives us the following results:

Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day

1 41 190 7.4 67 5 1
5 NA NA 14.3 56 5 5
9 8 19 20.1 61 5 9

We may like to change the NA values in the dataframe with some specific value for easy recognition,say, 999.We can do this with
the following command:
>airquality[is.na(airquality)]=999
Let us check the effect on the NA values got in the output of the preceding query:
>airquality[c(1,5,9),]
The following result is generated:

Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day

1 41 190 7.4 67 5 1
5 999 999 14.3 56 5 5
9 8 19 20.1 61 5 9

Let us now retrieve the data of the columns 3 and 5 for the rows 5,7 and 13.The statement written below serves the purpose.
>airquality[c(5,7,13),c(3,5)]
It may be observed here that both row numbers and column numbers are not sequential,rather randomly chosen;hence, we need
to express them as vectors as shown below:

Wind Month
5 14.3 5
7 8.6 5
13 9.2 5

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 79 / 101
 Splitting a Data Frame in R
We can split a data from on some variable of the data frame so that we can
obtain sub dataframes for each distinct value of the variable. The split()
function is used for this purpose with the following syntax:
split(Name-of-the data frame, Name-of-data-frame$ column or variable-
name-of the data frame)
This is illustrated below:
>split(social status,social status$monetary status)
$Middleclass
persons monetary status educational status Age
2 shyam Middleclass Moderately Educated 40
$Poor
persons monetary status educational status Age
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30
$Rich
persons monetary status educational status Age
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50
>split(social status,social status$educational status)
$‘Highly Educated‘
persons monetary status educational status Age
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30
$Lowly educated
persons monetary status educational status Age
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50
$‘Moderately Educated‘
persons monetary status educational status Age
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 80 / 101
 Performing queries in a data frame
We may like to select some of the rows from a data frame that satisfy
a given condition. The condition, however, should be based on some of
the column value. One or more conditions may be stated; but while using
the logical operators, the user should keep it mind that only elementwise
logical operators can be used. The following codes illustrate a few queries
which are self explanatory.
>subset(ss,ss$Bank Balance>=50000)
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance
3 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000
>rich=ss[ss$Bank Balance>=50000,]
>rich

Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 8e+04 TRUE
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 5e+05 FALSE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 9e+04 TRUE

>ss[ss$Bank Balance<50000,]

Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE

>subset(ss,Educational status==”Highly Educated”)

Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance
1 Madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 81 / 101
 Performing queries in a data frame–Contd.
y=ss[ss$Bank Balance<50000 & ss$Marital Status,]
>y
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE

Obviously, the format of the conditional expression is:

>Data-frame-name[data-frame-name$column-name relational-operator
value-to-be-tested{elementwise-logical-operator data-frame-name$
column-name relational-operator value-to-be-tested. . . . . . .},]
The portion within the braces() is optional. If it is used, it is to be used
without the curly brackets. The ellipsis(. . . ..) implies that the preceding
option can be repeated any number of times.
Sorting Data Frames
We can sort a data frame by a selected column, either in ascending sequence
or in descending sequence of the stated column values. The syntax of the
command is:
Name of the data-frame[rev(order(name-of- the -data-frame[, ”Column-
name”])), ]
Here, Column-name refers to the column on the basis of the values of
which all the rows of the data-frame will be sorted.Continued.....
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 82 / 101
 Sorting Data Frames–Contd.
The rev option ,if specified, the sorting will be in descending or decreasing
order. The sorted data frame can first be assigned to another data frame
variable , so that it can be seen later and repeatedly, if required. The
following codes illustrate the concept.
ss[order(ss[,”Bank Balance”]),]

Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE

>ss[rev(order(ss[,”Bank Balance”])),]

Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE

Merging data Frames: Merging of data frames implies combining two data
frames to generate a new data frame. This is equivalent to Join operation
of relational algebra.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 83 / 101
 Merging of data Frames
Similar to different forms of Join, we can merge two data frames for re-
sults of Equijoins,Right Outer Join, Left Outer Join and Cross Join or
Cartesian product.The syntax is:   
”common column name” x
merge(df1,df2[,by= ][,all[. ]=
NULL y
TRUE])
Here, options within square brackets([]) imply that their use is optional.Options
within a pair of braces imply that one of them is required to be used.
To illustrate the use of the function in different ways, we define two simple data frames as under:
>df1=data.frame(EMPNO=c(1,5,7,8,9))
>df2=data.frame(EMPNO=c(3,5,7,4,2))
Now,we perform equi-join as under:
>merge(df1,df2)
EMPNO
1 5
2 7
We perform Left Outer Join as shown below:
>merge(df1,df2,by=”EMPNO”,all.x=TRUE)
The generated output is:
EMPNO
1 1
2 5
3 7
4 8
5 9

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 84 / 101
 Merging of data Frames–Contd.
For the Right Outer Join, we write the command as under:
>merge(df1,df2,by=”EMPNO”,all.y=TRUE)
This gives the output shown below:
EMPNO
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 7
For the Full outer Join, we write the following command:
>merge(df1,df2,by=”EMPNO”,all=TRUE)
The following is the generated output:
EMPNO
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 7
7 8
8 9

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 85 / 101
 Merging of data Frames–Contd.
For the Cross Join, we write the following command:
>merge(df1,df2,by=NULL)
The generated result of Cartesian Product,also called CrossJoin of the two data frames is as shown below:

EMPNO.x EMPNO.y
1 1 3
2 5 3
3 7 3
4 8 3
5 9 3
6 1 5
7 5 5
8 7 5
9 8 5
10 9 5
11 1 7
12 5 7
13 7 7
14 8 7
15 9 7
16 1 4
17 5 4
18 7 4
19 8 4
20 9 4
21 1 2
22 5 2
23 7 2
24 8 2
25 9 2

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 86 / 101
 Sorting Data Frames–Contd.
We may also like to see the values of a particular column in a sorted order.
This can be achieved by using the sort( ) function as illustrated below:
sort(ss$Bank Balance)
[1] 10000 25000 35000 80000 90000 500000
To effect the ordering of the rows in the data frame also, we need to use
order( ) function on the data of the column to obtain the ranks of the
values first i.e. the row positions of the values in the increasing order and
then we can utilize that ranking according to the syntax given below:
First, we find out the ranking as shown below:
>Ranking = order(name-of-data-frame $ Name-of-column)
Next , we write:
>Name-of-data-frame[Ranking,]
This is illustrated below:
ranking=order(ss$Bank Balance)
>ranking
[1] 1 4 5 2 6 3
>ss[ranking,]
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 87 / 101
 Ranking Data Frames–Contd.
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE

The ranks printed imply that the first value occurs in the first row, the second value
in the order occurs in the row number 4 and so on. The reverse ordering can now
be obtained as shown below:
>ss[order(ss$Bank Balance,decreasing=TRUE),]
Persons Monetary status Educational status Age Bank Balance Marital Status
3 Jadu Rich Lowly educated 50 500000 FALSE
6 Sidhu Rich Moderately Educated 55 90000 TRUE
2 shyam Middle class Moderately Educated 40 80000 TRUE
5 Jidu poor Lowly Educated 45 35000 TRUE
4 madhu Poor Highly Educated 35 25000 FALSE
1 Ram Poor Highly Educated 30 10000 TRUE

If we want to sort the dataframe on the basis of multiple columns,one under the
other in the order mentioned, we can do it by using the with option as illustrated
below for Persons under Bank Balance.
>ss= ss[with(ss, order(Persons, Bank Balance)), ]
>ss[with(ss, order(Persons, Bank Balance,decreasing=TRUE)),]
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 88 / 101
 Illustration of head() and tail() for a data frame df
Inspecting the rows of a dataframe
The first six rows of a data frame can be inspected by using the head() function.For
the last six rows, the tail() function is used. The syntax of the functions are:
head(name of dataframe[,n]),where n is the number of rows to be
displayed from the beginning which is 6 ,by default
tail(name of dataframe[,n]),where n is the number of last rows to be
displayed which is 6 ,by default
>head(df)
term count
1 label 103
2 book 55
3 one 40
4 game 38
5 love 34
6 great 29
>head(df,3)
term count
1 label 103
2 book 55
3 one 40
>tail(df,2)
term count
1687 remast 1
1688 rerecord 1
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 89 / 101
 The setdiff() and Conclusion on data frame
The setdiff() function
This function is used to find out the elements in two vectors or data frames which
is in the first vector or data frame(minuend), but not in the second vector or data
frame(subtrahend). Its use has been illustrated below:
x=c(1:20)
>y=c(15:40)
setdiff(x,y)
[1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
This function can also be used to show the rows of the first dataframe which do
not belong to the second one.
Format:setdiff(df1,df2)
Further important points about dataframe to be borne in mind.
By default data frames turn strings into factors. So, we should use
stringsAsFactors = FALSE to suppress this behaviour:
We can coerce an object to a data frame with as.data.frame():
1 A vector will create a one-column data frame.

2 A list will create one column for each element; it’s an error if

they’re not all the same length.

3 A matrix will create a data frame with the same number of columns
By and rows as the
Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA matrix.
(TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 90 / 101
 Extended Data Structures-Matrices
A matrix is a two dimensional version of a numeric vector. The entries in a
matrix M are arranged as a rectangular set of data of single type (although useless,
character and logical values can also be put in a matrix form) having rows and
columns. Matrices are widely used in mathematical calculations. A matrix of order
n x m implies that it has n rows and m columns. It is known as the dimension of
the matrix. The matrix( ) function is used to create a matrix. The basic syntax
of the matrix( ) function in R is as stated below:
matrix(data-set,[nrow],[ ncol],[ byrow], [dimnames]), where,
Data-set is the input vector that becomes the data elements of the matrix,
nrow is used to state the number of rows to be created,
ncol is used to mention the number of columns to be created
byrow specifies whether the data are to be arranged in memory in
row-major order or column-major order. Setting byrow to TRUE implies the
row-major order. So, the default value is column-major order.
Dimnames is used to assign names to the rows and columns.
The first parameter and either of the next two parameters of the matrix( ) function
are mandatory.However,all the parameters of the matrix function may be specified
with simply R variables without naming the parameters.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 91 / 101
 Illustrative examples of the matrix( ) function
Let us have some illustrative examples of the matrix( ) function.
>matrix(10:21,nrow=4)
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 10 14 18
[2,] 11 15 19
[3,] 12 16 20
[4,] 13 17 21
>matrix(data=10:21,nrow=4,byrow=TRUE)
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 10 11 12
[2,] 13 14 15
[3,] 16 17 18
[4,] 19 20 21
>matrix(data=10:21,ncol=4)
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
[1,] 10 13 16 19
[2,] 11 14 17 20
[3,] 12 15 18 21
>matrix(data=scan(n=12,quiet=TRUE),nrow=4)
1: 10
2: 11
3: 12
4: 13
5: 14
6: 15
7: 16
8: 17
9: 18
10: 19
11: 20
12: 21

As soon as the entry of the inputs becomes over, the following matrix form of values are displayed by R.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 92 / 101
 Displaying the values in a matrix
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 10 14 18
[2,] 11 15 19
[3,] 12 16 20
[4,] 13 17 21
The function dim(x), where x is the variable to which we assign a matrix, is an integer vector giving the number of rows and
columns of the matrix x; i.e. dim() function gives the dimension of the matrix. The following depicts its use.
>x=matrix(1:12,4)
>x
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 5 9
[2,] 2 6 10
[3,] 3 7 11
[4,] 4 8 12
>dim(x)
[1] 4 3
>x[1,]
[1] 1 5 9
>x[,2]
[1] 5 6 7 8
>x[3,3]
[1] 11
>i=scan(n=1) # to accept the row number as input
1: 4
>j=scan(n=1,quiet=TRUE) # This to accept the column number as input
1: 2
>x[i,j] # row and column numbers are being expressed with variable values.
[1] 8
>class(x)
[1] ”matrix”
>class(x[1,])
[1] ”integer”
>class(x[i,j])
[1] ”integer”
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 93 / 101
 R inputs into a matrix
R script for generalized inputs
# matinput.r
cat(”How many rows?”)
r=scan(n=1,quiet=TRUE)
cat(”How many Columns?”)
c=scan(n=1,quiet=TRUE)
tot=r*c
cat(”Enter the matrix element rowwise for”,r,”rows and ”,c,”Columns
and press enter for each value”)
mat=matrix(scan(n=tot),r,byrow=TRUE)
cat(”The input matrix is shown below:”)
for( i in 1:r){ for (j in 1:c){
cat(mat[i,j],’ ’)}
cat(”)
}

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 94 / 101
 Matrix Manipulations
Let x be a matrix with normal numeric values. Let l be another matrix with logical
values. Then, x[l] will return a numeric vector with position numbers in the matrix
x, considering columnwise from 1 to n, where l contains the TRUE value. If the
dimensions are not matching, then it return NA , where values are not available.
The following figure illustrates the idea.
>x=matrix(1:4,2)
>x
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 3
[2,] 2 4
>l=matrix(TRUE,3,2)
>l
[,1] [,2]
[1,] TRUE TRUE
[2,] TRUE TRUE
[3,] TRUE TRUE
>x[l] [1] 1 2 3 4 NA NA
If we assign some number some number to m[l] then the number will replace each of the values in m[l] as it happens in case of
vectors. This is shown below:
>m[l]=4
>m[l]
[1] 4 4 4 4 4 4

As in mathematics, we can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

modulo operation(%%), integer division(%%) and exponentiation(ˆ) with the ma-
trix elements by any scalar value. The operation will be done with each of the
elements of the matrix. However, if we use a vector in place of a scalar for all the
By above
Prof.Dr. operations, the operation
A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA The toolsbecomes
(TIU,W.B.) anof interesting
and techniques one. September
R programming Lesson-7Data Structures
2, 2024
in R 95 / 101
 Matrix Manipulations–Contd.
For the first row of the matrix, the specified operation takes place normally
with the corresponding elements of the vector and that of the matrix; but
for the next row of values of the matrix, the same operation takes place
with the reversed values of the vector and so on. This illustrated below:
>m
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 5 4
[2,] 2 5
[3,] 5 5
>v=c(4,5)
>m*v
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 20 20
[2,] 10 20
[3,] 20 25

Matrix Multiplication
R supports multiplication of two matrices also. The multiplication
operator is %*%. So, if A is matrix of order m x n, and B is a matrix
of order n x p; then we know that the matrices are eligible for giving the
product and we can perform it by simply typing A%*%B at the R prompt.
The product can be assigned to a variable also which will be another matrix
of order m x p , by the definition of matrix multiplication.
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 96 / 101
 Relevant functions for matrix manipulations
To obtain the vector of elements on the main diagonal of a matrix M, say,
we simply need to issue the command diag(M).
We can also obtain the transpose of a matrix M, which is a matrix obtained
from m by interchanging the rows and columns.
This can be achieved by simply typing t(M) at the R prompt and then
pressing ENTER.
We can also obtain the determinant value of a matrix by simply entering
det(matrix-name). However, the matrix must be a square matrix.
Sometimes, we need to extract statistics from the rows or columns of a
matrix. Let f be a function that generates a number for any given vector
v, If M is a matrix then, we can enter apply(M,1,f) to obtain the result
of applying f to each row of the matrix M. The application of the apply( )
function will generate a vector for each row of the matrix M. To obtain the
similar result for each of the columns, we are to enter: apply(M,2,f). We
can also find out the eigen values and eigen vectors from given matrix
by using the eigen() function. Above discussions have been illustrated in
the figure below:
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 97 / 101
 Matrix manipulations illustrated
>x=matrix(1:16,4)
>y=matrix(3:8,2)
>x%*%y
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 19 29 39
[2,] 26 40 54
[3,] 33 51 69
>diag(x%*%y)
[1] 19 40 69
>t(x%*%y)
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 19 26 33
[2,] 29 40 51
[3,] 39 54 69
>f=function(v){return(sum(v))}
>apply(x,1,f)
[1] 5 7 9
>x=matrix(1:6,3)
>apply(x,1,f)
[1] 5 7 9
>x=matrix(1:4,2)
>v=c(1,2)
>f=function(v){return(sum(v))}
>apply(x,1,f)
[1] 4 6
>x
>x=matrix(1:4,2)
>det(x)
[1] -2
>det(m) Error in determinant.matrix(x, logarithm = TRUE, ...) :
’x’ must be a square matrix
>eigen(x)
eigen() decomposition

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 98 / 101
 Matrix manipulations illustrated–Contd.

$‘values‘
[1] 5.3722813 -0.3722813
$vectors
Finally, we shall mention two more functions frequently used with matrices.
These are rownames( ) and colnames( ) functions. The former one is
used to name the rows of a matrix; whereas, the latter one is used to name
the columns. This is illustrated below:
>rownames(m)=c(’r1’,’r2’,’r3’)
>colnames(m)=c(’c1’,’c2’)
>m
c1 c2
r1 5 4
r2 2 5
r3 5 5

By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)

The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 99 / 101
 Arrays in R
We know that an array is basically a set of contiguous memory locations
holding data of same datatype. The set of memory locations may be of one
or more dimensions. But in R, it is a bit different. The concept of an array
in R is an extension of the concept of a vector to more than two dimensions.
In R, arrays are used to represent multidimensional data of a single type.
R provides with an array() function for the declaration and creation of an
array. The syntax of the function is as shown below:
array(data=NA, dim=length(data),dimnames=NULL)
where, data represents the input vector; ‘=NA’ is not required, if data-set is
replaced with data. The parameter ‘dim’ represents an integer of length one
or more giving the maximal subscripts in each dimension. The ‘dimnames’
is either NULL or a list of names for the rows. The following codes illustrate
the use of the array() function:
array(data=1:12,dim=c(2,3,2),dimnames=list(c(”ONE”,”TWO”)))
,,1
[,1] [,2] [,3]
ONE 1 3 5
TWO 2 4 6
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 100 / 101
 Illustration of arrays in R
,,2
[,1] [,2] [,3]
ONE 7 9 11
TWO 8 10 12
If the ‘dim’ is not mentioned, then the array becomes an array of one
dimension. The following codes illustrate the idea.
>v1=c(5,7,9)
>v2=c(11,13,15)
>A=array(c(v1,v2))
>A
[1] 5 7 9 11 13 15
>A=array(c(v1,v2),dim=c(2,3,1))
>A
,,1
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 5 9 13
[2,] 7 11 15
By Prof.Dr. A.B.Chowdhury,HOD,CA (TIU,W.B.)
The tools and techniques of R programming Lesson-7Data
September
Structures
2, 2024
in R 101 / 101