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STATISTICS AND
8 PROBABILITY
“Life is a School of Probability” - Walter Bagehot

Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, born at Kolkata, was an

Indian statistician who devised a measure of comparison between
two data sets. He introduced innovative techniques for conducting
large-scale sample surveys and calculated acreages and crop yields
by using the method of random sampling. For his pioneering
work, he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, one of India’s highest
honours, by the Indian government in 1968 and he is hailed as “Father
of Indian Statistics”. The Government of India has designated 29th
Prasanta Chandra
June every year, coinciding with his birth anniversary, as “National Mahalanobis
Statistics Day”.

Learning Outcomes
zz To recall the measures of central tendency.
zz To recall mean for ungrouped and grouped data.
zz To understand the concept of dispersion.
zz To understand and compute range, standard deviation, variance and
coefficient of variation.
zz To understand random experiments, sample space and use of a tree
diagram.
zz To define and describe different types of events of a random experiment.
zz To understand addition theorem of probability and apply it in solving
some simple problems.

8.1 Introduction
‘STATISTICS’ is derived from the Latin word ‘status’ which means a political state.
Today, statistics has become an integral part of everyone’s life, unavoidable whether
making a plan for our future, doing a business, a marketing research or preparing economic
reports. It is also extensively used in opinion polls, doing advanced research. The study
of statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organising, summarising,
presenting, analysing data and making meaningful decisions. In earlier classes we have
studied about collection of data, presenting the data in tabular form, graphical form and
calculating the Measures of Central Tendency. Now, in this class, let us study about the
Measures of Dispersion.

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Recall
Measures of Central Tendency
It is often convenient to have one number that represent the whole data. Such a
number is called a Measures of Central Tendency.
The Measures of Central Tendency usually will be Thinking Corner
near to the middle value of the data. For a given data there 1. Does the mean, median
exist several types of measures of central tendencies. and mode are same for a
given data?
The most common among them are
2. What is the difference
•
Arithmetic Mean Median • Mode •
between the arithmetic
mean and average?
Note
¾¾ Data : The numerical representation of facts is called data.
¾¾ Observation : Each entry in the data is called an observation.
¾¾ Variable : The quantities which are being considered in a survey are called
variables. Variables are generally denoted by xi, i = 1,2,3,…,n.
¾¾ Frequencies : The number of times, a variable occurs in a given data is called the
frequency of that variable. Frequencies are generally denoted as
fi, i = 1,2,3,…,n.
In this class we have to recall the Arithmetic Mean.
Arithmetic Mean
The Arithmetic Mean or Mean of the given values is Thinking Corner
sum of all the observations divided by the total number of The mean of n
observations. It is denoted by x (pronounced as x bar) observations is x , if first
Sum of all the observations term is increased by 1
x =
Number of observations second term is increased

Methods of finding Mean
by 2 and so on. What
will be the new mean?

Ungrouped data Grouped data

Direct Method Direct Method Assumed Mean Method Step Deviation Method

n n
n
∑ fidi ∑ fd i i

∑x
n

i
∑x f i i X = A+ i =1 X = A +C × i =1
n
X= i =1 n
X= i =1 n
∑f ∑f i
n ∑f i i =1
i
i =1
i =1
where di = xi–A xi − A
where di =
c
We apply the respective formulae depending upon the information provided in the problem.
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Progress Check

1. The sum of all the observations divided by number of observations is _______.

2. If the sum of 10 data values is 265 then their mean is _______.
3. If the sum and mean of a data are 407 and 11 respectively, then the number of
observations in the data are _______.

8.2 Measures of Dispersion

The following data provide the runs scored by two batsmen in the last 10 matches.
Batsman A: 25, 20, 45, 93, 8, 14, 32, 87, 72, 4
Batsman B: 33, 50, 47, 38, 45, 40, 36, 48, 37, 26
25 + 20 + 45 + 93 + 8 + 14 + 32 + 87 + 72 + 4
Mean of Batsman A = = 40
10
33 + 50 + 47 + 38 + 45 + 40 + 36 + 48 + 37 + 26
Mean of Batsman B = = 40
10
The mean of both datas are same (40), but they differ significantly.

Batsman A Batsman B
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
Runs

Runs

60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No. of Matches No. of Matches
Fig. 8.1(a) Fig. 8.1(b)
From the above diagrams, we see that runs of batsman B are grouped around the
mean. But the runs of batsman A are scattered from 0 to 100, though they both have same
mean.

Thus, some additional statistical information may be required to determine how the
values are spread in data. For this, we shall discuss Measures of Dispersion.

Dispersion is a measure which gives an idea about the scatteredness of the values.

Measures of Variation (or) Dispersion of a data provide an idea of how observations

spread out (or) scattered throughout the data.

Different Measures of Dispersion are

1. Range 2. Mean deviation 3. Quartile deviation

4. Standard deviation 5. Variance 6. Coefficient of Variation

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8.2.1 Range
The difference between the largest value and the smallest value is called Range.
Range R = L– S
Progress Check
L −S
Coefficient of range =
L +S The range of first 10 prime
where L - Largest value; S - Smallest value numbers is _______
Example 8.1 Find the range and coefficient of range of
the following data: 25, 67, 48, 53, 18, 39, 44.
Solution Largest value L = 67; Smallest value S =18
Range R = L − S = 67 − 18 = 49
L −S
Coefficient of range =
L +S
67 − 18 49
Coefficient of range = = = 0.576
67 + 18 85

Example 8.2 Find the range of the following distribution.

Age (in years) 16-18 18-20 20-22 22-24 24-26 26-28

Number of students 0 4 6 8 2 2

Solution Here Largest value L = 28

Note
Smallest value S = 18
If the frequency of initial class is
Range R = L −S zero, then the next class will be
R = 28 − 18 = 10 Years considered for the calculation of
range.
Example 8.3 The range of a set of data is 13.67 and
the largest value is 70.08. Find the smallest value. Note
Solution Range R = 13.67
The range of a set of data does
Largest value L = 70.08 not give the clear idea about
Range R = L − S the dispersion of the data from
13.67 = 70.08 − S measures of Central Tendency.
S = 70.08 − 13.67 = 56.41 For this, we need a measure which
depend upon the deviation from
Therefore, the smallest value is 56.41.
the measures of Central Tendency.
8.2.2 Deviations from the mean
For a given data with n observations x 1, x 2 ,¼x n , the deviations from the mean x are
x 1 - x , x 2 - x , …, x n - x .
8.2.3 Squares of deviations from the mean
The squares of deviations from the mean x of the observations x 1, x 2 ,¼, x n are
n
(x 1 - x )2,(x 2 - x )2,...,(x n - x )2 or ∑ (x
i =1
i
− x )2

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Note
We note that (x i − x ) ≥ 0 for all observations x i , i = 1,2,3,…,n. If the deviations from
the mean (x i − x ) are small, then the squares of the deviations will be very small.

8.2.4 Variance
The mean of the squares of the deviations from the mean is called Variance.
It is denoted by s 2 (read as sigma square).
Variance = Mean of squares of deviations Thinking Corner
2 2 2
(x − x ) + (x 2 − x ) + ... + (x n − x ) Can variance be
= 1
n n negative?
∑ (x i − x )2
Variance s 2 = i =1
n
8.2.5 Standard Deviation
The positive square root of Variance is called Standard deviation. That is, standard
deviation is the positive square root of the mean of the squares of deviations of the given
values from their mean. It is denoted by s.
Standard deviation gives a clear idea about
how far the values are spreading or deviating from Karl Pearson was the
the mean. first person to use the word
n standard deviation. German
∑ (x i
− x )2 mathematician Gauss used the
Standard deviation s = i =1
word Mean error.
n

Calculation of standard deviation

Grouped data
Ungrouped
(Both discrete
data
and continuous)

Assumed Step Assumed Step

Direct Mean Mean
Mean Deviation Mean Deviation
Method method method
Method Method Method Method

Calculation of Standard Deviation for ungrouped data

(i) Direct Method Note
Σ(x i − x )2
Standard deviation s = The standard deviation and
n
mean have same units in which
Σ(x i2 − 2x ix + x 2 )
= the data are given.
n

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Σx i2 Σx i x 2
=
n
− 2x
n
+
n
× 1 + 1 + to n times ( )
Σx i2 x2 Σx i2 Σx i2
= − 2x × x + ×n = − 2x 2 + x 2 = −x2
n n n n
2
Σx i2  Σx i 
Standard deviation, s = −  
n  n 
Note
¾¾ While computing standard deviation, arranging data in ascending order is not mandatory.
¾¾ If the data values are given directly then to find standard deviation we can use the
2
2  
formula s = Σx i −  Σx i 
n  n 
¾¾ If the data values are not given directly but the squares of the deviations from the mean
of each observation is given then to find standard deviation we can use the
Σ (x i − x )
2

formula s = .
n

Example 8.4 The number of televisions sold in each day of a week are 13, 8, 4, 9, 7, 12, 10.
Find its standard deviation.
Solution x x2 Standard deviation Thinking Corner
i i

13 169 Σx i2  Σx 
2
Can the standard deviation
s = −  i  be more than the variance?
8 64 n  n 
4 16
2
9 81 623  63  Progress Check
7 49 = −  
12 144
7  7 
10 100 = 89 − 81 = 8 If the variance is
Σx i = 63 Σx i 2 = 623 Hence, s  2.83 0.49 then the standard
deviation is _____.
(ii) Mean method
Another convenient way of finding standard deviation is to use the following formula.
Σ(x i − x )2
Standard deviation (by mean method) s =
n
Σdi 2
If di = x i − x are the deviations, then s =
n
Example 8.5 The amount of rainfall in a particular season for 6 days are given as 17.8 cm,
19.2 cm, 16.3 cm, 12.5 cm, 12.8 cm and 11.4 cm. Find its standard deviation.
Solution Arranging the numbers in ascending order we get, 11.4, 12.5, 12.8, 16.3, 17.8,
19.2. Number of observations n = 6
11.4 + 12.5 + 12.8 + 16.3 + 17.8 + 19.2 90
Mean = = = 15
6 6
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di = x i − x Σdi 2
xi
= x − 15
di 2 Standard deviation s =
n
11.4 –3.6 12.96
51.22
12.5 –2.5 6.25 = = 8.53
12.8 –2.2 4.84 6
16.3 1.3 1.69 Hence, s  2.9
17.8 2.8 7.84
19.2 4.2 17.64
Σdi 2 = 51.22
(iii) Assumed Mean method
When the mean value is not an integer (since calculations are very tedious in decimal
form) then it is better to use the assumed mean method to find the standard deviation.
Let x 1, x 2 , x 3 , ..., x n be the given data values and let x be their mean.
Let di be the deviation of xi from the assumed mean A, which is usually the middle
value or near the middle value of the given data.
di = x i − A gives, x i = di + A ...(1)
Sdi = Σ(x i − A)
= Σx i − (A + A + A +  to n times)
Sdi = Σx i − A × n
Sdi Σx i
=−A
n n
d = x − A (or) x = d + A ...(2)

Σ(x i − x )2 Σ(di + A − d − A)2

Standard deviation s = =   (using (1) and (2))
n n

Σ(di − d )2 Σ(di 2 − 2di × d + d 2 )

= =
n n

Σdi 2 Σdi d2
= − 2d + (1 + 1 + 1 +  to n times)
n n n

Σdi 2 d2
= − 2d × d + × n   (since d is a constant)
n n

Σdi 2
= −d 2
n Thinking Corner
2 For any collection of n values, can you
Σdi 2  Σdi 
Standard deviation s = −   find the value of
n  n 
(i) Σ(x i − x ) (ii) (Σx i ) − x

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Example 8.6 The marks scored by 10 students in a class test are 25, 29, 30, 33, 35, 37, 38,
40, 44, 48. Find the standard deviation.
Solution The mean of marks is 35.9 which is not an integer. Hence we take assumed
mean, A = 35, n = 10 .
Standard deviation
di = x i − A
xi di 2
di = x i − 35  Σd 
2
Σdi 2
25 –10 100 s= −  i 
n  n 
29 –6 36
30 –5 25 453  9 
2

33 –2 4 = − 
10 10 
35 0 0
37 2 4
= 45.3 − 0.81
38 3 9
40 5 25 = 44.49
44 9 81 s  6.67
48 13 169

Σdi = 9 Σdi 2 = 453

(ii) Step deviation method

Let x 1, x 2 , x 3 ,... x n be the given data. Let A be the assumed mean.
Let c be the common divisor of x i - A .
xi − A
Let di =
c
Then xi = dic + A …(1)
Sx i = Σ (dic + A) = c Σdi + A × n
Sx i Σdi
=c +A
n n
x = cd + A …(2)
xi - x = cdi + A − cd − A = c(di − d ) (using (1) and (2))
Σ(x i − x )2 Σ(c(di − d ))2 c 2Σ(di − d )2
s = = =
n n n
2
Σdi2  Σd 
s =c× −  i 
n  n 
Note
We can use any of the above methods for finding the standard deviation

Activity 1
Find the standard deviation of the marks obtained by you in all five subjects in the quarterly
examination and in the midterm test separately. What do you observe from your results.

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Example 8.7 The amount that the children have spent for purchasing some eatables in
one day trip of a school are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40. Using step deviation method, find
the standard deviation of the amount they have spent.
Solution We note that all the observations are divisible by 5. Hence we can use the step
deviation method. Let the Assumed mean A = 20, n = 8.

x −A Standard deviation
di = x i − A
di = i
xi c di 2 2
di = x i − 20 c = 5 Σdi 2  Σdi 

s = −   × c
n  n 
5 –15 –3 9
10 –10 –2 4 2
15 –5 –1 1 44  4  11 1
= −   × 5 = − ×5
20 0 0 0 8 8  2 4
25 5 1 1
30 10 2 4 = 5.5 − 0.25 × 5 = 2.29 × 5
35 15 3 9
40 20 4 16 s  11.45
Σdi = 4 2
Σdi = 44

Example 8.8 Find the standard deviation of the following data 7, 4, 8, 10, 11. Add 3 to
all the values then find the standard deviation for the new values.

Solution Arranging the values in ascending order we get, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11 and n = 5

xi xi2 Standard deviation

2
Σx i2  Σx 
4 16 s= −  i 
7 49 n  n 
8 64 2
10 100 350  40 
= −  
11 121 5  5 
Σx i = 40 Σx i 2 = 350
s = 6  2.45
When we add 3 to all the values, we get the new values as 7,10,11,13,14.
xi xi2 Standard deviation
2
7 49 Σx i2  Σx 

s = −  i 
10 100 n  n 
11 121 2
635  55 
13 169 = −  
5  5 
14 196
Σx i = 55 2
Σx i = 635
s = 6  2.45

We see that the standard deviation will not change when we add some fixed constant k
to all the values.

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Example 8.9 Find the standard deviation of the data 2, 3, 5, 7, 8. Multiply each data by 4.
Find the standard deviation of the new values.
Solution Given, n = 5
xi xi2 2
 Σx 
Σx i2
2 4 Standard deviation s = −  i 
n  n 
3 9
5 25 2
151  25 
7 49 s= −   = 30.2 − 25 = 5.2  2.28
8 64 5  5 
Σx i = 25 Σx i = 151
2

When we multiply each data by 4, we get the new values as 8, 12, 20, 28, 32.
xi xi2  Σx 
2
Σx i2
8 64 Standard deviation s = −  i 
n  n 
12 144
2
20 400 2416 100 
= −   = 483.2 − 400 = 83.2
28 784 5  5 
32 1024
Σx i = 100 Σx i = 2416
2 s = 16 × 5.2 = 4 5.2  9.12

We see that when we multiply each data by some fixed constant k the standard deviation
also get multiplied by k.
Example 8.10 Find the mean and variance of the first n natural numbers.
Sum of all the observations
Solution Mean x =
Number of observations
Σx i 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n n (n + 1)
= = =
n n 2 ×n
n +1
Mean x =
2
Σx i 2  Σx i  Σx i = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n 
2 2 2 2 2 2

Variance s 2
= −  
n  n  (Σx i )2 = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n )2 
 2

n (n + 1)(2n + 1)  n (n + 1)
= − 
6 ×n  2 ×n 
 
2n 2 + 3n + 1 n 2 + 2n + 1
= −
6 4
4n + 6n + 2 − 3n − 6n − 3 n 2 − 1
2 2
Variance s 2
= = .
12 12
Calculation of Standard deviation for grouped data
(i) Mean method
Σfi (x i − x )2
Standard deviation s = ( fi are frequency values of the
N
di = x i − x corresponding data points xi )
Σfidi 2 n
s= , where, N = ∑ fi
N i =1

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Example 8.11 48 students were asked to write the total number of hours per week they
spent on watching television. With this information find the standard deviation of hours
spent for watching television.
x 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
f 3 6 9 13 8 5 4
Solution
xi fi x i fi di = x i − x di 2 fidi 2 Mean
6 3 18 –3 9 27 Σxi fi 432
7 6 42 –2 4 24 x = = =9 ( N   fi )
N 48
8 9 72 –1 1 9
9 13 117 0 0 0 Standard deviation
10 8 80 1 1 8
11 5 55 2 4 20 Σfidi 2 124
s= = = 2.58
12 4 48 3 9 36 N 48
N = 48 Σx i fi = 432 Σdi = 0 2
Σfidi = 124 s  1.6

(ii)Assumed Mean method

Let x 1, x 2 , x 3 , ... x n be the given data with frequencies f1, f2 , f3 , ... fn respectively.
Let x be their mean and A be the assumed mean.
di = x i − A
2
Σfidi2  Σf d 
Standard deviation, s = −  i i 
N  N 
Example 8.12 The marks scored by the students in a slip test are given below. Find the
standard deviation of their marks.
x 4 6 8 10 12
f 7 3 5 9 5
Solution Let the assumed mean, A = 8
Standard deviation
xi fi di = x i − A fi di fidi 2
2
Σfidi 2  Σf d 
4 7 –4 –28 112 s= −  i i 
6 3 –2 –6 12 N  N 
8 5 0 0 0 2
240  4  240 × 29 − 16
10 9 2 18 36 = −  =
12 5 4 20 80 29  29  29 × 29

N = 29 6944
Σfidi = 4 Σfidi 2 = 240 s= ⇒ s  2.87
29 × 29
Calculation of Standard deviation for continuous frequency distribution
(i) Mean method
Σf (x − x )
2

Standard deviation s = i i
where, x i = Middle value of the i th class.
N
fi = Frequency of the i th class.

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(ii) Shortcut method (or) Step deviation method

To make the calculation simple, we provide the following formula. Let A be the assumed
mean, x i be the middle value of the ith class and c is the width of the class interval.
xi − A
di =
c
2
Σfidi2  Σfidi 
s =c× −  
N  N 
Example 8.13 Marks of the students in a particular subject of a class are given below.
Find its standard deviation.
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Number of students 8 12 17 14 9 7 4
Solution Let the assumed mean, A = 35, c = 10
Mid value
Marks
(x i )
fi di = xi–A di = x i − A fidi fidi 2
c
0-10 5 8 -30 –3 –24 72
10-20 15 12 -20 –2 –24 48
20-30 25 17 -10 –1 –17 17
30-40 35 14 0 0 0 0
40-50 45 9 10 1 9 9
50-60 55 7 20 2 14 28
60-70 65 4 30 3 12 36
N = 71 Σfidi = −30 Σfidi 2 = 210
2
Σfidi2  Σfidi 
Standard deviation s = c × −  
N  N 
2
210  30  210 900
s = 10 × − −  = 10 × −
71  71   71 5041
= 10 × 2.779 ; s  16.67
Thinking Corner
1. The standard deviation of a data is 2.8, if 5 is added to all the data values then the
new standard deviation is ___.
2. If S is the standard deviation of values p, q, r then standard deviation of p–3, q–3,
r–3 is ___.
Example 8.14 The mean and standard deviation of 15 observations are found to be 10 and 5
respectively. On rechecking it was found that one of the observation with value 8 was incorrect.
Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation if the correct observation value was 23?
Σx
Solution n = 15 , x = 10 , s = 5 ; x = ; Sx = 15 × 10 = 150
n
Wrong observation value = 8, Correct observation value = 23.
Correct total = 150 − 8 + 23 = 165
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165
Correct mean x = = 11
15
2
Σx 2  Σx 
Standard deviation s = −  
n  n 

Σx 2
− (10)
2
Incorrect value of s =5=
15
2
Σx Sx 2
25 = − 100 ⇒ = 125
15 15
Incorrect value of Sx 2 = 1875
Correct value of Sx 2 = 1875 − 82 + 232 = 2340
2340
− (11)
2
Correct standard deviation s =
15
s = 156 − 121 = 35 s  5.9

Exercise 8.1

1. Find the range and coefficient of range of the following data.

(i) 63, 89, 98, 125, 79, 108, 117, 68
(ii) 43.5, 13.6, 18.9, 38.4, 61.4, 29.8
2. If the range and the smallest value of a set of data are 36.8 and 13.4 respectively, then
find the largest value.
3. Calculate the range of the following data.
Income 400-450 450-500 500-550 550-600 600-650
Number of workers 8 12 30 21 6
4. A teacher asked the students to complete 60 pages of a record note book. Eight
students have completed only 32, 35, 37, 30, 33, 36, 35 and 37 pages. Find the
standard deviation of the pages completed by them.
5. Find the variance and standard deviation of the wages of 9 workers given below:
₹310, ₹290, ₹320, ₹280, ₹300, ₹290, ₹320, ₹310, ₹280.
6. A wall clock strikes the bell once at 1 o’ clock, 2 times at 2 o’ clock, 3 times at 3 o’
clock and so on. How many times will it strike in a particular day. Find the standard
deviation of the number of strikes the bell make a day.
7. Find the standard deviation of first 21 natural numbers.
8. If the standard deviation of a data is 4.5 and if each value of the data is decreased by
5, then find the new standard deviation.
9. If the standard deviation of a data is 3.6 and each value of the data is divided by 3,
then find the new variance and new standard deviation.
10. The rainfall recorded in various places of five districts in a week are given below.
Find its standard deviation.
Rainfall (in mm) 45 50 55 60 65 70
Number of places 5 13 4 9 5 4
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11. In a study about viral fever, the number of people affected in a town were noted as
Find its standard deviation.
Age in years 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Number of people affected 3 5 16 18 12 7 4
12. The measurements of the diameters (in cms) of the plates prepared in a factory are
given below. Find its standard deviation.
Diameter (cm) 21-24 25-28 29-32 33-36 37-40 41-44
Number of plates 15 18 20 16 8 7
13. The time taken by 50 students to complete a 100 meter race are given below. Find its
standard deviation.
Time taken (sec) 8.5-9.5 9.5-10.5 10.5-11.5 11.5-12.5 12.5-13.5
Number of students 6 8 17 10 9
14. For a group of 100 candidates the mean and standard deviation of their marks were
found to be 60 and 15 respectively. Later on it was found that the scores 45 and 72
were wrongly entered as 40 and 27. Find the correct mean and standard deviation.
15. The mean and variance of seven observations are 8 and 16 respectively. If five of
these are 2, 4, 10, 12 and 14, then find the remaining two observations.
8.3 Coefficient of Variation
Comparison of two data in terms of measures of central tendencies and dispersions
in some cases will not be meaningful, because the variables in the data may not have same
units of measurement.
For example consider the two data
Weight Price
Mean 8 kg ₹ 85
Standard deviation 1.5 kg ₹ 21.60
Here we cannot compare the standard deviations 1.5kg and ₹21.60. For comparing
two or more data for corresponding changes the relative measure of standard deviation,
called “Coefficient of variation” is used.
Coefficient of variation of a data is obtained by dividing the standard deviation by the
arithmetic mean. It is usually expressed in terms of percentage. This concept is suggested
by one of the most prominent Statistician Karl Pearson.
s
Thus, coefficient of variation of first data (C.V1) = 1 × 100%
x1
s2
coefficient of variation of second data (C.V2) = × 100%
x2
The data with lesser coefficient of variation is more consistent or stable than the other data.
Consider the two data
A 500 900 800 900 700 400 Mean Standard deviation
B 300 540 480 540 420 240 700A 191.5
420B 114.9
If we compare the mean and standard deviation of the two data, we think that the two
datas are entirely different. But mean and standard deviation of B are 60% of that of A.
Because of the smaller mean the smaller standard deviation led to the misinterpretation.
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s
To compare the dispersion of two data, coefficient of variation = × 100%
x
191.5
The coefficient of variation of A = × 100% = 27.4%
700
114.9
The coefficient of variation of B = × 100% = 27.4%
420
Thus the two data have equal coefficient of variation. Since the data have equal
coefficient of variation values, we can conclude that one data depends on the other. But
the data values of B are exactly 60% of the corresponding data values of A. So they are
very much related. Thus, we get a confusing situation.
To get clear picture of the given data, we can find their coefficient of variation. This
is why we need coefficient of variation.

Progress Check

1. Coefficient of variation is a relative measure of .

2. When the standard deviation is divided by the mean we get .
3. The coefficient of variation depends upon and .
4. If the mean and standard deviation of a data are 8 and 2 respectively then the
coefficient of variation is .
5. When comparing two data, the data with coefficient of variation is
inconsistent.
Example 8.15 The mean of a data is 25.6 and its coefficient of variation is 18.75. Find the
standard deviation.
Solution Mean x = 25.6 , Coefficient of variation, C.V. = 18.75
s
Coefficient of variation, C.V. = × 100%
x
s
18.75 = × 100 ⇒ s = 4.8
25.6
Example 8.16 The following table gives the values of mean and variance of heights and
weights of the 10th standard students of a school.
Height Weight
Mean 155 cm 46.50 kg Which is more varying than the other?
Variance 72.25 cm2 28.09 kg
Solution For comparing two data, first we have to find their coefficient of variations
Mean x 1 = 155cm, variance s12 = 72.25 cm2
Therefore standard deviation s1 = 8.5
s1
Coefficient of variation C .V1 = × 100%
x1
8.5
C .V1 = × 100% = 5.48% (for heights)
155
Mean x 2 = 46.50 kg, Variance s22 = 28.09 kg2
Standard deviation s2 = 5.3 kg
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s2
Coefficient of variation C .V2 = × 100 %
x2
5. 3
C .V2 = × 100 % = 11.40 % (for weights)
46.50
C.V1 = 5.48 % and C.V2 = 11.40 %
Height is more consistent.

Exercise 8.2
1. The standard deviation and mean of a data are 6.5 and 12.5 respectively. Find the
coefficient of variation.
2. The standard deviation and coefficient of variation of a data are 1.2 and 25.6
respectively. Find the value of mean.
3. If the mean and coefficient of variation of a data are 15 and 48 respectively, then find
the value of standard deviation.
4. If n = 5 , x = 6 , Σx 2 = 765 , then calculate the coefficient of variation.
5. Find the coefficient of variation of 24, 26, 33, 37, 29, 31.
6. The time taken (in minutes) to complete a homework by 8 students in a day are given
by 38, 40, 47, 44, 46, 43, 49, 53. Find the coefficient of variation.
7. The total marks scored by two students Sathya and Vidhya in 5 subjects are 460 and 480
with standard deviation 4.6 and 2.4 respectively. Who is more consistent in performance?
8. The mean and standard deviation of marks obtained by 40 students of a class in three
subjects Mathematics, Science and Social Science are given below.
Subject Mean SD Which of the three subjects shows
Mathematics 56 12 more consistent and which shows less
Science 65 14 consistent in marks?
Social Science 60 10
8.4 Probability
Few centuries ago, gambling and gaming were considered
to be fashionable and became widely popular among many men.
As the games became more complicated, players were interested
in knowing the chances of winning or losing a game from a
given situation. In 1654, Chevalier de Mere, a French nobleman
with a taste of gambling, wrote a letter to one of the prominent
mathematician of the time, Blaise Pascal, seeking his advice about
how much dividend he would get for a gambling game played by
paying money. Pascal worked this problem mathematically but Blaise Pascal
thought of sharing this problem and see how his good friend and
mathematician Pierre de Fermat could solve. Their subsequent correspondences on the
issue represented the birth of Probability Theory as a new branch of mathematics.
Random Experiment
A random experiment is an experiment in which
(i) The set of all possible outcomes are known (ii)Exact outcome is not known.
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Example : 1. Tossing a coin. 2. Rolling a die.

Sample space
The set of all possible outcomes in a random experiment is called
a sample space. It is generally denoted by S.
Example : When we roll a die, the possible outcomes are the
face numbers 1,2,3,4,5,6 of the die. Therefore the sample space is
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} Fig. 8.2
Sample point Each element of a sample space is called a sample point.
8.4.1 Tree diagram
Tree diagram allow us to see visually all possible outcomes of an random experiment. Each
branch in a tree diagram represent a possible outcome.
Illustration
1
2 (i) When we throw a die, then from the tree diagram (Fig.8.3),
3 the sample space can be written as S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
4 H
Fig. 8.3 5 H
6 T
(ii) When we toss two coins, then from the tree diagram (Fig.8.4), H
T
the sample space can be written as S={HH,HT,TH,TT} Fig. 8.4 T

Progress Check
1. An experiment in which a particular outcome cannot be predicted is called _______.
2. The set of all possible outcomes is called _______.

Example 8.17 Express the sample space for rolling two dice using tree diagram.
Solution When we roll two dice, since each die contain 6 faces marked with 1,2,3,4,5,6
the tree diagram will look like
1
Hence, the sample space can be written as
2
1 3
4 S= {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
5
6
1
2
2 3 (2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
4
5
6
1
2
3 3
4 (3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
5
6
1
2
4 3 (4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
4
5
6
1
2
5 3 (5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
4
5
6
1
2
3
6 4 (6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6)}
5
6

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Event : In a random experiment, each possible outcome is called an

event. Thus, an event will be a subset of the sample space.
Example : Getting two heads when we toss two coins is an event.
Trial : Performing an experiment once is called a trial.
Example : When we toss a coin thrice, then each toss of a coin is a trial.

Events Explanation Example

Equally likely Two or more events are said to be Head and tail are equally likely
events equally likely if each one of them events in tossing a coin.
has an equal chance of occurring.
Certain events In an experiment, the event When we roll a die, the event of
which surely occur is called getting any natural number from
certain event. one to six is a certain event.
Impossible events In an experiment if an event When we toss two coins, the
has no scope to occur then it is event of getting three heads is
called an impossible event. an impossible event.
Mutually Two or more events are said to When we roll a die the events of
exclusive events be mutually exclusive if they getting odd numbers and even
don’t have common sample numbers are mutually exclusive
points. i.e., events A, B are said events.
to be mutually exclusive if
A∩B = f.
Exhaustive events The collection of events whose When we toss a coin twice, the
union is the whole sample space collection of events of getting
are called exhaustive events. two heads, exactly one head, no
head are exhaustive events.
Complementary The complement of an event A is When we roll a die, the event
events the event representing collection ‘rolling a 5 or 6’ and the event
of sample points not in A. It is of rolling a 1, 2, 3 or 4 are
denoted A¢ or Ac or A complementary events.
The event A and its complement
A¢ are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive.

Note

Elementary event: If an event E In 1713, Bernoulli was the first to

consists of only one outcome then it recognise the wide-range applicability of
is called an elementary event. probability in fields outside gambling

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8.4.2 Probability of an Event

In a random experiment, let S be the sample space and E Í S . Then if E is an event,
the probability of occurrence of E is defined as
Number of outcomes favourable to occurence of E n (E )
P (E ) = =
Number of all posssible outcomes n (S )
This way of defining the probability is applicable only to finite sample spaces. So in
this chapter, we will be dealing problems only with finite sample spaces.

Note

n(E )
¾¾ P (E ) =
n(S )
n(S )
¾¾ P (S ) = = 1 . The probability of sure event is 1.
n(S )
n(f) 0
¾¾ P (f) = = = 0 . The probability of impossible event is 0.
n(s) n(s )

¾¾ Since E is a subset of S and f is a subset of any set,

f ÍE ÍS
P (f) £ P (E ) £ P (S)
0 ≤ P (E ) ≤ 1
Therefore, the probability value always lies from 0 to 1.
¾¾ The complement event of E is E .
m
Let P (E ) = (where m is the number of favourable outcomes of E and n is
n
the total number of possible outcomes).
Number of outcomes unfavourable to occurance of E
P (E ) =
Number of all possible outcomes
n −m m le
P (E ) = = 1− r ab
ou –m
n n
n fav n ble
u ra
P (E ) = 1 − P(E) v ou
fa m
¾¾ P(E) + P(E) =1

Progress Check

Which of the following values cannot be a probability of an event?

(a) –0.0001 (b) 0.5 (c) 1.001 (d) 1
1- 5 3 +1
(e) 20% (f) 0.253 (g) (h)
2 4

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Example 8.18 A bag contains 5 blue balls and 4 green balls. A ball is drawn at random
from the bag. Find the probability that the ball drawn is (i) blue (ii) not blue.
Solution Total number of possible outcomes n(S) = 5 + 4 = 9
(i) Let A be the event of getting a blue ball.
Number of favourable outcomes for the event A. Therefore, n(A) = 5
n(A) 5
Probability that the ball drawn is blue. Therefore, P (A) = =
n(S ) 9
5 4
(ii) A will be the event of not getting a blue ball. So P ( A) = 1 − P ( A) = 1 −
=
9 9
Example 8.19 Two dice are rolled. Find the probability that the sum of outcomes is
(i) equal to 4 (ii) greater than 10 (iii) less than 13
Solution When we roll two dice, the sample space is given by
S = { (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
(6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6) }; n (S ) = 36
(i) Let A be the event of getting the sum of outcome values equal to 4.
Then A = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}; n(A) = 3 .
n(A) 3 1
Probability of getting the sum of outcomes equal to 4 is P (A) = = =
n(S ) 36 12
(ii) Let B be the event of getting the sum of outcome values greater than 10.
Then B = {(5,6),(6,5),(6,6)}; n(B ) = 3
n(B ) 3 1
Probability of getting the sum of outcomes greater than 10 is P (B ) = = =
n(S ) 36 12
(iii) Let C be the event of getting the sum of outcomes less than 13. Here all the
outcomes have the sum value less than 13. Hence C = S .
Therefore, n(C ) = n(S ) = 36
n(C ) 36
Probability of getting the total value less than 13 is P (C ) = = = 1.
n(S ) 36

Example 8.20 Two coins are tossed together. What is the probability of getting different
faces on the coins?
Solution When two coins are tossed together, the sample space is
S = {HH , HT ,TH ,TT } ; n(S ) = 4
Let A be the event of getting different faces on the coins.
A = {HT ,TH } ; n(A) = 2
n(A) 2 1
Probability of getting different faces on the coins is P (A) = = =
n(S ) 4 2
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Example 8.21 What is the probability that a leap year selected at random will contain 53
saturdays.
Solution A leap year has 366 days. So it has 52 full weeks and 2 days. 52 Saturdays must
be in 52 full weeks.
The possible chances for the remaining two days will be the sample space.

S = {Sun-Mon, Mon-Tue, Tue-Wed, Wed-Thu, Thu-Fri, Fri-Sat, Sat-Sun}

n(S ) = 7 Thinking Corner
Let A be the event of getting 53rd Saturday. What will be the probability that a non-
Then A = {Fri-Sat, Sat-Sun}; n(A) = 2 leap year will have 53 Saturdays?
n(A) 2
Probability of getting 53 Saturdays in a leap year is P (A) = =
n(S ) 7
Example 8.22 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed simultaneously. Find the probability
that the die shows an odd number and the coin shows a head.
Coin
Solution Sample space Die H
1
S = {1H,1T,2H,2T,3H,3T,4H,4T,5H,5T,6H,6T}; T
H
n(S ) = 12 2 T
Let A be the event of getting an odd number and a head. 3
H
T
Outcomes
A = {1H, 3H, 5H}; n(A) = 3 4
H
T
n(A) 3 1

P (A) = = = 5
H
n(S ) 12 4 T
H
6 T

Activity 3 Activity 4
There are three routes R1, R2 and R3 Collect the details and find the probabilities of
from Madhu’s home to her place of (i) selecting a boy from your class.
(ii) selecting a girl from your class.
work. There are four parking lots P1,
(iii) selecting a student from tenth standard
P2 , P3 , P4 and three entrances B1, B2 , B3
in your school.
into the office building. There are two (iv) selecting a boy from tenth standard in
elevators E1 and E2 to her floor. Using your school.
the tree diagram explain how many ways (v) selecting a girl from tenth standard in
can she reach her office? your school.
Example 8.23 A bag contains 6 green balls, some black and red balls. Number of black
balls is as twice as the number of red balls. Probability of getting a green ball is thrice the
probability of getting a red ball. Find (i) number of black balls (ii) total number of balls.
Solution Number of green balls is n(G ) = 6
Let number of red balls is n(R) = x
Therefore, number of black balls is n(B ) = 2x
Total number of balls n(S ) = 6 + x + 2x = 6 + 3x
It is given that, P (G ) = 3 × P (R)
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6 x
= 3×
6 + 3x 6 + 3x
3x = 6 gives, x = 2
(i) Number of black balls = 2 × 2 = 4
(ii) Total number of balls = 6 + (3 × 2) = 12
Example 8.24 A game of chance consists of spinning an arrow which is equally likely to
come to rest pointing to one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, …12. What is the probability that it
will point to (i) 7 (ii) a prime number (iii) a composite number? 11 12 1
10
Solution Sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}; n(S) = 12 2

9 3
(i) Let A be the event of resting in 7. n(A)=1
8 4
n(A) 1

P (A) = = 7 6
5
n(S ) 12
Fig. 8.5
(ii) Let B be the event that the arrow will come to rest in a prime number.
B = {2,3,5,7,11}; n(B ) = 5
n(B ) 5
P (B ) = =
n(S ) 12
(iii) Let C be the event that arrow will come to rest in a composite number.
C = {4,6,8,9,10,12}; n(C ) =6
Thinking Corner
n(C ) 6 1

P (C ) = = = What is the complement
n(S ) 12 2
event of an impossible event?
Exercise 8.3

1. Write the sample space for tossing three coins using tree diagram.
2. Write the sample space for selecting two balls at a time from a bag containing 6 balls
numbered 1 to 6 (using tree diagram).
3. If A is an event of a random experiment such that P(A) : P (A) =17:15 and n(S)=640
then find (i) P (A) (ii) n(A).
4. A coin is tossed thrice. What is the probability of getting two consecutive tails?
5. At a fete, cards bearing numbers 1 to 1000, one number on one card are put in a box.
Each player selects one card at random and that card is not replaced. If the selected
card has a perfect square number greater than 500, the player wins a prize. What is the
probability that (i) the first player wins a prize (ii) the second player wins a prize, if the
first has won?
6. A bag contains 12 blue balls and x red balls. If one ball is drawn at random (i) what is the
probability that it will be a red ball? (ii) If 8 more red balls are put in the bag, and if the
probability of drawing a red ball will be twice that of the probability in (i), then find x.
7. Two unbiased dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting
(i) a doublet (equal numbers on both dice) (ii) the product as a prime number
(iii) the sum as a prime number (iv) the sum as 1
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8. Three fair coins are tossed together. Find the probability of getting
(i) all heads (ii) atleast one tail
(iii) atmost one head (iv) atmost two tails

9. A bag contains 5 red balls, 6 white balls, 7 green balls, 8 black balls. One ball is drawn
at random from the bag. Find the probability that the ball drawn is
(i) white (ii) black or red
(iii) not white (iv) neither white nor black
10. In a box there are 20 non-defective and some defective bulbs. If the probability that
3
a bulb selected at random from the box found to be defective is then, find the
8
number of defective bulbs.
4 feet
11. Some boys are playing a game, in which the stone thrown
by them landing in a circular region (given in the figure) is

3 feet
considered as win and landing other than the circular region 1 feet

is considered as loss. What is the probability to win the game?

(π = 3.14)
12. Two customers Priya and Amuthan are visiting a particular shop in the same week
(Monday to Saturday). Each is equally likely to visit the shop on any one day as on another
day. What is the probability that both will visit the shop on
(i) the same day (ii) different days (iii) consecutive days?
13. In a game, the entry fee is ₹ 150. The game consists of tossing a coin 3
times. Dhana bought a ticket for entry . If one or two heads show, she
gets her entry fee back. If she throws 3 heads, she receives double the
entry fees. Otherwise she will lose. Find the probability that she (i)
gets double entry fee (ii) just gets her entry fee (iii) loses the entry fee.
8.5 Algebra of Events
In a random experiment, let S be the sample space. Let A Í S and B Í S be the
events in S. We say that
(i) (A Ç B ) is an event that (ii) (A È B ) is an event that (iii) A is an event that
occurs only when both occurs when either one occurs only when A
A and B occurs. of A or B occurs. doesn’t occur.
S S S
A B A B
A

A
AÇB AÈB
Fig. 8.6(a) Fig. 8.6(c)
Fig. 8.6(b)

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Note
� A∩A = f
� A∪A =S
� If A, B are mutually exclusive events, then P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B )
� P (Union of mutually exclusive events) = ∑ ( Probability of events)

Thorem 1
If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment, then prove that
S
(i) P (A Ç B ) = P(only A) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B ) A B

(ii) P (A Ç B ) = P(only B) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
Proof
(i) By Distributive property of sets,
1. (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B ) = A ∩ (B ∪ B ) = A ∩ S = A AÇB
2. (A ∩ B ) ∩ (A ∩ B ) = A ∩ (B ∩ B ) = A ∩ f = f Fig. 8.7

Therefore, the events A Ç B and A Ç B are mutually exclusive whose union is A.

Therefore, P (A) = P (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B )
P (A) = P (A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ B )
S
Therefore, P (A ∩ B ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B ) A B

That is, P (A Ç B ) =P(only A) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B )

(ii) By Distributive property of sets,
1. (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B ) = (A ∪ A) ∩ B = S ∩ B = B
Fig. 8.8
2. (A Ç B ) Ç (A Ç B ) = (A ∩ A) ∩ B = f ∩ B = f AÇB

Therefore, the events A Ç B and A Ç B are mutually exclusive whose union is B.

P (B ) = P (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B )
P (B ) = P (A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ B )
Therefore, P (A Ç B ) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
That is, P (A Ç B ) = P(only B) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )

Progress Check

1. P(only A)= ________. 2. P (A ∩ B ) = ________.

3. A Ç B and A Ç B are _______ events.
4. P (A ∩ B ) = ________.
5. If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P (A ∩ B ) = _______.
6. If P (A ∩ B ) = 0.3, P (A  B ) = 0.45 then P(B) =_______.

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8.6 Addition Theorem of Probability

(i) If A and B are any two events then
P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
(ii) If A,B and C are any three events then
P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C )
−P (A ∩ C ) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
Proof
(i) Let A and B be any two events of a random experiment with sample space S.
From the Venn diagram, we have the events only A, A Ç B and only B are mutually
exclusive and their union is A È B
Therefore, P (A È B ) = P[ (only A) ∪(A ∩ B ) ∪ (only B) ]
= P(only A) +P (A ∩ B ) + P(only B)
= [P (A) − P (A ∩ B )] + P (A ∩ B ) + [P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )]
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
(ii) Let A, B, C are any three events of a random experiment with sample space S.
S
Let D = B ∪C A B

P (A È B È C ) = P (A ∪ D )
= P (A) + P (D ) − P (A ∩ D )
= P (A) + P (B ∪ C ) − P[A ∩ (B ∪ C )]
only A AÇB only B
= P (A) + P (B) + P (C ) − P (B ∩ C ) − P[(A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ C )] Fig. 8.9
= P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (B ∩ C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (A ∩ C ) + P[(A ∩ B ) ∩ (A ∩ C )]
P (A È B È C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C )
−P (C ∩ A) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )

Activity 5
The addition theorem of probability can be written easily using the following way.
P (A È B ) = S1 − S 2
P (A È B È C ) = S1 − S 2 + S 3
Where S1 ® Sum of probability of events taken one at a time.
S 2 ® Sum of probability of events taken two at a time.
S 3 ® Sum of probability of events taken three at a time.
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) −P (A ∩ B )
S1 S2
P (A È B È C ) =
P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) −(P (A ∩ B ) + P (B ∩ C ) + P (A ∩ C )) +P (A ∩ B ∩ C )

S1 S 2 S 3
Find the probability of P (A È B È C È D ) using the above way. Can you find a
pattern for the number of terms in the formula?
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Example 8.25 If P(A) = 0.37 , P(B) = 0.42 , P (A ∩ B ) = 0.09 then find P (A È B ) .

Solution P(A) = 0.37 , P(B) = 0.42 , P (A ∩ B ) = 0.09
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )

P (A È B ) = 0.37 + 0.42 − 0.09 = 0.7

Example 8.26 A flower is selected at random from a basket containing 80 yellow, 70 red
and 50 white flowers. Find the probability of selecting a yellow or red flower?
Solution:
n(Sn()S=)n=
Total number of flowers 80 )+=+
(S80 70S+)++
(70
n80 50 =+=
50
=7080 200
200
70=+200
+50 50 = 200
Thinking Corner
n(Yn()Y ) 8080
No.
n(S )of=yellow flowers
80 + 70 + 50n=
(Y ()Y=)n=
n200 80 )∴=P
(Y80 Y
(Y ∴=
P ())Y
n∴(80 =)P= =n(Y
(Y )∴=P
80
(Y ) 80
=) ==n(Y ) = 80
n(Sn()S )n(200 P (A ∪ B ) + P (A ∩ B )
S )200n(200
S ) 200
is _____.
n(Y ) 80 n (Rn ()R ) 70 70
n(Y )of=red
No. 80 ∴ P (Y ) =n(R
flowers ) ==70 ∴ P∴ R
n((70 ∴==
R())R =n= (R) n(R 70) 70
n(nS()R)n= R70
(200)= P )P=(70
R) =P
n(Sn∴ ()S )n(R ==
)200
200
(S ) n(200
=
S ) 200
nP(R(Y
) (Y
P ∪ R
∪
P70
)
(R
Y=) P
=
∪ (
RY
P) ()
Y=+)P+P
(Y(R
P ) )
(
+R )
P ( R )
Y
n(and
R) =R70are
∴ Pmutually
(R) = exclusive
= P (Y ∪ R) = P (Y ) + P (R)
n(S ) 200 8080 7070 150 3 3 150
∪P = 80 = 80 70150 = 150
70 3 3
Probability
P (Y ∪ R) =ofP (Y ) + PP((R
drawing Y
Peither
)(Y R
∪()Y
R =PR(Y
a)∪yellow)+=∪+or R ) + =flower
red
= += = == =
200 200
200 200 200 200
200200 2004
2004 2004 4
80 70 150 3
P (Y ∪ R) = + = =
200 200 200 4
Example 8.27 Two dice are rolled together. Find the probability of getting a doublet or
sum of faces as 4.
Solution When two dice are rolled together, there will be 6×6 = 36 outcomes. Let S be
the sample space. Then n(S ) = 36
Let A be the event of getting a doublet and B be the event of getting face sum 4.
Then A = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5),(6,6)}
B = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}
\ A Ç B = {(2,2)}
Then, n(A) = 6 , n(B ) = 3 , n(A ∩ B ) = 1 .
n(A) 6
P (A) = =
n(S ) 36
n(B ) 3
P (B ) = =
n(S ) 36
n(A ∩ B ) 1
P (A Ç B ) = =
n(S ) 36
\ P (getting a doublet or a total of 4) = P (A È B )
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
6 3 1 8 2
= + − = =
36 36 36 36 9
2
Hence, the required probability is .
9

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1 1 1
Example 8.28 If A and B are two events such that P (A) = , P (B ) = and P(A and B)= ,
4 2 8
find (i) P (A or B) (ii) P(not A and not B).
Solution (i) P (A or B) = P (A È B )
= P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )

1 1 1 5
P (A or B) = + − =
4 2 8 8
(ii) P (not A and not B) = P (A∩ B )

= P (A ∪ B )

= 1 − P (A ∪ B )
5 3
P(not A and not B) = 1 − =
8 8
Example 8.29 In an apartment, in selecting a house from door numbers 1 to 100 randomly,
find the probability of getting the door number of the house to be an even number or a
perfect square number or a perfect cube number
Solution:
Total number of houses n(S ) =100
Let A be the event of getting door number even.
A = {2, 4, 6, 8..........100}
n(A) = 50
n(A) 50
P (A) = =
n(S ) 100
Let B be the event of getting door number perfect square.
B = {1, 4, 9,16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}
∴ n(B ) = 10
n(B ) 10
P (B ) = =
n(S ) 100
Let C be the event of getting door number perfect cube.
C = {1, 8,27, 64}
∴ n(C ) = 4
n(C ) 4
P (C ) = =
n(S ) 100
5
P (A ∩ B ) = P [getting even perfect square number] =
100
2
P (B ∩ C ) = P [getting a perfect square and perfect cube number] =
100
2
P (A ∩ C ) = P [getting even perfect cube number] =
100
1
P (A ∩ B ∩ C ) = P [getting even perfect square and perfect cube number] =
100
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Required probability
P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C ) − P (A ∩ C ) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
50 10 4 5 2 2 1 65 9 56 14
= + + − − − + = − = =
1000 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 25
Example 8.30 In a class of 50 students, 28 opted for NCC, 30 opted for NSS and 18 opted
both NCC and NSS. One of the students is selected at random. Find the probability that
(i) The student opted for NCC but not NSS.
(ii) The student opted for NSS but not NCC.
(iii) The student opted for exactly one of them.
Solution Total number of students n(S ) = 50 .
Let A and B be the events of students opted for NCC and NSS respectively.
n(A) = 28 , n(B ) = 30 , n(A ∩ B ) = 18
n(A) 28 n(B ) 30
P (A) = = ; P (B ) = =
n(S ) 50 n(S ) 50
n(A ∩ B ) 18
P (A Ç B ) = =
n(S ) 50
(i) Probability of the students opted for NCC but not NSS
28 18 1
P (A Ç B ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B ) = − =
50 50 5
(ii) Probability of the students opted for NSS but not NCC.
30 18 6
P (A Ç B ) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B ) = − =
50 50 25
(iii) Probability of the students opted for exactly one of them
= P[(A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B )]
1 6 11
= P (A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ B ) = + =
5 25 25
(Note that (A Ç B ),(A Ç B ) are mutually exclusive events)

Example 8.31 A and B are two candidates seeking admission to IIT. The probability that
A getting selected is 0.5 and the probability that both A and B getting selected is 0.3.
Prove that the probability of B being selected is atmost 0.8.
Solution P (A) = 0.5 , P (A ∩ B ) = 0.3
We have P (A È B ) £ 1

P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B ) £ 1

0.5 + P (B ) − 0.3 £ 1
P (B ) ≤ 1 − 0.2
P (B ) £ 0.8

Therefore, probability of B getting selected is atmost 0.8.

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Exercise 8.4

2 2 1
1. If P (A) =, P (B ) = , P (A ∪ B ) = then find P (A Ç B ) .
3 5 3
2. A and B are two events such that, P (A) = 0.42, P (B ) = 0.48 , and P (A ∩ B ) = 0.16 .
Find (i) P (not A)
, (ii) P (not B)
, (iii) P (A or B)
,

3. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events of a random experiment and

P(not A) = 0.45, P (A È B ) =0.65, then find P (B ) .
4. The probability that atleast one of A and B occur is 0.6. If A and B occur
simultaneously with probability 0.2, then find P (A) + P (B ) .
5. The probability of happening of an event A is 0.5 and that of B is 0.3. If A and B are
mutually exclusive events, then find the probability that neither A nor B happen.

6. Two dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting an even number on the first
die or a total of face sum 8.
7. A box contains cards numbered 3, 5, 7, 9, … 35, 37. A card is drawn at random
from the box. Find the probability that the drawn card have either multiples of 7 or
a prime number.
8. Three unbiased coins are tossed once. Find the probability of getting atmost 2 tails
or atleast 2 heads.
3
9. The probability that a person will get an electrification contract is and the
5 5
probability that he will not get plumbing contract is . The probability of getting
5 8
atleast one contract is
. What is the probability that he will get both?
7
10. In a town of 8000 people, 1300 are over 50 years and 3000 are females. It is known
that 30% of the females are over 50 years. What is the probability that a chosen
individual from the town is either a female or over 50 years?
11. A coin is tossed thrice. Find the probability of getting exactly two heads or atleast
one tail or two consecutive heads.
12. If A, B, C are any three events such that probability of B is twice as that of probability
1
of A and probability of C is thrice as that of probability of A and if P (A ∩ B ) = ,
6
1 1 9 1
P (B ∩ C ) = , P (A ∩ C ) = , P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = , P (A ∩ B ∩ C ) = , then find
4 8 10 15
P (A), P (B ) and P (C ) ?

13. In a class of 35, students are numbered from 1 to 35. The ratio of boys to girls is 4:3.
The roll numbers of students begin with boys and end with girls. Find the probability
that a student selected is either a boy with prime roll number or a girl with composite
roll number or an even roll number.
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Exercise 8.5

Multiple choice questions

1. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion?

(A) Range (B) Standard deviation
(C) Arithmetic mean (D) Variance
2. The range of the data 8, 8, 8, 8, 8. . . 8 is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 8 (D) 3
3. The sum of all deviations of the data from its mean is
(A) Always positive (B) always negative (C) zero (D) non-zero integer
4. The mean of 100 observations is 40 and their standard deviation is 3. The sum of
squares of all observations is
(A) 40000 (B) 160900 (C) 160000 (D) 30000
5. Variance of first 20 natural numbers is
(A) 32.25 (B) 44.25 (C) 33.25 (D) 30
6. The standard deviation of a data is 3. If each value is multiplied by 5 then the new
variance is
(A) 3 (B) 15 (C) 5 (D) 225
7. If the standard deviation of x, y, z is p then the standard deviation of 3x + 5 , 3y + 5 ,
3z + 5 is
(A) 3p + 5 (B) 3p (C) p + 5 (D) 9p + 15
8. If the mean and coefficient of variation of a data are 4 and 87.5% then the standard
deviation is
(A) 3.5 (B) 3 (C) 4.5 (D) 2.5
9. Which of the following is incorrect?
(A) P (A) > 1 (B) 0 £ P (A) £ 1 (C) P(f) = 0 (D) P (A) + P (A) = 1
10. The probability a red marble selected at random from a jar containing p red, q blue
and r green marbles is
q p p +q p +r
(A) (B) (C) (D)
p +q +r p +q +r p +q +r p +q +r

11. A page is selected at random from a book. The probability that the digit at units place
of the page number chosen is less than 7 is
3 7 3 7
(A) (B) (C) (D)
10 10 9 9
x
12. The probability of getting a job for a person is . If the probability of not getting the
3
2
job is then the value of x is
3
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D) 1.5

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13. Kamalam went to play a lucky draw contest. 135 tickets of the lucky draw were sold.
1
If the probability of Kamalam winning is , then the number of tickets bought by
9
Kamalam is
(A) 5 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) 20
14. If a letter is chosen at random from the English alphabets {a,b,...,z}, then the
probability that the letter chosen precedes x
12 1 23 3
(A) (B) (C)
(D)
13 13 26 26
15. A purse contains 10 notes of ₹2000, 15 notes of ₹500, and 25 notes of ₹200. One note
is drawn at random. What is the probability that the note is either a ₹500 note or
₹200 note?
1 3 2 4
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 10 3 5

Unit Exercise - 8

1. The mean of the following frequency distribution is 62.8 and the sum of all frequencies
is 50. Compute the missing frequencies f1 and f2 .
Class Interval 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120
Frequency 5 f1 10 f2 7 8
2. The diameter of circles (in mm) drawn in a design are given below.
Diameters 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52
Number of circles 15 17 21 22 25
Calculate the standard deviation.
3. The frequency distribution is given below.
x k 2k 3k 4k 5k 6k
f 2 1 1 1 1 1
In the table, k is a positive integer, has a varience of 160. Determine the value of k.
4. The standard deviation of some temperature data in degree celsius (oC) is 5. If the
data were converted into degree Farenheit (oF) then what is the variance?
2
5. If for a distribution, ∑ (x − 5) = 3, ∑ (x − 5) = 43, and total number of observations
is 18, find the mean and standard deviation.
6. Prices of peanut packets in various places of two cities are given below. In which city,
prices were more stable?
Prices in city A 20 22 19 23 16
Prices in city B 10 20 18 12 15
7. If the range and coefficient of range of the data are 20 and 0.2 respectively, then find
the largest and smallest values of the data.
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