Subject: RESEARCH 202: QUANTITATIVE

Department: ABM
Duration: 10 weeks

n: 4 wee
 RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE 3: QUANTITATIVE
COURSE OUTLINE
3rd Quarter, 2nd Semester SY 2020-2021

Textbook: 똘ᇔ览ͺ炔ͺ撈 ᇔ F똘N 1

Practical Research 2
Bᇔ览览oN, J똘 炔똘 S. (2017)
C&E ubl炔 h炔ͺ撈, Iͺ : h炔l炔pp炔ͺ똘

Grading System: Semestral Grade =

Midterm Grade Final Grade
(50 %) (50 %)
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Instructor/s:
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SN똘phᇔͺy Mᇔ똘 D. Dᇔdulᇔ dᇔdulᇔ@xu.똘du.ph
Rᇔy M炔 hᇔ똘l S. Hom똘览똘 览hom똘览똘 @xu.똘du.ph
Mᇔ览炔 ᇔ览 C. Ob 炔omᇔ m ob 炔omᇔ@xu.똘du.ph

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Written Works:
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A 炔撈ͺm똘ͺN o览
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Performance Tasks:
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N炔m똘 炔 撈炔v똘ͺ o NhᇔN Nud똘ͺN ᇔͺ p览똘pᇔ览똘 w똘ll.

Quarterly Assessment:
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Non-regular Activity:
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Study/Activity group and Activity Partner:

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SUBJECT DESCRIPTION
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WEEK DATE ESSENTIAL TOPICS Assessment

1 December 1 -4 Lesson 5: Finding Answers Crafting of the Research

Through Data Collection Instrument

Quiz
2 December 7 -11 Lesson 5: Finding Answers Data Gathering
Through Data Collection

3 December 14 -18 Lesson 5: Finding Answers Data Gathering

Through Data Collection

4 January 4 -8 Lesson 5: Finding Answers Presentation and

Through Data Collection interpretation of data using
statistical techniques.

Quiz

5 January 11 -15 MIDTERM EXAM WEEK

6 January 18 - 22 Lesson 5: Finding Answers Presentation and

Through Data Collection interpretation of data using
statistical techniques.

Mini Task 1: Chapter 4

7 January 25 - 29 Lesson 6: Reporting And Sharing Formulating conclusions and

Findings recommendations

Quiz

8 February 1 - 5 Lesson 6: Reporting And Sharing Formulating conclusions and

Findings recommendations

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 0

 Mini Task 2: Chapter 5

9 February 8 - 12 PT WEEK Oral Presentation

10 February 15 - 19 FINAL EXAM WEEK Submission of PT:

Research Paper
* anges in te scedu e i be announced by te instructor

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‘What can be done today must be done today. Avoid delays.’

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 1

 RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE 203: QUANTITATIVE
GRADE 12 ABM:
MODULE NO. 1
Title: Finding Answers Through Data Collection
and
Reporting And Sharing Findings
Duration: 10 weeks

LESSONS OVERVIEW

AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM!

Welcome to our first module! In this module, you will learn how to carry out the step by step plan that you
wrote in your methodology, adjust for changing and unforeseen circumstances on the ground and embark on
the actual data collection.
Like the previous module, you will still find here our general instructional guidelines and the components of our
module. You will be guided one step at a time through the specific instructions of the learning tasks given
below. If you have concerns, questions, or clarifications you may contact us through these details:

Ms. Lourdes L. Bett Ms. Stephany Mae D. Dadula Mr. Ray Michael S. Homeres Ms. Maricar C. Obsioma
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

In this module, you will take the following topics and you are expected to demonstrate the following as
evidence of learning:

Content Standards:
Lesson 5: The learners understand (1.) data collection procedures and skills using varied instruments and (2.)
data processing, organizing, and analysis.

Lesson 6: The learners understand (1.) guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations.

Performance Standards:
Lesson 5: The Learner shall be able to gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty, using suitable
techniques.

Lesson 6: The Learner shall be able to form logical conclusions, make recommendations based on conclusions.

Formation Standards: The learners develop moral competence in addressing social, economic and scientific
inquiries with the commitment to preserve and uplift the status of everyday life.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 2

  Collects data using appropriate instruments
 Presents and interprets data in tabular or graphical forms
Most Essential Learning
 Uses statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and
Competencies:
relationships limited for bivariate analysis
 Draws conclusions from research findings
 Formulates recommendations
 Lesson 5: Data Collection, Data Collection Instruments, Ethical
Considerations in Data Collection, Data-processing Techniques, Presentation
and Interpretation of Tables and Graphs, Using Statistical Techniques in
Essential Topics:
Analyzing, Hypothesis Testing.
 Lesson 6: Results and Discussion Section, Conclusion Section, Listing
References.
Lesson 5: Finding Answers Through Data Collection
Title: and
Lesson 6: Reporting And Sharing Findings
At the end of the unit, the learners should be able to:
Cognitive:
Lesson 5
 Collect data using appropriate instruments.
 Present and interpret data in tabular and graphical forms, and
 Use statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and
relationships limited for bivariate analysis.
Learning Objectives: Lesson 6
 Draw conclusions from research findings
 Formulate recommendations

Affective:
 Appreciate the careful planning in crafting and executing Chapter 4 and
5 of the research paper.
Psychomotor:
 Demonstrate the skills needed in developing Chapter 4 and 5.

Evidence of Learning The learners will demonstrate their critical thinking and problem-solving skills in
developing Chapter 5 and 6 of their research paper.
1. Organizing and transforming information.
2. Outlining and summarizing.
Self-regulated Strategies
3. Goal setting and planning
4. Time management and pacing.
Barrot, Jessie S., (2017). Practical Research for Senior High School. C&E
References
Publishing, Inc.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 3

By the end of the quarter, you are expected to show the following as Performance Task: Research Paper.

To manage your time well, observe the Learning Time below:

Lesson Activity No./ Task Target Date of Completion

Lesson 5: Finding Answers
Activity 1: Research Instrument December 04, 2020
Through Data Collection
Lesson 5: Finding Answers
Activity 2: Data Gathering December 18, 2020
Through Data Collection
Lesson 5: Finding Answers
Mini-task 1: Chapter 4 January 22, 2021
Through Data Collection
Lesson 6: Reporting And Sharing January 29, 2021
Activity 3: Check list
Findings
Lesson 6: Reporting And Sharing February 05, 2021
Mini-task 2: Chapter 5
Findings
Lesson 1 - 6 Mini-task 3Oral Presentation February 12, 2021

Lesson 1 - 6 Performance Task: Research Paper February 19, 2021

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 4

 PRE-TEST:

Let’s find out how much you already know about this module. Encircle the letter that you think
best answers the question. Please answer all items. After taking this short test, you will see the
answer key. Take note of the items that you were not able to correctly answer and look for the
right answer as you go through this module.

1. Which of the following is the measurement tool designed to obtain data on a topic of interest for
research subjects?
A. Apparatus C. Instrument
B. Device D. Mechanism
2. Which term refers to an activity or process of gathering relevant information regarding the specific
research questions or objectives?
A. Data Collection C. Pilot Testing
B. Data Manipulation D. Sampling Procedure
3. Which term refers to a small preliminary study used to test a proposed research study before a full scale
performance?
A. Practice Test C. Sampling
B. Pilot Test D. Trial and Error Sampling

4. Which refers to a method of collecting data about an individual’s behaviors, opinions, values, emotions,
and demographic characteristics using numerical data?
A. Experiment C. Quantitative Interview
B. Observation D. Test
5. Which refers to a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response
to their awareness of being observed?
A. Hawthorne Effect C. Interviewer Effect
B. Interviewee Effect D. John Henry Effect

For nos. 6 to 8, refer to the following choices:

A. ANOVA C. Pearson’s r
B. Multiple Regression D. T-test

6. What type of statistical tool is used for determining whether there is a linear relationship between
variables?
7. What type of statistical tool is used for testing differences among the means of two or more groups of
samples?
8. What type of statistical tool is used to test the difference between two means?

For nos. 9 to 10, refer to the following choices:

A. Analyzing C. Editing
B. Coding D. Tabulation

9. Which refers to a process wherein the gathered data are classified into categories, numerals, symbols,
or other systems of labeling?
10. Which refers to a process of condensing the raw data into a more compact form?

***************************************************************************************
RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 5
 ANSWER KEY
1. C. Instrument 6. C. Pearson’s r
2. A. Data Collection 7. A. ANOVA
3. B. Pilot Test 8. D. T-test
4. B. Observation 9. B. Coding
5. A. Hawthorne Effect 10. D. Tabulation
.

I. CONTEXT

You have already undergone Qualitative Research in the second semester of Grade 11.
During which, you were able to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
With this previous leanings and knowledge, it is expected that you will have a smooth
transition from Qualitative Research to Quantitative Research. We also uncovered the
components of Chapter 1 to 3 from the previous module.

Let’s see what you’ve learned in your Grade 11 RDL 201: Qualitative Research subject….
What do you know about data collection and discussion and interpretation of data?
(Fill out the first column of the KWL Chart)

You have given your initial idea on what review of data collection and discussion and interpretation of data are.
Now, in this lesson, you will deepen your understanding of review of related literature and methodology and
you will learn more about the topic through varied activities.
You are then expected to demonstrate your critical thinking and problem-solving skills in developing Chapter 4
and Chapter 5 of your research.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 6

By the end of the lesson, you are expected to show the following scaffold to the Performance Task:

PERFORMANCE TASK: Research Paper

You will be part of a group and your goal now is to develop and finalize the Research paper.

Instructions: You are tasked to demonstrate the skills needed in completing this task.
1. All groups will discuss and brainstorm their chosen topic for Quantitative Research.
2. All groups will then finalize the research paper.

In your previous grade 11 qualitative research, you were acquainted with the concepts, principles, themes,
methods, and rudiments of research. You were guided, through a step-by-step process, in writing the research
proposal and conducting qualitative research.

This section will walk you through the process of developing the steps of data collection and enhance your
analysis skills through quantitative research.

II. EXPERIENCE

The following are the content of Student Information Sheet:

1. CLASS STUDENT NUMBER

2. SEX
3. NUMBER OF SIBLINGS
4. WEIGHT
5. HEIGHT
6. AGE OF MOTHER
7. USUAL DAILY ALLOWANCE IN SCHOOL
8. USUAL DAILY FOOD EXPENDITURE IN SCHOOL
9. USUAL NUMBER OF TEXT MESSAGES SENT IN A DAY
10. MOST PREFERRED COLOR
11. USUAL SLEEPING TIME
12. HAPPINESS INDEX FOR THE DAY

9. 3, red, F, 156, 4, 65, 50, 25, 1, M, 9, 40, 68, blue, 78, 168, 69, 3, F, 6, 9, 45, 50, 20, 200, white, 2, pink, 160, 5, 60, 100, 15, 9, 8, 41, 65, black, 68,
165, 59, 7, 6, 35, 45 2.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 7

1. What comes into your mind when you
hear the term “Data”?

2. Can we consider the collection of

numbers, figures, symbols, and words
above are data?

One of the important parts in conducting a study is Data collection.

Before we proceed, let’s find out what you want to learn from this lesson….
(Fill out the second column of the KWL Chart)

This part of your research paper allows you, the researcher, to obtain relevant information regarding the
specific research questions or objectives. summarizes the studies related to your topic.

So, what is data collection?

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 8

 LESSON 5 FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION

Data Collection

This is an activity that allows the researcher to obtain relevant information

regarding the specific research questions or objectives.
Data collection is done through utilizing the instruments which the researcher/s
has developed or adopted for a study.

Quantitative research instruments include questionnaires, tests, interviews and

observations.

Data Collection Instruments

In developing and utilizing a research Instrument, the following steps are usually followed:

1. Be clear with your research questions and the purpose of doing the investigation.
2. Plan how you will conduct the investigation and data collection.
3. Use research instruments that are appropriate for the type of research you are conducting.
4. Collect, tabulate, tally and analyze the data.
5. Verify the validity and reliability of the collected data.
6. Report your findings based on the data you collected.

Questionnaires

Questionnaire is a paper-based or electronic tool for collecting about a particular

research interest. It is a list of questions or indicators that the participants need to
answer. In a quantitative study, a questionnaire typically uses a scale. Example of
this is Likert scale which uses ratings to indicate participants’ level of agreement
with a specific statement. The conversion of responses into numerical values is
another approach used in questionnaires. An example of this is when terms
denoting frequency such as always, frequently, sometimes, seldom and rarely are
converted into 5, 4,3,2,1.

A questionnaire can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.

 Structured questionnaire uses closed-ended questions or indicators. This is frequently used in

qualitative studies because it is easier to standardize as well as to code and interpret objectively.
 Unstructured questionnaire allows participants to respond to open-ended questions.
 Semi-structured questionnaire has characteristics of both structured and unstructured types. They
are composed of both closed and open-ended questions.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 9

  Questionnaire is different from a survey.
 A questionnaire refers to instruments of data collection that contains a list of ready-
made questions.
 A survey refers to a process of collecting, recording and analyzing data.

Advantages of a questionnaire

1. It helps collect data quickly from a large number of participants.

2. It can encourage the participants to be open to the researcher since their identity can made
anonymous.
3. It has flexibility because respondents can answer it in their own convenient time.

Limitations of questionnaire

1. The questions can be interpreted differently by the participants.

2. The response rate of the participants.
3. The questionnaire may lack depth.

Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection

1. Decide on the method of administering the questionnaire (i.e. Face to face or on-line). Use Face-to face
if there is a need to capture the non-verbal cues spontaneously displayed by the participants as well as
their emotions and behavior. This method also includes administering the questionnaire through video
chat or conferencing. On-line method involves the administration of questionnaires through filling out
web-based forms. This can be used if there is no need to take note of the behavior and other non-
verbal cues conveyed by the participants while answering the questionnaire.
2. Draft your questionnaire. Divide the questionnaire into three parts:

a. Personal information section asks for details about the participant’s background which are relevant
to the study. Name is optional to ensure confidentiality of data. This section aims to establish that you
are surveying the right people. Main section lists of specific questions or indicators that are aligned
with the specific research questions Open-ended section asks for additional information that may not
have been covered by the main section.

b. Align the indicators or questions contained in your questionnaire with your specific research
questions or objectives.
c. Provide clear directions for answering the questionnaire. State if certain items require only one
answer or if it can accommodate multiple responses (e.g. “check all that apply”)
d. Use routing if there is a need to skip some items in the questionnaire. This will help the participants
avoid encountering questions that do not necessarily apply to them, For example, if the
participants answer “no” to a specific question, you may redirect them to another question.
e. When several related questions need to be asked, begin with the general questions first followed
by the specific ones. This will facilitate a natural flow of ideas among participants.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 10

 f. Do not make an overly lengthy questionnaire as this may discourage the participants from
completing it. Also, be concise and clear in wording the questions or statement so that you can
further elicit authentic and accurate responses from your participants.
g. Make sure that the predetermined responses match the nature of questions. These predetermined
responses must be translated into numerical values (5, 4, 3, 2, 1) to make them quantitative.
 If the content is about belief, the responses should be about agreement (strongly agree, agree,
neutral, disagree, strongly disagree).
 If the questionnaire is about behavior and how it manifests, the responses should be about
extent (very great extent, great extent, moderate extent, small extent, none at all)
 If the questions are about frequency, the responses should also be about the frequency (always,
frequently, sometimes, seldom, never)
 If the content is about quality, then the responses should also denote quality (excellent, very
good, fair, poor)
h. Avoid using highly technical terms in your questionnaire. However, if using these terms cannot be
avoided, make sure to define them briefly.
i. Avoid using negative statements in your questionnaire. These statements that use the word not. By
avoiding the use of this adverb of negation, your questions become clearer and more
comprehensible to your participants.
j. Avoid including leading and biased questions. These questions subtly encourage the participants to
answer the question in a certain way. Such questions can elicit responses that do not actually
represent the views of the participants. These responses can be a source of inaccuracy in the data.
k. Avoid double-barreled questions. Using such questions forces your participants to answer two
questions at a time. They may also cause inaccuracies in your results because you do not know
which question is being answered by the participants’ single response. Example of a double-
barreled question is “How satisfied are you with your salary and company facilities?” This question
requires a response regarding two items (salary and company facilities).
l. Avoid overly sensitive questions because you may not get truthful answers. The participants may
answer these questions in a way that will make people perceive them positively. This phenomenon
is known as the social desirability bias. Some examples of overly sensitive questions include “Have
you ever kissed someone on the lips?” or “How many times have you urinated in a swimming pool”
m. Use a reader-friendly layout. This can help the participants read the questions clearly and
understand them better. You can make your questionnaire reader- friendly by using a readable font
style and size, and providing sufficient spacing throughout the text.
n. Do not split the questions over two pages to avoid unnecessary interruption in reading them. This
interruption may affect the comprehensibility of the question.
3. Before actually administering the questionnaire, it may be useful to Pilot-test it first. This is to ensure
that the participants will understand the questionnaire’s content. The pilot test can also inform you if
there are items or features of the questionnaire which can be a source of inaccuracy in the data.
Follow the actual procedure you indicated in your methodology when you conduct the pilot test.
Afterwards, revise the questionnaire as needed.
4. Contact the participants before distributing the questionnaires. Give them instructions to follow in
answering the questionnaire.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 11

 5. Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire when conducting the actual data collection. The letter should
contain the purpose of the study; the instructions in completing the questionnaire; the guarantee of
confidentiality; and the procedure for returning the questionnaire.
6. Follow up the participants who fail to complete their questionnaires by the set deadline. One way of
doing this is to provide a postage-or stamp-paid envelope for returns.
7. Immediately encode the data once you have collected them and archive them digitally.

Tests

Tests are a quantitative research instrument used mainly for assessing various skills
and types of behavior as well as for describing certain characteristics.

Standardized tests

 scored uniformly across different areas and groups

 used mainly by official institutions to assess a wide range of groups such as students or test takers
 often considered more reliable and valid

Non-standardized tests

 They may not scored uniformly across different areas and groups
 are administered to specific sets of people.
 maybe more appropriate for obtaining certain types of responses or measuring a specific skill

Two most Common examples of tests:

1. Achievement test is a standardized test which measures the extent of the skills and knowledge that a
person has acquired after a considerable period of time. Example of which is the National Achievement
Test administered by the Department of Education (DepEd).
2. Aptitude test assesses one’s skills and knowledge to predict one’s ability to perform a certain kind of
work . Example is the school entrance examinations.

Types of Test Questions

1. Recall questions require the participants to retrieve information from memory. There are no clues or
options that the participants can choose from. Example of this is the cloze test (also known as “fill in
the blank” test, identification, enumeration.
2. Recognition questions provide options to choose from. The participants only need to select which
among the possible responses is the best or correct choice. Questions are easier to answer. Examples
are multiple choice and dichotomous response tests.
3. Open-ended questions prompt participants to answer in greater detail. The allow participants more
freedom in their responses and encourage them to express their thoughts and insights regarding a
certain topic. Examples are writing tests and other performance-based tests.

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Guidelines in Using Tests for Data Collection

1. Choose the test appropriate for the variable you want to measure. Refer the discussion on the
different types of tests in deciding on this matter.
2. Decide on the method of administering the test (i.e. face-to-face or on-line).
3. Pilot test your instrument first to ensure that the participants will understand its contents and
interpret it the way it should be interpreted. Pilot testing will also help you ensure the reliability of the
instrument. You can check if there are problems in the pilot test that may affect the actual
administering of the instrument.
4. Contact the participants before administering the test in order to make sure that they know the
important points to take note of when the test is conducted.
5. Attach a cover letter to the test when doing the actual data collection. The letter should contain the
purpose of the study, how to complete the questionnaire, the guarantee of confidentiality and the
procedure for returning the questionnaire.
6. In an experimental or quasi-experimental study, administer the pretest before the intervention and the
post test immediately after the intervention. In some cases, a delayed post test is also administered
two or four weeks after the first post test. The delayed post test is used to determine the long-term
effects of the intervention on the participants.
7. When using the pretest and posttest design, make sure that these two tests are parallel forms. This
means that they should measure the same construct using the same format and difficulty level.
8. Make sure that the participants are comfortable during the test. This will help prevent a number of
external factors from affecting the results of the study.
9. Encode and archive the data upon collecting them for easier documentation

Interviews

A quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s

behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and demographic characteristics using
numerical data. It involves the oral, interactive e exchange of information
between the researcher and the subject either face to face or not.

Quantitative Interviews:

 highly closed-ended
 accompanied by a rating scale or a rubric
 responses must be numerical in nature
 gather data from a large size
 tend to minimize interviewer effect
 uses structured type of interview

Interviewer effect means that the responses of the participants may be affected by the
behavior displayed by the researcher or the manner that the questions are presented

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Guidelines in Conducting a Quantitative Interview:

Before the Interview

1. Decide on the interview method you will use

2. Choose a comfortable venue with the least amount of distractions.
3. Decide the duration of the interview
4. Prepare and master your interview guide
5. Test your recording device
6. Pilot-test your interview guide and practice how you will conduct the interview
7. Make sure that you obtain consent from the participation before conducting and recording the
interview.

During the Interview

1. Be in control of the interview

2. Help the participants respond as easily and as naturally as possible
3. Demonstrate respect, professionalism, and a positive attitude toward the participants throughout the
interview

After the Interview

1. Check if your recording device worked well throughout the interview

2. Transcribe or encode the data as soon as you have finished your interview
3. Write some of your observations regarding the interview

Observation

Observation is frequently used in qualitative research; it is also used in

quantitative particularly when the characteristics being observed are quantitative
in nature. These characteristics include length, width, height, weight, volume, area,
temperature, cost, levels, age, time and speed. Observation is also used when
assessing performances. The observer uses a rubric or rating scale in the data
collection.

Forms of Observation

a. Controlled Observation is used in experimental research. The researcher selects the time, place
(usually laboratory), participants and circumstances where the data collection will take place. The
selection is done under a standard procedure. The observer takes a non-participant role because
he/she does not interact with the participants. This form of observation provides more reliable data
because they are obtained through a structured and well-defined process. The procedure can be
replicated and data are easier to analyze. This method is also considered easier to implement due to its
highly structured nature.

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 b. Natural Observation is carried out in a non-controlled setting. The researcher does not control the
circumstances but allows the natural flow of events to happen. This has greater ecological validity.
Ecological validity refers to the flexibility of the findings to be generalized to real-life contexts.

c. Participant Observation allows the observer to become a member of the group or community that the
participants belong to. This type of observation can be overt or covert. Overtly is when the participants
know the research-related motives of your observation. Covertly is when the participants are not
aware of the intention behind the observation.

Different Roles during participant observation:

Observational Role Description

Complete observer ❏ observer is neither seen or noticed by the participant

❏ the participation are less prone to the Hawthorne
effect
❏ this role is taken if the primary aim of the researcher
is to observe the spontaneous natural behavior of the
participants with as few external factors affecting it as
possible
Observer as participant ❏ observer is known and recognized by the participants
as part of their group or community but who has
limited interaction with them
❏ this role is taken if the researcher does not prioritize
recording spontaneous or natural behavior with as few
external factors affecting it as possible
Participant as observer ❏ observer is fully engaged with the participants
❏ observer is considered a researcher and not a
member of the group or community being investigated
❏ this role is taken if the researcher does not primarily
aim to capture spontaneous or natural behavior
Complete participant ❏ observer is fully engaged with the participants who are
unaware that they are being observed
❏ taking this role raises ethical issues but possible
deception
❏ observer acts like an “undercover” member of the
community
❏ This role is taken if the primary aim of the researcher
is to observe the spontaneous/natural behavior of the
participant with as few external factors affecting it as
possible.

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Guidelines in Conducting an Observation:

Before the observation

1. clarify your research objectives
2. prepare an observation checklist or form
3. decide on the type of observation and collection technique that you will use
4. decide on the duration of the observation
5. record only the data that will address your research questions of objectives
6. if observation involves human participants, inform them of your study prior to your scheduled
observation
During the observation
1. write the date, time and place where the observation will be conducted
2. if possible, there should be more than one person conducting the observation
3. explain the purpose of observation to your participants
4. make sure that the participants are guaranteed as much anonymity as possible
5. be accurate and objective in recording your observations.
6. make sure that the participants are aware of the purpose of your study
7. use multiple recording schemes

After the observation

1. compile and tabulate all data that you have obtained and save them in your computer
2. maintain the confidentiality of the data you have gathered
3. review your data to determine if there is anything you missed

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

Informed Consent Form is a document that provides the participants with the
information they need in deciding whether they will participate or not in your
study

Should contain:

 Data collection procedure

 Possible discomfort or risk factors
 Confidentiality clause
 Termination of the research
 Authorization clause

Aside from the Informed Consent Form:

 Inform the participants their right to refuse to participate in the study

 Guarantee confidentiality
 Secure data
 In case you have a token,

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  be sure it is reasonable

Data Processing Techniques

Data collected need to be encoded and organized to facilitate data

analysis. This is the function of data processing. This stage of the
research process involves the organization of the collected information
as well the elimination of unnecessary and problematic ones.

Specifically, data processing involves editing, coding, tabulating, and summarizing

information through graphs and tables.

 Editing is a process wherein the data collected are checked for consistency, accuracy, organization and
clarity. However, editing should be distinguished from fabricating and falsifying data which involve
omitting changing or or making up the information.
 Coding is a process where the gathered data are classified into categories, numerals, symbols, or other
systems of labeling. When coding your data, your first need to examine them carefully as well as the
research instruments used to fully understand your data and how you will organize them. Afterwards,
you will need to develop a coding frame. This will serve as your guide or outline of what data to be
coded and how you will code them. Make sure that the categories you will use in coding are aligned
with the research questions or objectives of your study.
 Tabulation is a process of condensing raw data into a more compact form. In many cases, a table is
used for this purpose. Tabulation may be done electronically or manually depending on the size of the
data. If the amount of collected data is large, electronic tabulation may be a more viable option. If it is
small, manual tabulation may be sufficient.

Presentation and Interpretation of Tables and Graphs

After editing, coding and tabulating your data, you can now present them through a non-prose material. Non-
prose materials are graphic or visual representations of sets of data or information. The information in these
materials is outlined in a way that others can easily understand the relationships between the variables being
examined in the study.

Two of the non-prose materials that are commonly used in quantitative research are graphs and tables.

Tables

Tables are non-prose materials that help condense and classify information using columns and rows. Tables
contain at least two columns with headings that indicate the important information being examined. The
headings on the top are called box heads while the headings on the far left columns are called stubs. The box
heads describe the items in each column while the stubs describe the items in each row. To interpret the
tables effectively, take note of the headings and analyze the relationship among the details under each one.

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You also need to identify the items that have significantly high or low values. Check for any unusual patterns
or data in the table. Determine the possible reasons behind these tendencies in your data as this will further
aid your analysis later.

When writing your interpretation, begin with the table number and its title. Then, present the significant data
(i.e. lowest, highest or unusual pattern) and discuss their relationship with one another. If applicable, end the
interpretation with a generalization summarizing the findings presented in the table.

Graphs

Unlike tables, graphs do not merely list down the collected data with respect to a certain category. Instead,
graphs focus on immediately representing how a change in one variable relates to another. To illustrate this
relationship, graphs use bars, lines, circles and pictures in representing the data.

Purpose of each graph type:

a. The bar graph contains vertical and horizontal bars and comparisons of amounts and quantities.
b. The line graph shows trends and changes in the data.
c. The circle or pie graph shows the relationship of parts to a whole, usually in percentages and
proportions

Factors to consider in interpreting graphs

1. Need to carefully read the title, caption, source note, labels and legend of the graph. These details are
important in helping you keep track of the variables you are analyzing in your study. Keep in mind the
purpose of the graph you are interpreting (i.e. bar graph focus on comparing amounts or quantities)
2. Dates or time intervals generated between data, and relate them to the values being compared or
analyzed. Focus on the ideas which are not directly observable from the given data. Use the details of
the graphs to draw necessary conclusions.
3. Present the significant data and the relationship among them. Take note of the noticeably high or low
values and any unusual pattern in the data.
4. In writing interpretation, begin with explaining what the graph is about and mentioning the figure
number you assigned to it. Present the significant data (i.e. lowest, highest of unusual pattern)

Using Statistical Techniques in Analyzing Data

This section discusses five of the most common statistical techniques specifically used in quantitative analysis:
Pearson’s r, Spearman’s rho, ANOVA, multiple regression, and t-tests.

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Pearson’s r

Pearson’s r is a parametric statistical method used for determining whether there is a linear relationship
between variables. This relationship is indicated by the Pearson’s r coefficient, which can be obtained by using
the following formula:

There are three possible outcomes after analyzing data using the Pearson’s r test. These are positive
correlation, negative correlation, and no correlation. Positive correlation means that when the numerical
value of one variable increases or decreases, the other increases or decreases as well. Negative correlation, on
the other hand, indicates that as the numerical value of one variable increases, the other variable decreases
and vice versa. No correlation means that the two variables have no relationship with each other.
Correlational values can be interpreted as seen in the table below (Evans, 1996) It can be noticed in the table
that as the value approaches 1, the correlation between the variables becomes stronger. conversely, as the
value approaches 0, the correlation between the variables becomes weaker.

Value Interpretation
.00 - .19 very weak
.02 - .39 weak
.40 - .59 moderate
.60 - .79 strong
.80 - 1.0 very strong

Researchers typically use scatter plots to visually present the results of Pearson’s r. A Scatter plot is a set of
points that displays the relationship between two variables. Each dot represents the relationship between two
variables according to one observation. The series of dots, in turn, represents the relationship between two
variables according to the successive observations made throughout the study. A scatter plot is a good way to
represent correlations since the distribution of the dots shows how closely linked the variables is to each other.
The closer the dots are to one another, the tighter the relationship is between the variables.

Spearman’s rho

Spearman’s rHo is a non-parametric statistical technique that tests the relationship between ordinal variables.
it uses rankings instead of actual values. in ranking the data, the highest value should be ranked first, the

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second highest value should be ranked second, and so on. After assigning ranks to the values, you can now
compute for the coefficient using the following formula.

Where:

p = Spearman rank correlation

d1 - the difference between the ranks
of corresponding values X1 and Y1
n = number of value in each data set

Similar to Pearson’s r, Spearman’s rho shows whether the data have positive correlation, negative correlation
or no correlation. Correlational values can be interpreted as seen in the table below (Evans, 1996). Spearman’s
rho coefficients are also analyzed similarly as Pearson’s r coefficients. The values for Spearman’s rho closer to
0 indicate a weak relationship while those that are closer to 1 indicate a strong relationship. A scatter plot can
also be used to plot values analyzed using the Spearman’s rho test.

Value Interpretation
.00 - .19 very weak
.02 - .39 weak
.40 - .59 moderate
.60 - .79 strong
.80 - 1.0 very strong

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

The ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is a statistical tool used for testing differences among the means of two or
more groups of samples. In order to determine these differences, the ANOVA considers both the variation
within and between the sample groups. There are two main types of ANOVA measures: the one-way ANOVA
and the two-way ANOVA.

One-way ANOVA
The one-way ANOVA tests differences among groups concerning one variable. The value of the one-
way ANOVA is obtained using the following formula:

TSS = SSB + SSW

Where:
TSS = total sum of squares
SSB = sum of squares between groups; and
SSW = sum of squares within groups

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In the main formula for the one-way ANOVA, the total sum of squares is merely represented as the sum of
squares between and within groups. However, the total sum of squares still needs to be computed separately.
This is because performing the separate computation provides values that shall be used later in the
computation of the other values in the one-way ANOVA formula.

Two-way ANOVA

The two-way ANOVA is used for determining relationships between two independent nominal variables (also
referred to as factors) and one dependent interval or continuous variable. In particular, it can be used for
finding out whether only one or both independent variables cause changes in the dependent variable.

The two-way ANOVA serves as an extension of the one-way ANOVA, and this is evident in the following
formula:

SS1 + SS2 +SS1,2 = TSS

Where:
SS1 = sum of squares for the first factor
SS2 = sum of squares for the second factor
SS1,2 = sum of squares for bothy factors
TSS = total sum of squares

As in the one-way ANOVA formula, the sum of squares for the first, second and both factors are represented
as values individually computed from the raw data, resulting in the total sum of squares.

However, it should be noted that the sum of squares is calculated separately. Meanwhile, the sum of squares
for both factors is not computed from the individual values in the data alone. Instead it is obtained through
subtracting the sum of squares of each factor from the total sum of squares.

Multiple Regression

Multiple regression is a statistical tool used for testing the relationship between one dependent variable and
at least two independent variables. The relationship is then used to explain the behavior of the dependent
variable. The main value computed in a multiple regression test is the multiple correlation coefficient, or R.
The value for R is obtained through the following formula:

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Where:

R = multiple correlation coefficient

r = correlation coefficient for a specific combination of variables
X1 = independent variable 1
X2 = independent variable 2
y = dependent variable

T-tests

T-tests are parametric statistical techniques that test the difference between two means. When performing t-
tests, there are statistics values that need to be computed first. These are called the descriptive statistics
values, since they indicate the primary characteristics of the data in the study. The descriptive statistic values
are the mean, variance and the standard deviation. The mean refers to the average score of a given set of
values. It is obtained by getting the sum of all scores divided by the total number of values.

Variance refers to how spread out the values are across the data set you are studying. It helps you determine
the extent of variation in your data. It also helps you find out if the data are close to the mean or not. The
variance is obtained first by computing for the difference between the mena and each value in the data set;
afterwards, the square of each difference is calculated, and these squares are averaged. The resulting average
is the variance for the data set.

The standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance. Thus like the variance, the standard deviation
is a helpful indicator of the variation within the data set, and needs to be presented alongside the mean.

Aside from determining the descriptive statistical values for your data, you need to analyze them in relation to
the alpha level and the p-value. The alpha level (also known as the significance level)refers to the probability
value that must be reached before claiming that the findings obtained are statistically significant. The alpha
level is set at 0.5 for social sciences and 0.01 or 0.001 for physical, natural, or life sciences. The p-value,
meanwhile, is a calculated probability that is compared to the alpha level. The comparison helps determine if
there is a statistical difference between the two groups being compared in your study e.g. pretest and posttest
groups. If the p-value is lower than the set alpha level, there is a difference between the scores obtained for
the two groups. Therefore, the findings can be considered statistically significant. The alpha level and p-value
will later be used in hypothesis testing. Meanwhile, the x1 = mean of first sample n2 = sample size (i.e. number
of observations of second sample x2 = mean of second sample s1 = standard deviation for first sample t-value
is the statistics computed for the t-tests indicating the extent of the difference between the two groups being
examined.

You can use a table to present the information analyzed through t-tests. In your table, you need to include the
sample size (denoted by the symbol n), the degree of freedom, and the t-value. You also have to include the
degree of freedom (df), which refers to the number of values in the final computation of a statistic that has
freedom to vary. The df is computed by subtracting 1 from the size of each group (df=n-1). If you have two
samples, the formula is df = (n1 + n2) - 2. Finally, you need to indicate your alpha level and p-value in the table.

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T-tests for Two Dependent Samples

There are two types of t-test, the first of which is the t-test for two dependent samples (also known as paired
t-test). In the t-test for two dependent samples, the sample groups are highly related to each other, since they
involve the same subjects (as in pretest and post test groups). The following formula is used for the t-test for
two dependent samples.

T-test for two Independent Samples

The second type of t-test is the t-test for two independent samples. It tests the difference between data sets
from two different groups such as in the case of the control and treatment groups.

Assuming equal variances, the following formula for the t-test for independent samples is used. Note that
pooled standard variation refers to the weighted average of the standard deviation for the individual groups.

x1 = mean of first sample n2 = sample size (i.e. number of observations of second sample
x2 = mean of second sample s1 = standard deviation for first sample
n1 = sample size (i.e. number of observations) of s2 = standard deviation of second sample
first sample n1 = sample size (i.e. number of observations) of
s2 = standard deviation of second sample sp = pooled standard deviation

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Assuming unequal variances, the following formula for the t-test for independent samples is used.

x1 = mean of first sample n2 = sample size (i.e. number of observations of second sample
x2 = mean of second sample s1 = standard deviation for first sample
n1 = sample size (i.e. number of observations) of s2 = standard deviation of second sample
first sample

Hypothesis Testing

After utilizing one of the statistical techniques, hypothesis testing can be done before collecting data.
Hypothesis testing is the [process of determining whether there is sufficient statistical evidence to support
your hypothesis. For example, you want to determine if there is enough evidence to back your claim that
organic fertilizer is better than synthetic fertilizer. After collecting sufficient data, you have to determine
through a specific procedure if the alternative hypothesis you made is indeed valid. By the end of the
hypothesis testing, you need to decide whether or not you will reject the null hypothesis, in favor of the
alternative hypothesis. Hypothesis testing can be performed under two approached; critical value approach
and the p-value approach.

Critical Value Approach

Under the critical value approach, you attempt to determine how likely or unlikely the data you have obtained
will meet the values suggested by your alternative hypothesis. This likelihood is known as critical value. Here
are the steps that you need to follow in performing a hypothesis test under the critical value approach,
assuming you have already formulated your null and alternative hypotheses.

Step 1
Determine the sampling distribution. The sampling distribution contains all of the possible frequency
(probability distribution) of a statistic for a set of value’s occurrence in a sample. An example of this statistic is
the mean of the data in the sample.

Step 2
Set the alpha level of your study. The alpha level is not only the probability value that must be reached before
the findings obtained will be statistically significant. It is also the value that must be reached before rejecting
the null hypothesis. It is set at 0.05 for social sciences and 0.01 or 0.001 for physical, natural or life sciences.
You will use the alpha level in making your final decisions later regarding your hypothesis.

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Step 3
Compute for the test statistic. Under the critical value approach, this value is crucial in determining whether or
not to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The test statistic is calculated using the
following formula:

Observed - Expected
Test statistic = Standard Deviation

The test statistic is obtained through computing for the difference between the mean of the observed sample
and the expected value to be obtained based on the null hypothesis; this difference is then divided by the
standard deviation of the sample statistic.

Step 4
Determine the critical value. You can determine the critical value through locating it in the table below. First,
determine if your test is one-tailed or two-tailed. Based on the type of test you are conducting, locate the
alpha level you will use for your test ( 0.05 for social sciences and 0.01 or 0.001 for physical, natural or life
sciences). Lastly determine your degrees of freedom for the test (sample size-1). THe possible values for the
degrees of freedom are found on the leftmost column, labeled as “df”. The value where your alpha level and
degrees of freedom intersect will be your critical value.

Step 5
Compare the critical value to the test statistic. If the test statistic is more extreme than the critical value, you
can reject your null hypothesis. The extremity of the test will differ depending on whether your hypothesis
test is left-tailed, right-tailed. In a left- tailed hypothesis test, the specific value you indicated in your
alternative hypothesis is less than that in the null hypothesis. In such a test, you can reject the null hypothesis
if your test statistic is greater than the critical value. On the other hand, in a right-tailed hypothesis test, the
specific value you indicated in your alternative hypothesis is greater than that in the null hypothesis. In such a
case, you can reject the null hypothesis if your test statistic is less than the critical value. In a two-tailed
hypothesis test, you can reject the null hypothesis if your test statistic is less than or greater than the critical
value.

P-Value Approach

Under the p-value approach, you determine how extreme your findings must be leaning to the alternative
hypothesis. This will help you identify if your findings can be deemed statistically significant, leading you to
reject the null hypothesis. Here are the steps that you need to follow in performing hypothesis test under the
p-value approach, assuming you have already formulated your null and alternative hypotheses:

Step 1
Compute for the test statistic using the same formula provided under the critical value approach.

Step 2
Set the alpha level for your study. This value will again be crucial later when you decide whether or not reject
your null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

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Step 3
Determine the p-value based on your test statistic and alternative hypothesis. Obtaining p-value is often
performed through the use of computer applications such as Mini-tab and SPSS.

Step 4
Compute the p-value to the alpha level. This comparison helps if the null hypothesis can be disregarded. If you
find out that the -value is higher than the set alpha level, you cannot reject the null hypothesis and claim that
your alternative hypothesis is valid.

******************************************************************************************

At this point, we will now answer the activity:

Activity 1: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

NOW LET’S DO THIS Description: Prepare your research instruments.

******************************************************************************************

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Let’s now proceed with Lesson 6.

LESSON 6 REPORTING AND SHARING FINDINGS

Results and Discussion Section

The Results and Discussion section reports and explains the data that you have obtained in your research. It
can be considered the “meat” of your paper, as it provides and analyzes your findings.

The results and discussion section is divided into two portions as suggestions by its name.

1. Results sections

2. Discussions sections

Results Portion

The results portion presents the data that you have collected. This portion limits itself to the presentation of
facts and key findings as they are. The results portion is presented in textual and tabular or graphical forms.
This is where you will apply the skills you have learned in the previous lesson regarding the presentation of
data.

Guidelines for writing the results of your quantitative research:

1. The results section must be anchored on your research questions and objectives. These questions and
objectives shall be restated at the beginning of your results section. The findings you will cite must be
limited to those that will address the research questions. They shall also be the basis of the sequence
of the parts of your results section.
2. Take caution in using non-prose materials in the results section. Make sure that your non-prose
material is aligned with the purpose of presenting the data. Describe the findings suggested by your
graphical representation and include basic details such as its title, legend used, and labels for the
values.
3. Make sure that your results section can be distinguished from the discussion section which will
subsequently follow. Avoid explaining the possible reasons behind your results. Refrain as well from
connecting your findings to the previous studies related to your research. These details should instead
be found in the discussion portion of your paper.
4. Observe accuracy, conciseness, and comprehensiveness in writing your results section. For instance,
when stating the mean of the data set, you also need to mention the standard deviation, as well as
other statistical values pertinent to explaining your research findings. Accuracy also entails practicing
objectivity. This means that you have to make sure that your results section is founded only on facts.
This also means that you are required to cite negative results as a way of showing honesty in your
findings. In addition, it is imperative that you use the past tense in stating your findings. Through doing

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 this, you acknowledge that the findings apply exclusively to your research, and are not considered as
facts.
5. Keep in mind that the results section needs to be reader-friendly. One way of doing this is by using
subheadings, which will make the results section more organized and easier to understand. Another
way of doing this is through two-dimensional graphical representations instead of three-dimensional
ones; the latter can make the visual representation of the results highly complicated.

Discussion Portion

The discussion portion provides the explanation for the results that you have reported. At this juncture, you
link your findings to the other studies related to your own, as well as your research questions or objectives.
The discussion portion is an important part of a research paper because it tests your skills in thinking critically,
solving problems, as well as in understanding and explaining phenomena with enough depth.

Several factors to consider in writing your discussion section:

1. Your discussion section must be anchored on your research objectives or questions. Your discussion
must attempt to explain the findings in a way that these questions or objectives will be addressed. It
may help to restate your research objectives or questions and to mention the major findings
corresponding to each of them.
2. You need to establish the connection between your findings and the studies related to your own, as
well as the theories and practices in your field or research. It is important to reread your literature
review, and to restate the studies whose findings support or deviate from your own. You can also
adopt the related studies in your review in explaining your findings. You can survey additional studies
to support your findings. Make sure, however, that these studies will also be incorporated in the
literature later on. Avoid showing negative bias towards other researchers in your discussion, even if
their findings differ highly from your own. You may state how your findings contradict those of other
researchers, but make sure to do this objectively.
3. Even though your discussion should be anchored on other related studies, Write it as your own take on
the findings. Your alternative explanation of the findings will serve as your contribution to your field of
study. Take note that this explanation should not repeat the report of your results section; cite possible
reasons behind the findings you have obtained. Make sure that your claims are supported by your data;
refrain from making unwarranted speculations which go beyond them.
4. The general content of your discussion must have a specific flow. Start your discussion with your
general findings; afterwards, proceed to the more specific aspects. Finally, you may end your
discussion with a brief overview of the practical and theoretical implications of your findings. Note,
however, that a detailed discussion of the implications of your findings is typically written in the
conclusion section.
5. Exercise clarity and consistency in your discussion. You need to be specific and direct to the point in
explaining your results. Your readers should be aware of what findings are being explained in a certain
point in the discussion. You need to practice consistency in what key terms to use throughout the
discussion to avoid confusing your readers

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 6. Observe other conventions in writing your discussion section. For instance, you have to present the
potential limitations of the explanation of your results (e.g., small sample size, data collection), but you
must refrain from being apologetic in explaining these aspects. You can also utilize subheadings to
organize the ideas in your discussion more easily. You need to be careful in your usage of verb tenses
throughout the discussion; use the present tense for established facts and the past tense for claims
and findings of prior studies. Make sure to cite the sources you will use throughout the discussion.

Conclusion Section

After writing the results and discussion, your paper needs to make a lasting impression. This is where the
conclusion section of your paper comes in.

It is composed of four subsections, namely:

a. the summary of findings

b. conclusions drawn
c. limitations of the study
d. useful recommendations for future explorations in your field of study

The format of these parts may differ according to the thesis, these parts are numbers and regarded as
subsections. However, in a basic research paper, these parts are no longer numbered. Instead, they are all
collectively written as the Conclusion section of the paper.

Summary

The summary briefly restates your major findings that correspond to each of the research questions or
objectives. Simply put, each research question or objective should be accompanied by its own summary of
findings. Each summary must be written in only one or two sentences.

Strategies that you can use when writing the summary section:

1. Refrain from providing detailed figures or elaborating your major findings. These detailed findings have
already been looked into in the results and discussion section. One short statement that responds to
each of your research questions / objectives are sufficient.
2. Avoid making interpretations and conclusions from findings when writing the summary. Note that the
summary is the condensed version of your results.
3. Be direct and brief in writing your summary.
4. Refrain from introducing new data in your summary

Conclusions

While the summary provides the condensed version of results, the conclusion subsection discusses the
generalizations, deductions, and inferences that can be obtained from your findings. The conclusion
subsection does not follow a one-to-one correspondence relative to your research questions or objectives.

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Instead, each generalization or deduction that you write should be applicable to all your findings. Therefore,
you need to have one conclusion that directly addresses your general research problem. For example, your
general research problem is the “effects of music on anxiety levels of teenagers.” Logically, one of your
conclusions is that music significantly lowers (or does not lower) the anxiety level of teenagers. Another way
of writing your conclusion is to explain how your findings address the gap you have identified in the
introduction of your paper. Aside from making generalizations from your findings, the conclusions state the
implications of your findings in terms of different aspects. This means that you need to identify what areas of
concern or issues in your field of study can be examined and addressed based on your findings. Note that the
implications of your findings differ from the significance of your study. The implications of your findings relates
to the different issues which can be looked into in accordance with your findings. On the other hand, the
significance of your study focuses more on listing the people or entities that will benefit from your research.

The implications that you need to discuss can be classified as practical, theoretical, and methodological.
Practical implications relate to the issues in real-life contexts that can be addressed through the findings.
Theoretical implications - relate to the issues concerning the support, refutation, and supplementation of
existing models and concepts on your field of study. Theoretical implications can also point out how your
findings can pave the way for new studies in the field. Methodological implications relate to the issues
concerning materials and processes in research.

Points to consider when writing the conclusion subsection:

1. Avoid merely summarizing your findings; instead, use your findings in making inferences.
2. Ensure that each conclusion is supported by the evidence or data that you have gathered.
3. State your conclusions briefly and clearly, as these shall already apply to your study as a whole and not
on a particular piece of evidence.
4. Limit your conclusions to your participants, and refrain from claiming that it applies to other
populations or contexts. For example, if your study is about school A and it is clearly not representative
of all schools of the same category (e.g., private schools), avoid extending the conclusion to schools B,
C, D, or E)
5. Refrain from using numerals and figures in your conclusions. Remember that this portion of your paper
is not focused on introducing data or explaining your findings.
6. Avoid using terms in your conclusion that imply doubts. These words include maybe, perhaps, and
possibly. Instead, you may use the phrase “the evidence suggests…”in stating your conclusions.

Limitations of the Study

Another important component found at the end of your paper is the limitation of the study.

 The limitation of the study refers to the factors that the researcher fails to control or use and can be
addressed by subsequent studies.
 It puts boundaries on the extensiveness of your findings and the strength of your conclusions.
 Pertain to the conditions that emerged in your research as it progresses, thus affecting the applicability
of your findings.
 Are not consciously set by the researcher.

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Some of the possible limitations include:

 sampling problems
 uncontrolled variables
 errors in test administration
 generalizability of data
 representativeness of samples
 reliability and validity of research instruments

Guidelines in writing the limitations of your study:

1. Consider all types of limitations. These are study design limitations, which relate to the research being
bound to specific methods or frameworks; Impact limitations which relate to the implications of the
study being confined to a specific population; Data limitations which relate to the data gathered in the
study being insufficient to have a large-scale implication.
2. Discuss why the limitations of your study exist. Explain how they can possibly impact your findings and
their interpretation. Only the limitations that have greater threat to validity must be discussed.
3. Describe the alternatives that may Have been used to address the limitation of your study. Explain why
these alternatives were not taken in the research. Point out how you attempted to minimize the
impact of such limitations on your study.
4. Take note of other conventions in writing the limitations of your study. Use the present tense when
presenting the limitations, since these were found after the research was conducted. Refrain from
being apologetic when you start discussing the limitations of your study. Be objective and factual and
reword this sample statement to introduce the limitations of your study: “While the current study
provided some relevant findings, several limitations should be noted.”

Recommendations

After drawing the conclusions and identifying the limitations encountered in your study, you can now write
your recommendations.

 The first function relates to the implications of your findings. While the implications identify the areas
of concern that can be addressed based on the findings, the recommendations provide an actual
course of action through which these areas of concern can be addressed.
 The second function is considered by stating how future studies can address the limitations
encountered in your research. For instance, if the sample size is one of the limitations of your study,
you may state that future studies can increase the number of participants involved.

Guidelines in writing your recommendations

1. Make sure that your recommendations are in accordance with the conclusions and limitations of your
study. Furthermore, align your recommendations with the purpose and scope of your research.
2. Make your recommendations as specific as possible for them to become workable and practical.

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 3. Write your recommendations concisely and clearly. This will help the readers immediately recognize
the impact of your study.
4. As much as possible, refrain from offering recommendations that could have been easily addressed as
you were conducting your study. Otherwise, these might be construed only as an afterthought.

Listing the References

It was discussed in Lesson 3 that one form of citation is reference citation.

The reference list:

 Compiles all of the bibliographic information for the materials you used in preparing your research.
 Aids your readers in tracing the works that guided you in conducting your study, thus making your
research more reliable.
 Helps you avoid committing intellectual dishonesty since a reference list is proof that you acknowledge
other studies that shaped your own.

Guidelines in listing your references:

1. Make sure that your reference list contains all the works and publications you used for your research.
All these references that you cited in the text must also be included in your reference list.
2. Cite your sources completely. Aside from providing the names of the references itself, you need to cite
the author of the work; the publisher of the material (if it is printed), the date of its publication or
release, the date that you retrieved it (if it is an online reference).
3. Exercise consistency in the format of your bibliographical entries. Strictly follow the format for citing
your reference according to the citation style you are using in your research (APA, MLS, or Chicago).
The citation style you are using will also determine the title or heading of your reference list. Papers
written in the APA style use the headline “References;” the MLA style uses the heading “Works Cited;”
and the Chicago style uses the heading “Bibliography.”
4. Take note of the other considerations in citing your references. For instance, make sure to arrange
your references alphabetically. In addition, use the en dash (―) instead of a hyphen (-) when
presenting page range (e.g., 5―13).

*****************************************************************************************

At this point, we will now answer the activity:

Activity 2: Check List

Description: Formulate a checklist on what to consider in the
NOW LET’S DO THIS “Results and Discussion” and “Conclusion” section.

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 32

*****************************************************************************************

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We have reached the end of the lesson. Now, what have you learned…
(Fill out the last column of the KWL Chart)

Now that you have a deeper understanding of the topic, you are ready to do the task in the next section.

III. REFLECTION

Reflective Writing:
Description: Answer the discussion question:
NOW LET’S DO THIS
• What new or additional learning have you had after this lesson in
terms of skills, content, and attitude?.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 34

Also, fill out the Reflective Log.

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 IV. ACTION

PERFORMANCE TASK: RESEARCH PAPER

Your group is expected to choose a topic based on a business phenomenon. Then your group will have to
finalize Chapter 1 to 5.
GENERAL GUIDELINES

Drafting, Consultation and Submission:

1. Mini Task 1,2, 3 and Performance Task may be drafted through Google Docs
2. Teachers and advisers may provide insights, edits, comments, and suggestions through Google Docs.
3. Group consultations may be done through face to face or online methods and platforms.
4. The groups are advised to set a schedule for consultation.
5. Final Research Proposal shall be submitted in PDF file.
6. Submission of the Performance Task may be done through e-mail.
7. Late submissions carry subsequent deductions.

Criteria for Grading:

1. There will be two components on how the students will be graded:
70% from the Research Proposal
30% from the Peer Evaluation
2. The group members must participate in performing the task.
3. The groups will submit a printed copy of the Final Research Proposal
4. Rubric for the Research Proposal and Peer evaluation will also be attached. (Peer Evaluation should also
include the average scores)

Standard academic format for research proposal:

* Short size bond paper
* Font: should be in a standard academic font: either Times New Roman or Cambria,
* Font size: 12pt size.
* 1” margins all around
* Alignment: The text of your paper should be left aligned, NOT justified.
* Document Spacing: The entire paper should be double-spaced, including the heading and
bibliography.
* Paragraph Spacing: your research proposal should have no extra spacing after paragraphs.
* Use 10pt spacing after paragraphs.
* BLOCKED QUOTATIONS: If a quotation will exceed four lines within a paragraph, you should separate
it out by blocking and indenting it. As with any quotation, a blocked quotation should be clearly
introduced by the sentence that leads up to it and it should also be properly cited, but the rules for
blocked quotations are somewhat different. The blocking takes the place of quotation marks, and

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 unlike in a regular in-paragraph quotation, the parenthetical citation goes outside of the final period
instead of inside of it (given that the blocked quote might contain several sentences.)
* Research paper should be in a clear folder.
* The Final paper will be graded based on the given criteria. (see attached sheet for Rubrics)

For the Research Proposal:

Content (35%) - the information contained in and communicated by the research.

Organization (25%) - the way in which the information is put together.
Style (20%) – sentence structure.
Grammar and Mechanics (10%) - the ability to express oneself so as to be understood by others
Documentation and Sources (10%) - appropriate citation and reference.

For the individual effort, each member of the group will rate their co-members based on the following criteria

Exceeds expectations - equivalent to A or 20 points

Meets expectations - equivalent to B or 15 points
Below expectations - equivalent to C or 10 points

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 37

Your work will be evaluated based on the attached rubric.

RUBRICS FOR THE RESEARCH PAPER (Performance Task)

VGE GE DE LE N
4 3 2 1 0
CONTENT (35%)
The background of the study is well established.
The research question or objectives are clear and specific.
The significance of the study is presented.
The literature review presents a sufficient number of
related studies.
The studies cited in the literature review are relevant to
the present study.
The related literature and studies are synthesized.
The participants in the study are properly selected.
The literature review presents studies directly related to
the current study.
The instruments are well defined and appropriate for the
study.
The procedures for data- gathering and analysis were well
described.
The research design used is well discussed.
The overall content is comprehensive.
ORGANIZATION (25%)
The work uses an organizational pattern and structure
appropriate for the genre.
Cohesive devices are effectively used.
Ideas are correctly outlined, thus improving the paper’s
organization.
The flow of ideas is smooth and the work is easy to read.
STYLE (20%)
The work showcases the writer’s voice.
The work uses a variety of sentence structures.
The work eliminates negative bias in language usage.
The work uses language appropriate to the context and
the academic genre.
The work eliminates wordiness.
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS (10%)
The grammar conventions in standard English are
observed.
Correct spelling and proper capitalization and
punctuations are observed.
Word choice is appropriate.
Sentences are well structured.
DOCUMENTATION AND SOURCES (10%)
The work uses an appropriate citation and reference
format.
The sources used are reliable.
The sources used are relevant to the topic.
TOTAL

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LEGEND: VGE - to a very great extent, GE - to a great extent, SE - to some extent,
LE - to a little extent, N - not at all

Your oral presentation will be evaluated based on the attached rubric.

RUBRIC FOR THE ORAL PRESENTATION

VGE GE DE LE N
4 3 2 1 0
CONTENT (50%)
The key points of the paper are covered.
The purpose behind the research is clear and well
defined.
The presentation is organized.
The paper is introduced effectively.
The presenter clearly explains the content of the
research.
Sufficient details about the project are provided.
The presentation is concluded effectively.
The presentation is completed within the set time limit.
The presentation responds to the needs, interests, values,
and beliefs of the audience.
DELIVERY (50%)
The presenter looks confident and comfortable in his/her
delivery.
The presenter shows mastery of the content of his/her
work.
The presenter is dressed appropriately.
The presenter uses appropriate gestures to further
reinforce his/her ideas.
The presenter does not overly rely on his/her notes.
Instead, he/she effectively uses eye contact to stay
connected with his/her audience.
The presenter avoids mannerisms or any distracting
behavior that may affect his/her delivery.
The presenter uses a pleasant yet firm tone of voice.
The presenter enunciates his/her words clearly.
The presenter avoids making offensive remarks directed
to the audience.
TOTAL

LEGEND: VGE - to a very great extent, GE - to a great extent, SE - to some extent,

LE - to a little extent, N - not at all

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 Closure Activity: Out-the-Door Activity
Description: You are going to be asked to take a card, circle one of
NOW LET’S DO THIS the following options, and return the card to me before you leave.

You are about to complete this lesson. Now answer the Post- Assessment to check how well you learned.

V. EVALUATION
POST-TEST:

It’s now time to evaluate your learning. Encircle the letter of the answer that you think best
answers the question.

Your score will be disclosed by your teacher during Consultation Periods.

1. Which is known as a paper-based or electronic tool with a list of questions or indicators with the aim of
collecting information about a particular research interest?
A. Interviews C. Questionnaires
B. Observation D. Test
2. Which effect is referred to when the responses of the participants may be affected by the behavior
displayed by the researcher?
A. Hawthorne Effect C. Interviewer Effect
B. Interviewee Effect D. John Henry Effect
3. Which is the most widely used approach of scaling responses in survey research wherein it is used to
gauge attitudes, values, and opinions?
A. Dichotomous Scale C. Semantic Differential Scale
B. Likert Scale D. Weighing Scale
4. Which is known as a document that provides the participants with the information they need in
deciding whether they will participate or not in your study?

RES 203: QUANTITATTIVE Page | 40

 A. Agreement Form C. Informed Consent Form
B. Contract D. Waiver Form
5. What type of non-prose material uses columns and rows to helps condense and classify information?
A. Diagrams C. Maps
B. Graphs D. Tables

For nos. 6 to 7, refer to the following choices:

A. ANOVA C. Pearson’s r
B. Multiple Regression D. T-test
6. What type of statistical tool is used to measure the strength of the association between the two
variables?
7. What type of statistical tool is used for testing the relationship between one dependent variable and at
least two independent variables?

8. What is known as the process of determining whether there is sufficient statistical evidence to support
a hypothesis?
A. Hypothesis analogy C. Hypothesis processing
B. Hypothesis formulation D. Hypothesis testing

For nos. 9 to 10, refer to the following choices:

A. Area Graph C. Circle Graph
B. Bar Graph D. Line Graph

9. What type of non-prose material shows the relationship of parts to a whole?

10. What type of non-prose material shows trends and changes in the data?

******************************************************************************************

AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM!

You have completed Module 1.

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