DISTANCE

Actual path length.

DISPLACEMENT

The shortest distance from the initial to the final position.

|Displacement| ≤ Distance
SPEED

Average Speed
It is defined as the ratio of total distance travelled to total time taken.
[For a given time interval ]
distance travelled
Average speed =
time interval

Instantaneous Speed
Speed of a particle at a particular instant.
VELOCITY

Average Velocity
total displacement
Average Velocity =
total time taken

rԦf − rԦi
<v>=
Total time

Instantaneous Velocity
dԦr
vinst =
dt
Note

Distance travelled ≥ |Displacement|

<Speed> ≥ |<Velocity>|

The magnitude of instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed are

always equal.
Example A particle traversed half of the distance with a velocity v1. The remaining part of the
distance was covered with velocity v2 for half the time and with velocity v3 for the
other half of the time. The mean velocity of the particle averaged over the whole
time of motion is

Solution

2v1 v2 + v3
Ans.
2v1 + v2 + v3
ACCELERATION

Average Acceleration
Change in velocity
Average acceleration =
time interval
Δv vf − vi
aavg = =
Δt tf − ti

Instantaneous Acceleration
Rate of change of velocity
Δv dv
ainst = lim =
Δt→0 Δt dt
 Rectilinear Motion

Use of Mathematical Tools in Solving Problems of

One–Dimensional Motion

dx dv
dt dt

Differentiation Differentiation
Position Velocity Acceleration
Integeration Integeration
(x) (𝐯) (a)
Change Change
in න dx = න vdt in න dv = න adt
x v
Rectilinear Motion

v = Constant
a=0
x - xo = vt

a = Constant
a≠0
a = Variable
 a = Constant v = u + at
a≠0
a = Variable
v. v − u. u = 2a. sԦ

1
sԦ = ut + at 2
2
1
S = vt − at 2
2
v+u
S= t
2
1
sԦnth = u + a 2n − 1
2
a = Variable
01 a = f (t)

dv
a=
dt

02 a = f (x) Or a = f (v)

dv dv
a=v Or a =
dx dt
 t3 5t2
Example A particle moves in a straight line according to the relations x = 3
− 2
+ 6t.
Find the displacement and distance travelled by the particle upto t=4sec.

Solution
Example A ball is projected vertically upwards with velocity 30m/s, find: -
(a) T
(b) Hmax 30m/s
(c) Velocity of t = 1
(d) Position of particle at t = 2
(e) Displacement in last second of its upward journey.

Solution
Ans.
a) 𝟔𝐬𝐞𝐜
b) 𝟒𝟓𝐦
c) V1 = 20m/s, V3 = 0, V5 = -20m/s, V6 = -30m/s
d) y2 = 40m, y3 = 45m, y4 = 40m, y5 = 25m
e) 50m
f) 5m
Motion in a Plane

Analysis of 2d Motion
Equations of motion should be applied separately for x and y directions.

x-axis y-axis

v x = ux + a x t v y = uy + a y t

1 1
Δx = ux t + ax t 2 Δy = uy t + ay t 2
2 2
vx2 = u2x + 2ax Δx vy2 = u2y + 2ay Δy
PROJECTILE MOTION
y

u sin θ
ax = 0
u cos θ

u sin θ
=
θ
O
u cosθ
x + ay = –g
Horizontal Vertical
Motion Motion
 y u sinθ – gt vP = ucosθ 2 + usinθ − gt 2

P(x, y) 𝛼 u cosθ

u sinθ u

u cosθ x
 Ground to Ground Projectile
Time of Maximum Height Horizontal Range or
Flight attained H Range (R)

2usinθ u2 sin2 θ u2 sin2θ

T= H= R=
g 2g g

2uy uy 2 2u𝑥 u𝑦
T= H= R=
g 2g g

Maximum Height Maximum Range

u2 u2
Hmax = Rmax =
2g g

for θ = 90° for θ = 45°

Same range for
complementary
angles
Example The trajectory of the projectile, projected from the ground is given
𝑥2
by 𝑦 = 𝑥 − . Where x and y are measured in meters.
20
The maximum height attained by the projectile will be: [JEE MAIN 2023]
(1) 5 m (2) 10 2m (3) 200 m (4) 10 m

Solution
Key Point

vP = (ucosθi)Ƹ + (usinθ − gt)jƸ

|vP | = u2 cos 2 θ + usinθ − gt 2

usinθ − gt Where a is angle that velocity

tana =
ucosθ vector makes with horizontal.

1
Ƹ + (usinθt − gt 2 )jƸ
sԦ = (ucosθi)t
2
Example A particle P is projected from a point on the surface of smooth inclined plane
(see figure). Simultaneously another particle Q is realised on the smooth
inclined plane from the same position. P and Q collide after t = 4s, the speed
of projected of P is :-

Solution

60o
Relative Motion
Motion is a combined property of the object under study as well as
the observer. It is always relative, there is no such thing like absolute
motion or absolute rest. Motion is always defined with respect to an
observer or reference frame.
Relative Motion
Relative Motion

Parameters of Relative Motion

By using Triangle law we can write.
y
rԦA + rԦBA = rԦB

A
rԦBA = rԦB − rԦA
rԦBA
rԦA d(ԦrBA ) d(ԦrB ) d(ԦrA )
B = −
dt dt dt

rԦB
V𝐁𝐀 = VB − VA
x
0
d(VBA ) d(VB ) d(VA )
𝐀 Observer = −
dt dt dt
rԦBA
𝐁 Object a𝐁𝐀 = aB − a A
Example A particle is moving along the x-axis with its coordinate with the time 't' given
be x(t) = 10 + 8t – 3t2. Another particle is moving the y-axis with its coordinate
as a function of time given by y(t) = 5 – 8t3. At t = 1s, the speed of the second
particle as measured in the frame of the first particle is given as V. Then v (in
m/s) is __________.

Solution

Ans. (580.00)
River Man Problem

If a man can swim relative to water with velocity VMR and water is flowing
relative to ground with velocity VR , velocity of man relative to ground VM will
will be given by:

VMR = VMG − VRG

VMG = VMR + VRG

Man can swim with velocity 5m/s (capability).

Velocity of man in still water.

Boat is heading at an angle 127o from the direction of flow.

 u

V+u

V-u
d
GENERAL EXPRESSION

VBR

𝛉 VB

𝛂
VR
 VR
Condition for Minimum Time to Cross River
VBR
VB

VR
Condition for Zero Drift

VR VB
sinθ =
VBR VBR

Only possible for the following condition:

VBR > VR
VR

Condition for Minimum Drift

VBR VBR 𝛉 VB
sinθ =
VR
Example A swimmer can swim with velocity of 12 km/h in still water. Water flowing in a
river has velocity 6 km/h. The direction with respect to the direction of flow of
river water he should swim in order to reach the point on the other bank just
opposite to his starting point is _________. (Round off to the Nearest Integer)
(find the angle in degree) [JEE MAIN 2021]

Solution

𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐨
Example A standing man, observes rain falling with velocity of 20 m/s at an angle of
30o with the vertical.
(i) Find the velocity with which the man should move so that rain appears to
fall vertically to him.
(ii) Now if he further increases his speed, rain again appears to fall at 30o with
the vertical. Find his new velocity.

Solution
NEWTON’S
LAW’S
OF
Newton’s First Law of Motion
A body remains at rest or in uniform motion until and unless it is acted
upon by an net external force. It is also called as law of inertia.
INERTIA
Inertia is property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any change in its
state of rest or state of uniform motion.
Mass of a body is quantitative or numerical measure of a body's inertia.

Inertia ∝ Mass

Inertia

Inertia Inertia of
of Rest Direction
Inertia of Motion
Newton’s Second Law
Rate of change of momentum of any system is directly proportional to the
applied net external force.

dp
Fext net ∝
dt

Key Point
If mass of the system is constant

Fext net = ma
Newton’s Third Law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

FBoy/wall F wall/boy

Wall
Boy
Key Point

Action-reaction pair acts on two different bodies

Magnitude of forces on two bodies will be same

Direction of forces on two bodies will be opposite

Nature of the two forces will be same.
The two forces act simultaneously
Example Find all normal reaction forces acting on the ball. System is in equilibrium.

Solution

Surface 1 Surface 2

Ans. N1 = 60 N, N2 = 80 N
Weighing Machine

Weighing
Machine
Example If a force of ‘F’ acts horizontally as shown in the diagram, find tension
at mid point
Mass-m
Solution F

𝐅
𝐀𝐧𝐬.
𝟐
Spring Force

For any small extension or compression in spring, the restoring force developed
in the spring varies linearly with extension or compression.

𝐅𝐬𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 = −𝐤𝐱
NL
x
K: spring constant
Fs
x: elongation or compression in
spring from natural length
Example Find out compression in spring at equilibrium. ( m= 10kg)

Solution k1=50N/m

NL
m

k2=100N/m
Example Find out compression in spring at equilibrium. ( m= 10kg)

Solution k1=50N/m

NL x

m
k2=100N/m

𝟐
𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝐱 =
𝟑
Inertial Frame of Reference

Reference frame either at rest or moving with constant velocity is

called inertial reference frame.

Acceleration of such a reference frame will be zero

Newton’s laws are applicable only for such reference frame

Note

By default, earth is considered as Inertial Frame

Non-inertial Frame of Reference

Reference frame moving with some acceleration is called non-

inertial reference frame.
Newton’s first and second law is not applicable for such reference frame

If we apply Newton’s first and second law in this reference frame

we will get wrong answer.

To apply Newton’s law in this reference frame we introduce a

factor which we called pseudo force.

Note

Newton’s third law is applicable for all types of reference frame

Pseudo Force

It is a factor (mathematical correction) not force which we introduce

only when we work in non-inertial reference frame

Fp = Mass of object × Acceleration of Reference frame

The direction of Fp is opposite to the direction of acceleration of
Reference frame
Example Find acceleration of wedge such that the block doesn’t move with respect to
the wedge.

Solution
a

Ans. a = gtan
Rod Constraint
𝐕𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟏
𝐕𝐀

θ1
𝐕𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝟐
θ2 𝐕𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝟏
𝐕𝐁
𝐕𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟐
𝐕𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝟏 = 𝐕𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝟐

Wedge Constraint

aA aB
F m
mA
B

aA = aB
Example Find velocity of Point A if Rod doesn’t leave the wall.

Solution
A
𝟐𝟎𝐦/𝐬 B 370 𝐯

𝟖𝟎
Ans. 𝐯 = 𝐦Τ𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝟑
Example Find out the velocity of follower when wedge is moving with a velocity of
20m/s as shown.

Solution

Vf
20m/s

370
Example Find out the velocity of follower when wedge is moving with a velocity of
20m/s as shown.

Solution

20m/s
Vf

370

Ans. vf = 15 m/sec
Virtual work method

σ T. X = O

σ T. V = O

σ T. a = O
Example Find velocity of m2

Solution

2m/s m1 m3 3m/s

V=? m2
Example Find velocity of m2

Solution

m3 3m/s
2m/s m1

V=? m2

𝟓
Ans. 𝐯 = 𝟐 𝐦Τ𝐬𝐞𝐜
FRICTION
FRICTION
FRICTION
Friction is the opposing force that is set up between the surfaces of contact,
when one body slides or tends to do so on the surface of another body.
Key Point

Friction does not oppose motion.

Rather it opposes relative motion between two surface in contact.

 Friction

Static Kinetic
(1) Static Friction

It acts when there is a tendency of relative slipping (only tendency not

actual) between two surfaces in contact.

It is a variable force whose value equal to the requirement to stop the

relative slipping till it reaches the limiting value.

Fsmax = μSN
(2) Kinetic friction

It is a constant force. (Fk = kN)

It acts when body is slipping over the surface of another surface.

It opposes the relative motion and acts opposite to the direction of

relative velocity.

Law of Kinetic friction

Friction force act between two surfaces in contact does not depend
upon area of contact.
Graph of Friction v/s Applied Force

Fs /limit Kinetic
fk
Friction

F
Example Find the minimum value of F to move the block on the surface.
F
Solution 𝛉

s

µS mg
Ans. F =
cosθ + µS sinθ
Example Find the friction force and the acceleration of block.

Solution
2 m/𝐬 𝟐

s = 0.5
10 kg 100N
k = 0.4

Rough

Ans. a = 5.2 m/sec2, fK = 48N

General steps to solve problem of friction

(1) We assume that there is no relative slipping between the two surfaces
in contact.

(2) Calculate the requirement of frictional force for above assumption.

(3) (i) If freq £ fs/lim Then our assumption is true and f = freq

(ii) If freq > fs/lim then, our assumption is not true and f = fk
Angle of friction and Net contact force

R N
 = Angle between N and R

f m Net contact force = 𝒇𝟐 + 𝐍 𝟐

𝐟
tan 𝛌 =
𝐍

In case of limiting
𝛌max= tan−1 (μs)
static friction
Angle of Repose


M

R
For 1 block m

CASE 01

𝛉 ≤ 𝛉𝐑

Condition for no slipping

For 1 block

CASE 02

m
𝛉 > 𝛉𝐑

Slipping will occur 

Example Block is at rest. Find the net contact force acting on the block.

Solution 2kg
 = 

°

Ans. R = 20 N
Example Two blocks (m = 0.5 kg and M = 4.5 kg) are arranged on a horizontal
frictionless table as shown in figure. The coefficient of static friction between
3
the two blocks is 7. Then the maximum horizontal force that can be applied
on the larger block so that the blocks move together is ______ N. (Round off
to the Nearest Integer) [Take g as 9.8 ms–2]

Solution
F

Ans. R = 21 N
Circular Motion

If a particle or an object moves along a circular path then its motion is known
as circular motion.
Circle
Locus of a point which is always at a fix distance (radius) from fixed point
(centre of circle) in a fix plane (plane of circle)

Radius
Centre
(1) Angular Displacement

It is an angle rotated by a particle while

moving in a circular path.
 r
arc dl Δl Δr r
θ= = = =
radius r r r

 is small
Δr = r. θ
Angular Velocity (𝛚)
It is defined as the rate of change in angular position.

Angular Velocity

θf − θi dθ
<ω>= ω=
Δt dt
Average Angular Instantaneous Angular
Velocity Velocity

SI unit of ω = rad/sec Dimension = [T–1]

Note

2π 2π 2π π
ω= T= 1RPM = = radΤsec
T ω 60 30
Angular Acceleration

The rate of change of angular velocity w.r.t time is known as angular

acceleration.
Δω
Angular Acceleration = α = Δt

Angular Acceleration 𝛂

Δω ωf − ωi dω
<α >= = α=
Δt Δt dt

Average Instantaneous

Direction of α  Δω
if ω ↑ → α is parallel to ω
if ω ↓ → α is anti-parallel to ω
Equation of Motion in Terms of Angular Variables
a = constant a = constant

v = u + at  = 0 + at

1 1
s = ut + at 2 θ = ω0 t + at 2
2 2
v 2 = u2 + 2as ω2 = ω20 + 2αθ
a α
snth = u + 2n − 1 θnth = ω 0 + 2n − 1
2 2
u+v ω0 + ω
s= t θ= t
2 2
 Example The angular position () of a particle performing circular motion is given as
 = t3 + 3t2 – 2t + 1
Find :-
(a) Angular velocity at t = 2 sec.

(b) Average angular velocity in 2 sec.

(c) Angular acceleration at t = 2sec.

(d) Average angular acceleration in 2 sec.

Solution

Ans. (a) 22 rad/sec (b) 8 rad/sec(c) 18 rad/sec2(d) 12 rad/sec2

Uniform Circular Motion Non-Uniform Circular Motion

Speed = Constant Speed ≠ Constant

e.g. v = 2m/s e.g. v = 2t 2 + 1; v = 3t – 2 ; etc.

Velocity = always changing Velocity = always changing

Only one acceleration Many acceleration

i.e. centripetal acceleration i.e. centripetal acceleration, angular,
tangential, total acceleration.

F v
Key Point

The acceleration is due to change in direction of velocity. It is called

centripetal acceleration or normal acceleration. (aN).
ac is always directed towards the centre i.e. ⊥ to the velocity.
V V

ac
ac

ac ac V
ac

V
V
It acts always towards the centre. So, it is centripetal.

In U.C.M, magnitude of ac is constant but direction is changing.

Accelerations in Non Uniform Circular Motion

dv
anet =
dt

Magnitude Direction

|d|v|| ac
at =
dt [centripetal acceleration]
[tangential acceleration]
 Example A particle is moving in a circle of radius 5m has constant magnitude of at.
At t = 1sec, speed of particle is 10 m/s and net acceleration makes an angle
of 37° with ac (particle is speedy up).
Find:

(a) magnitude of at . anet at

v
Solution (b) speed of particle at t = 2 sec.
(c) Angle made by anet with ac at t = 2sec. t = 1 sec
ac
 Example A particle is moving in a circle of radius 5m has constant magnitude of at.
At t = 1sec, speed of particle is 10 m/s and net acceleration makes an angle
of 37° with ac (particle is speedy up).
Find
(b) speed of particle at t = 2 sec. anet at
v
(c) Angle made by anet with ac at t = 2sec.
Solution
t = 1 sec
ac

3
Ans. (a)15 m/s2 b 25 m/s c tanθ = 25
 Radius of curvature (ROC)

V2
aN =
R

V2
R=
aN

Step to calculate ROC

1. Find speed of the particle

2. Find aN (normal acceleration)

V2
3. Apply R =
aN
 Radius of curvature (ROC)

v
ac = a⊥ a
gsina
u a
g gcosa


v2
a ⊥ = aC = a ⊥ = aC = gcosα
R
v2 v2
R = = v2 v2
ac a⊥ R= =
a⊥ gcosα
a ⊥ = component of a ⊥ to v
 Example A Golf ball is projected with speed of 40 2 m/s at an angle of 45° with
horizontal. Find Radius of curvature at t = 4 sec

Solution

Ans. (i) 160 m

Example Find the tension force in both the rods

𝝎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔
1kg 2 kg

5m 5m

Ans. T1 = 2000 N, T2 = 2500 N

 Conical
Pendulum
 Example Consider a conical pendulum having bob of mass m is suspended from a
ceiling through a string of length L. The boob moves in a horizontal circle of
radius r.
Find (a) the angular speed of the bob and (b) the tension in the string.

Solution

mg𝓁 gr2
Ans. T = ,V =
𝓁2 −r2 𝓁2 −r2
Banking of Rod
Friction Speed

Not Present v= Rgtanθ

tanθ − μ tanθ + μ
Present Rg ≤V≤ Rg
1 + μtanθ 1 − μtanθ
 Example A hemispherical bowl of radius 'K' is rotating with '' as shown. A small ball of
mass(m) kept in the bowl, rotate with the bowl without slipping on its surface.
If the surface of the bowl is smooth. Find  in terms of R, g and .
Solution

g
Ans. ω = Rtanθ
Work
Work done by a force is equal to the scalar product of the applied force and
displacement of point of application of the force.

dW = F. dԦs

F : Force on the object

dԦs : Displacement of point of application of the force.

W = නdW = නF. dԦs = නFdscosθ

θ : Angle between force and displacement.

W = ∫ F. dԦs
 Example A 10 kg block is placed on rough horizontal surface (μ = 0.2) . A force F = 40N
acting along positive x-direction. ( At t = 0 block is at rest )
(a) Find work done by F and friction force on the block
(b) Find net work done
in 2 sec ?
Solution
Work Done by Constant Force

F(constant)

II

d
I

III

WF = Fsll sll ∶ Displacement in the direction of the force

WI = WII = WIII = Fd
Work Done by Variable Force
Force being a vector quantity can change in magnitude or direction or both
with respect to space and time.

F = Fx iƸ + Fy jƸ + Fz k෠
sԦ = xiƸ + yjƸ + zk෠

𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝐳𝟐

𝐖 = න 𝐅𝐱 𝐝𝐱 + න 𝐅𝐲 𝐝𝐲 + න 𝐅𝟐 𝐝𝐳
𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟏
 Example If force F = 2iƸ + 2yjƸ + 3z 2 k෠ acts on a particle and particle move from (1,2,1)
to (2,3,0). Find work done by this force?

Solution
Work done as Area Under the Curve

Work done by force F :

F
xf = b F = f(x)
W = න F. dx
xi = a

Area under F-x curve will give work done

x
a dx b
Example Calculate the work done by force for moving particle as shown in the graph?
F (N)
Solution
10
5
10 20 30
0
x (m)
–5
–10
Work Done by Spring Force

1
Wsp = k(xi2 − xf2 )
2

Note

Work done by spring force does not depend on path followed by body, it
only depends on initial and final change in length of the spring.
 Example Find work done by spring
force, when the spring
becomes vertical ?
(Natural length of the
spring is 2m, K = 20N/m.)
Solution

3m
5m
 Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or configuration in a
conservative force field is called Potential Energy(P.E.).
P.E. is defined only for conservative forces.
P.E. is a relative quantity, only change in P.E. is defined.
P.E. cannot be defined for single particle system, it is defined for
system of particles.

For given system change in P.E. (U) is defined as negative of

work done by internal conservative forces.

∆U = – WI.C.F Work done by internal

conservative force
Uf – Ui = – WI.C.F
Spring P.E.
1
U = – WICF = – Wsp Uf – Ui = K x 2
2
1 1 1
=– K xi2 – xf2 Uf = Ui + 2 K x 2 = 2 K x 2
2
1 1
=– K o2 – x 2 Ux = K x2
2 2

NLP (Ref. Position)

K x
(i) (f)

Ui = 0
 Example System is in equilibrium, find potential
energy stored in the spring?

Solution K
Relation between P.E & conservative force

F = Fx iƸ + Fy iƸ + Fz k෠ ;
U = – WC.F.

ΔU = – නF. dԦr

if dԦr = dxiƸ + dyjƸ + dzk෠

& at (x1, y1, z1) : Ui

at (x2, y2, z2) : Uf
Then,

x2 y2 z2

Uf – Ui = න Fxdx + න Fydy + න Fzdz

x1 y1 z1
 Example A conservative force F = 2xiƸ + 3y 2 jƸ + 4k෠ acts on a particle. If P.E. at (1, 2, 0) is
–10J, find P.E. at (1, –2, 1)?

Solution
Equilibrium and it's type:

෍ Fnet = 0

Equilibrium

Stable Neutral
Equilibrium Equilibrium
Unstable
Equilibrium
 x3 5x2
Example If the potential energy of a particle is U = 3
– 2
+ 6x + 8, find

(a) Equilibrium position (b) Nature of equilibrium

Solution
 Work Energy Theorem (W.E.T)

Work done by all the forces (internal + External) acting on the system is equal
to change in Kinetic Energy (K.E) of the system.

Wnet =  K.E = K.Ef – K.Ei

for a particle

1
K.E = mv 2
2

Wnet = K. Ef − K. Ei

1
Wnet = m Vf2 − Vi2
2
 Example Find velocity of block of mass m when it reaches bottom?

Solution

V=0

Smooth
Note

M.E = K.E + P.E

K.E = M.E – P.E

Region in which particle can be found (trapped)

• K.E  0
• M.E –P.E  0
• M.E  P.E

Region in which particle cannot be found

• K.E < 0
• M.E < P.E
 Example A ball of mass m is released from rest, find maximum compression in the spring?

Solution

h
xm
K
Smooth
Vertical Circular Motion
 Example Find minimum speed at bottommost
point so that particle complete
circular motion?
Solution
 Example A massless rod of length l having a particle of mass ‘m’ attached to it’s end,
find minimum speed of particle at bottom-most point such that it will
complete circular motion?
Solution
Power

Power is defined as the rate of doing work.

or
The amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time.

dW
Instantaneous Power : P=
dt

Total work done

Average Power : <P >=
Total time taken to do work

W. D ΔK. E.
<P>= =
Δt time

S.I. Unit : J/sec , Watt (W)

Horse Power; 1HP = 746 watts.

Power

dW F. dԦr
PInst. = = = F. v
dt dt

PInst. = Fv cos   Angle between force and velocity.

PInst. = F vcos = F×(component of v in the direction of F )

PInst. = Fcos v = (component of F in the direction of v ) × v

Work done
Efficiency (η) =
Energy Input

Power Output
=
Power Input
 Example Work done by a particle depends on t as w = 3t2 + 2t, find power delivered by
force at time 2 sec and also find average power from t = 0 to t = 2 sec?

Solution
Calculation of COM Mass For Discrete Particle

In vector form
y
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 +. . . . . . . . . . m1 (x ,y ,z )
rԦcom = 1 1 1
m1 + m2 + m3 . . . . . .
rԦ1
m2 (x2,y2,z2)
Σmi rԦi rԦ2
rԦcom =
Σmi x
rԦ3
m3
z (x3y3z3)
In Cartesian Coordinate System
y
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 +. . . . . . . . . . m1 (x ,y ,z )
xcom = 1 1 1
m1 + m2 + m3 . . . . . .

Σmi xi rԦ1
xcom =
Σmi m2 (x2,y2,z2)
rԦ2
m1 y1 + m2 y2 + m3 y3 +. . . . . . . . x
ycom =
m1 + m2 + m3 . . . . . . . .
rԦ3
m3
Σmi yi z (x3y3z3)
ycom =
Σmi

Σmi zi
zcom =
Σmi
 Example Find out the center of mass for system of discrete particle

Solution
1kg 2kg 3kg nkg

1cm 1cm 1cm

Example Find out the center of mass for system of discrete particle
1Kg 1Kg
2Kg 2Kg

1Kg 1Kg
2Kg
2Kg
𝑎
Solution y

(0,a,0) 1Kg 1Kg

(a,a,0)
2Kg 2Kg
(0,a,a) (a,a,a)

1Kg (0,0,0) 1Kg(a,0,0)

2Kg
x
(0,0,a)
2Kg
(a,0,a)
Two Particle system

r1 r2

m1 com m2
r

m2 (r) + m1 (0)
ycom = m1 r1 = m2 r2
m1 + m2
r1 m2
=
m2 r r2 m1
=
m1 + m2
𝟏
𝐫∝
𝐦
Important Points in Two Particle System

COM divided the distance between two particle in the inverse ratio of
masses.

COM will be neater to the heavy mass.

COM of two particle system lies on the line joining them.

COM of Continuous Body

∫ rdm
rԦcom =
∫ dm

∫ xdm Where,
xcom =
∫ dm x is x -coordinate of COM of element

∫ ydm Where,
ycom =
∫ dm y is y-coordinate of COM of element

∫ zdm Where,
zcom =
∫ dm z is z -coordinate of COM of element
 1 Linear mass density ()

M (mass per unit length)

λ=
L Unit : kg/m

Types of
densities 2 Surface or areal mass density ()

M
σ= (mass per unit area)
A
Unit : kg/m2

3 Volume mass density ()

M
ρ= (mass per unit volume)
V Unit : kg/m3
 Table of COM of various Regular Shapes

Cone h
4
h
Triangular Plate
3
R
Hollow Hemisphere
2
2R
Ring
π
3R
Solid Hemisphere
8
4R
Disc
3π
 Example Find out the COM of a rod of mass ‘M’ and length ‘L’ whose linear mass
density is given as λ = λ0 x

Solution L

x dx
COM of combination of bodies

To calculate COM of combination of bodies the mass of each body can be

assumed to be concentrated at their respective COM.

Then with the help of knowledge of discrete particle system we can

calculate COM of combination of bodies.
 Example From a square plate of side 4a a circular plate is cut as shown. Find COM of
remaining portion.

Solution

4a
Solution
Kinematic of COM

We know that,
m1 r1 +m2 r2 + ….
rԦcom = ………….[a]
m1 +m2 + ….

m1 r1 i+m2 r2 i+ ….
rԦcom i = ………….[1]
m1 +m2 + ….

m1 r1 f+m2 r2 f+ ….
rԦcom f = ………….[2]
m1 +m2 + ….

Subtracting equation [1] and [2]

m1 rԦ1 f − rԦ1 i + m2 rԦ2 f − rԦ2 i + …
sԦcom = rԦcomf − rԦcomi =
m1 + m2 + …
 m1 rԦ1 f − rԦ1 i + m2 rԦ2 f − rԦ2 i + …
sԦcom = rԦcomf − rԦcomi =
m1 + m2 + …

m1 sԦ1 + m2 sԦ2 +. . . . . . .
sԦcom =
m1 + m2 +. . . . . .
 m1 rԦ1 f − rԦ1 i + m2 rԦ2 f − rԦ2 i + …
sԦcom = rԦcomf − rԦcomi =
m1 + m2 + …

m1 sԦ1 + m2 sԦ2 +. . . . . . .
sԦcom =
m1 + m2 +. . . . . .

Differentiating equation (a) w.r.t. time

 Kinematic of COM

We know that,

𝑚1 𝑟Ԧ1 +𝑚2 𝑟Ԧ2 + ….

𝑟Ԧ𝑐𝑜𝑚 = ………….[a]
𝑚1 +𝑚2 + ….

𝑚1 𝑟Ԧ1 𝑖+𝑚2 𝑟Ԧ2 𝑖 + ….

𝑟Ԧ𝑐𝑜𝑚 𝑖 = ………….[1]
𝑚1 +𝑚2 + ….

𝑚1 𝑟Ԧ1 𝑓+𝑚2 𝑟Ԧ2 𝑓+ ….

𝑟Ԧ𝑐𝑜𝑚 𝑓 = ………….[2]
𝑚1 +𝑚2 + ….

Subtracting equation [1] and [2]

𝒎𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝒇 − 𝒓𝟏 𝒊 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒇 − 𝒓𝟐 𝒊 + …
𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒎 = 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒇 − 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒊 =
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 + …
 𝑚1 𝑟Ԧ1 +𝑚2 𝑟Ԧ2 + ….
𝑟Ԧ𝑐𝑜𝑚 = ………….[a]
𝑚1 +𝑚2 + ….

Differentiating equation (a) w.r.t. time

dԦr1 dԦr2
dԦrcom m1 dt + m2 dt +. . . . . . .
=
dt m1 + m2 +. . . . . .
 dԦr1 dԦr2
dԦrcom m1 dt + m2 dt +. . . . . . .
=
dt m1 + m2 +. . . . . .

m1 v1 + m2 v2 +. . . . . .
vcom =
m1 + m2 +. . .

Differentiating above equation w.r.t. time

dv1 dv2
dvcom m1 dt + m2 dt +. . . . . . .
=
dt m1 + m2 +. . . . . .
 dv1 dv2
dvcom m1 dt + m2 dt +. . . . . . .
=
dt m1 + m2 +. . . . . .

m1 a1 + m2 a2 +. . .
acom =
m1 + m2 + …
 Example Find displacement of com, when man reaches end of the plank. Friction is
sufficient enough so that plank does not slide.

Solution

M = 60 kg

20 kg
5m
Principle of conservation of linear momentum

If net external force applies on a system is zero then net momentum of system
remains conserved.

pi = pf Momentum Conservation

m1v1 + m2v2 … … … . = m1u1 + m2u2

Head on collision

In head on collision the initial velocities of colliding object lies on the common
normal. (Line of impact)
Oblique Collision

In this type of collision initial velocity of colliding object are not along the
common normal (line of impact).
Coefficient of Restitution (e)

impulse of reformation
e=
impulse of deformation

vel. of seperation
e=
vel. of Approach

u1 v1 v2 u2

4kg 2kg

v2 − v1
e=
u1 − u2
 1 Perfectly elastic collision (e=1)

There are
three types 2 Partially inelastic collision (0 < e < 1)
of collision

3 Perfectly inelastic collision(e = 0)

 Pi + em2 u2 − u1
v1 =
m1 + m2

Pi + em1 u1 − u2
v2 =
m1 + m2
Key Points of Perfectly Elastic Collision

Initial kinetic energy of system is equal to final K.E. of system but it is not
equal throughout the process.

At the instant when velocity of both the bodies or same (VCOM) the P.E. is
maximum, and KE is minimum.

Momentum is also conserved. This is valid in any type of collision.

 Example A ball of mass m is moving with velocity V0 and another ball of mass 2m is at
rest as shown. Find the velocity of balls after collision, if collision is elastic.

Solution V0 2V0
v0 3 3
m 2m
Rest
 Find the time duration between first and second collision. The given figure lies
on smooth horizontal table.
1
{𝑒 = 2}
Solution

v
 F
Impulse

dp
F=
dt

Fdt = dp

Integrating both sides

t

න Fdt = නdp

Impulse = change in momentum.

Find Impulse

m=1 kg

V = 10 m/s

° °

Smooth
Impulsive and Non-impulsive forces

Forces which acts for a very small-time interval and whose magnitude is
very large are called impulsive forces.

Gravitational force, spring force are non-impulsive in nature.

Friction, Normal and tension may be impulsive or non-impulsive

depending upon the situation.
Impulsive and Non-impulsive forces

Even in the presence of non-impulsive force we can conserve momentum

of the system just before the event and just after the event (collision,
explosion) because the change in momentum due to non-impulsive force
during the event of small duration is negligible.

Area of F-t graph change in momentum or impulse.

 Example Find maximum compression in the spring after collision they will stick.

Solution
Dynamics of COM

The Newton’s second law equation for the motion of the center of mass
of a system of particles is given as

Fnet = MT acom

To calculate linear momentum of system whole mass of system can be

assumed to be concentrated at its center of mass.

Psys = MTvcom = m1v1 +

m2 v2 +
m3v3 +
…….
Kinetic energy of system is equal to sum of individual KE of particles in
system

1 1 1
KEsys = m1 v12 + m2 v22 + m3 v32 + ⋯
2 2 2

For calculating KE of system we cannot assume whole mass to be present

at COM.

1 2
KEsys ≠ MT vcom
2
Key Point

If linear momentum of system is zero than KE of system may or may not

be zero.

If the KE of system is ‘0’ then it’s linear momentum must be equal to ‘0’.
Example Find the trajectory of COM when the rod is released on smooth surface.
Example Find the trajectory of COM when the rod is released on smooth surface.
Moment of Inertia

Property of a rigid body by virtue of which it opposes change in its

rotational velocity (angular velocity) is known as moment of inertia (MI).

MI is always calculated with respect to an axis of rotation.

MI of a body may be different about different axis of rotation

MI plays same role in rotational motion as mass plays in translational

motion.
Example Find moment of inertia about axis passing through centre of mass and
perpendicular to line joining m1 and m2 .
Solution
P
m1 m2

m1 m2 r 2
Ans. I= = μr 2
m1 + m2
 Classification (I = 𝐦𝐫𝟐)

Discreate System (Particle) Continuous Mass System

2
Ixx′ = Σmi rx i Ixx′ = න rx2 dm

2
Iyy′ = Σmi ry Iyy′ = න ry2 dm
i

2
Izz′ = Σmi rz i
Izz′ = න rz2 dm

rx → distance of particle from x − axis

(not x − cordinate)
Parallel Axis Theorem Perpendicular Axis Theorem

z
lamina y
M
P
C
x

d
Example Two discs of same mass and different radii are made of different materials
such that their thicknesses are 1 cm and 0.5 cm respectively. The densities of
materials are in the ratio 3:5. The moment of inertia of these discs respectively
𝑥
about their diameters will be in the ratio of . The value of x is_______.
6
Solution (JEE MAIN 2022)

Ans. (5)
Radius of Gyration

The radial distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia

the same as the body’s actual distribution of mass, if the total mass
of the body were concentrated there.
Example A circular disc of radius b has a hole of radius a at its centre (see figure). If the
σ0
mass per unit area of the disc varies as , then the radius of gyration of the
r
disc about its axis passing through the centre is : (JEE MAIN 2019)
a+b a+b
(1) (2) b
2 3

(3)
a2 +b2 +ab
(4)
a2 +b2 +ab a
2 3

Solution

Ans. (4)
 τ = rԦ× F

|τ| = rF sinθ

|τ| = r(F sinθ) |τ| =F(r sinθ)

|τ| = r F⊥ |τ| = F r⊥

Fcosθ

θ θ
P F P F
rsinθ
rԦ rԦ

O O rcosθ
Example A particle of mass m is moving along a trajectory given by (JEE MAIN 2019)
x = x0 + a cos1t
y = y0 + b sin2t
The torque, acting on the particle about the origin, at t = 0 is :
(1) m (–x0b + y0a) ω12 k෠ (2) +my0a ω12 k෠
(3) – m(x0 bω22 − y0 aω12 )k෠ (4) Zero

Solution

Ans. (𝟐)
Example A uniform cylinder of height h, radius r and mass M is placed with its circular
face on a rough inclined plane and the inclination of the plane to the
horizontal is gradually increased.
If μ is the coefficient of friction, then under what conditions the cylinder will
slide before toppling.
Solution

Rough

θ
Solution

Rough

2R
Ans. μ <
H
Angular Momentum
𝑣Ԧ
m
𝑟Ԧ

For Point Particle

L = rԦ × p SI Unit : kg m2/s

L = rԦ × mv Direction : Right hand thumb rule.

L = m rԦ × v
 L = mvrsinθ

mrv⊥ mvr⊥

vcosθ

θ θ
v v
m m
rԦ vsinθ rԦ
rsinθ

o o
rcosθ
Example A particle of mass m is projected from the origin with a speed v0 making
angle θ with the horizontal axis. Find the angular momentum about the origin
when it is at
(a) Top most point of its trajectory.
(b) Just before the particle strikes the ground surface.
Solution

u2 sin2 θ u2 sin2θ
Ans. a m ucosθ, b m usinθ
2g g
TRANSLATIONAL ROTATIONAL

1. x, v, a, m, F, P, JL 1. θ, ω, α, I, τ, L, Jθ

dp dL
2. F = = ma 2. τ = = Iα
dt dt

3. p = mv 3. L = Iω

1 p2 1 L2
4. KE = 2 mv 2 = 2m 4. KE = 2 Iω 2 = 2I

5. Work = ∫ F dx 5. W = ∫ τ dθ

W ω
6. Power = t = F. v 6. Power = t = τ. ω

7. ԦJL = ∫ F dt = ΔP 7. ԦJθ = ∫ τ dt = ΔL
Example A bob of mass m attached to an inextensible string of length 𝓁 is suspended
from a vertical support. The bob rotates in a horizontal circle with an angular
speed ω rad/s about the vertical. About the point of suspension :
(1) Angular momentum changes in direction but not in magnitude
(2) Angular momentum changes both in direction and magnitude
(3) Angular momentum is conserved
(4) Angular momentum changes in magnitude but not in direction.
Solution (JEE MAIN 2014)

𝜔
Ans. (1)
Example A slender uniform rod of mass M and length  is pivoted at one end so that it
can rotate in a vertical plane (see figure). There is negligible friction at the
pivot. The free end is held vertically above the pivot and then released. The
angular acceleration of the rod when it makes an angle  with the vertical is :
3g 2g Z (JEE MAIN 2017)
(1) 2𝓁 cos θ (2) 3𝓁 cos θ
3g 2g
(3) 2𝓁 sin θ (4) 3𝓁 sin θ

Solution
X

Ans. (3)
Conservation of Angular Momentum

dL
τext =
dt

If τext = 0

dL
 =0
dt

 L constant

If external torque on a system about an axis is zero then angular

momentum of the system about the axis remains constant.

In fixed axis rotation L = Iω = constant

Conservation of Angular Momentum

L = I𝜔 = constant
Example A particle of mass m is revolving in a horizontal plane in a circle of radius R.
If radius of its path is made half by pulling the string.
Find: V0
R
m
(i) Speed of the particle.
(ii) Work done by pulling force in the process.
Solution F
Solution
V0
m
R

V
m
R/2

3mv02
Ans. 2v0 ,
2
Instantaneous Axis of Rotation (IAR)
It is a mathematical concept.

A line about that a body in combined translation and rotation (CRTM) can
be conceived in pure rotation at an instant, is called IAR.

It continuously changes its location.

It is perpendicular to plane of the motion and its intersection with this

plane is known as instantaneous centre of rotation (ICR) or instantaneous
centre of zero velocity.
Location of ICR

𝑽𝑨

𝒓𝒂
ICR

Radius vector (position vector) drawn from ICR to any point of rigid body is
always perpendicular to the velocity of the point.

VA is ⊥ar to rԦA

and VA = ωrA
CASE 01 Velocity of a point on a body and its angular velocity is known -
 ICR


rԦ

P P
VP VP
rԦ

ICR

Draw a line perpendicular to VP

ICR lies on this line at a distance r from point P such that

VP = ω × rԦ
CASE 02

Velocities of two different points on a body are known and they are not
parallel -
VA = ωrA

VB = ωrB
A
𝑽𝑨

rA
B
rB
ICR
𝑽𝑩

Draw lines perpendicular to VA and VB their intersection is location of ICR.

CASE 03 Velocities of two different points on a body are known and they
are parallel -
ICR

rA
A
A 𝑽𝑨
rA 𝑽𝑨 rB
ICR
d d
rB

𝑽𝑩 B
B 𝑽𝑩

VA = ωrA VA = ωrA
VB = ωrB VB = ωrB
rA + rB = d rB − rA = d
Note

In this case, if VA = VB then ICR lie at ∞. It means

ω = 0 ⇒ Body is in pure Translation.

𝐕𝐀

𝐕𝐁
Velocity of Different Points
R

V


P P

d
1.) If d > 2pR Slipping in Friction in V > Rw Role of friction
eg brake forward backward v  & w
direction direction This v’= Rw’
2.) If d > 2pR Backward Forward V < Rw v & w
eg (mud) direction direction This v’= Rw’
3.) If d = 2pR slipping Friction may V = Rw Case dependent
or may not be
zero
Pure Rolling on a Moving Surface


vCM

V
A

V
Example Find velocity of centre of mass of the sphere and it’s angular velocity if there is
no slipping anywhere.

Solution
3V

5V
Solution
A
3V 𝑣0 + 𝑅𝜔
𝑣0

𝑅𝜔 𝑣0
5V
B

Ans. V, 4V/R
 (a) If the inclined plane is rough

Object
M, R, K
Rest

Rough

𝛉
 N

f CM

mgsin

mgcos


mgsinθ gsinθ
f= αCM =
R2 K2
1+ 1+
k2 R2
Minimum value of friction coefficient (𝛍) needed for
pure rolling on an inclined plane –
N

f CM

mgsin

mgcos


θ
tanθ
μmin =
R2
1+ 2
K
Velocity of CM when the body reaches the bottom
Use work - Energy Theorem

Rest

s
ω
H M, R, K

VC
Rough θ

2gH
⇒ VCM = K2
1+ 2
R

Note

In case of pure rolling on fixed surface friction does zero work because point
of contact is always at rest.
Important Point

mgsinθ
f= Rest
R2
1+ 2
k
s
gsinθ ω
aCM =
K2 H M, R, K
1+
R2
VC
Rough θ
tanθ
μmin =
R2
1+
K2

2gH
VCM = 1 2H K2
K2 t= (1 + 2 )
1+ 2 sinθ g R
R
 𝟐
𝐊
Body ICM K
𝐑

Ring MR2 R 1

1 R 1
Disc MR2 = 0.5
2 2 2
Hollow Cylinder MR2 R 1

1 R 1
Solid Cylinder MR2 = 0.5
2 2 2

2 2 2
Hollow Sphere MR2 R = 0.67
3 3 3

2 2 2
Solid Sphere MR2 R = 0.4
5 5 5
 𝟐
𝐊
Body ICM K
𝐑
Ring MR2 R 1
1 R 1
Disc MR2 = 0.5
2 2 2
Hollow Cylinder MR2 R 1
1 R 1
Solid Cylinder MR2 = 0.5
2 2 2

2 2 2
Hollow Sphere MR2 R = 0.67
3 3 3

2 2 2
Solid Sphere MR2 R = 0.4
5 5 5
K 2
→ Ring = Hollow Cylinder > Hollow Sphere > Disc = Solid Cylinder > Solid Sphere.
R

aCM → Solid Sphere > Solid Cylinder = Disc > Hollow Sphere > Hollow Cylinder = Ring

vCM → Solid Sphere > Solid Cylinder = Disc > Hollow Sphere > Hollow Cylinder = Ring

t → Ring = Hollow cylinder > Hollow Sphere > Disc = Solid Cylinder > Solid sphere
 h h h
θ θ
θ = 90o

2gh
V= V= 2gh V= 2gh
k2
1+ 2
R

gsinθ
a= a = gsinθ a=g
k2
1+ 2
R

1 2ℎ K2 1 2h 2h
𝑡= (1 + 2 ) t= t=
sinθ g R sinθ g g
Direction of friction

F
x
F
F

f P f P
Can’t be determined if
x & object is not given
KE & angular momentum in rolling

1 2
1 2
KE = mv + I𝜔
2 2 V
translational Rotational 

If pure rolling : v = R

1 2
1 2
v2
KE = mv + mk L = Ltranslational + Lrotational
2 2 R2
L = mvR + I𝜔
1 k2
KE = mv 2 1 + 2 Power rolling ; v = R𝜔
2 R
v
L = mvR + mk 2
R
k2
L = mvR 1 + 2
R
  
O 𝐫Ԧ𝐜𝐦/𝐎 O 𝐫Ԧ𝐜𝐦/𝐎

CM CM CM
VCM/O VCM/O

Pure rotation Pure Translation

L = Lcm + M rԦcmΤo × vcmΤo

L = ICM ω + rԦcmΤo × Pcm

Simple
Harmonic
Motion
Periodic Motion

A motion which repeats itself after a regular interval of time is

called periodic motion.

Oscillatory Motion

To and fro motion or motion of a particle along the same path about a
fixed point is an oscillatory motion.

Oscillatory Motion Analysis by Force

If the force on an object varies according to the following

relation:

F = K −x n (where n = 1,3,5,7 … )
Simple Harmonic Motion

It is a special type of oscillatory and periodic motion.

n
F = K −x
This is the equation of Oscillatory Motion.

For n = 1;
F = −Kx This is the equation of SHM.

Linear S.H.M.

F = −kx k → Force constant of the S. H. M.

 Angular Frequency
It is rate of change of
phase 𝐰. 𝐫. 𝐭. time

Displacement
Initial
from Mean
Phase
Position
x = Asin(ωt + ϕ)

AMPLITUDE PHASE
 x F Acceleration Velocity
1

4
𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐀𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐬:

x = A sin(ωt + ϕ)

dx
V= = Aω cos(ωt + ϕ)
dt

Vmin =0 , At x = ±A
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ± 𝐀𝛚 , At x = 0

𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ± 𝐀𝛚
𝐯

Velocity vs time :
V= Aωcos(ωt) t
 Relation between velocity and position

v
(𝟎, 𝑨𝛚)
V = ω A2 − x 2

x2 V2 – 𝐀, 𝟎 (𝐀, 𝟎)
+ =1 x
A2 Aω 2

(𝟎, – 𝑨𝛚)
If 𝛚 > 𝟏 (𝐀𝛚 > 𝐀) If 𝛚 < 𝟏 (𝐀𝛚 < 𝐀) If 𝛚 = 𝟏 (𝐀𝛚 = 𝐀)
𝒗 𝒗 𝒗

𝐴𝜔 𝐴𝜔
𝐴𝜔
𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
General Observation

At x = ±x0 , |V| is same

V1 = |V2 |= |V3 |= |V4 |

𝑴𝑷
𝟏

𝟑 V1 = V4
𝟐 V2 = V3

Vmax = Aω
Acceleration analysis

x = A sin ωt + ϕ a

V = Aω cos ωt + ϕ
dV
a= = −A ω2 sin ωt + ϕ
dt t

a = −ω2 x

Note a
𝝎𝟐 𝑨
amin = 0 , At x = 0
𝜃 +𝑨
𝐚𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ±ω2 A , At x = ±A
−𝑨 x

−𝝎𝟐 𝑨
 Relation between velocity and acceleration

V = Aω cos ωt + ϕ ⇒ a = −A ω2 sin ωt + ϕ

V2 a2
+ =1
A2 ω2 Aω2 2
a
(0, ω2A)

– Aω, 0 (Aω, 0)
v

Graph between velocity and acceleration: (0, −ω2A)

When Velocity is maximum, i.e. Aω, then acceleration is 0
When velocity is minimum, i.e. zero, the acceleration is maximum

𝑎max= ±𝜔2 𝐴
ENERGY
in
SHM
Kinetic Energy (K) KE

(1) In terms of displacement KEmax

1 1 1
K = mv 2 = mω2 A2 − x 2 = k(A2 − x 2 )
2 2 2
1 1
(i) K. Emax = 2 kA2 = 2 mω2 A2 (at x = 0)
−A +A
(ii) K. Emin = 0 (at x = ±A)

(2) In terms of time

v = Aω cos(ωt + ϕ)

1
K = 2 mω2 A2 cos 2 ωt + ϕ

If initial phase ϕ is zero 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T t

1
K = 2 mω2 A2 cos 2 ωt
1
KEmax = mω2 A2 [If frequency of x is f then frequency of KE is 2f]
2
Potential Energy (U or P.E.)

1. In terms of displacement
The potential energy is related to conservative force by the relation
𝐝𝐔
𝐅 = − 𝐝𝐱 ⇒ ‫ = 𝐔𝐝 ׬‬− ‫𝐱𝐝𝐅 ׬‬ For S.H.M. 𝐅 = −𝐤𝐱

𝟏
So ‫ = 𝐔𝐝 ׬‬− ‫ ׬‬−𝐤𝐱 𝐝𝐱 = ‫⇒ 𝐱𝐝𝐱𝐤 ׬‬ 𝐔 = 𝟐 𝐤𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐂
𝟏
At 𝐱 = 𝟎, 𝐔 = 𝐔𝟎 ⇒ 𝐂 = 𝐔𝟎 So, 𝐔 = 𝟐 𝐤𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐔𝟎
𝐔
1 1
−A, 2 kA2 + U0 A, 2 kA2 + U0
(i) at x = 0 (Mean position)
𝐏. 𝐄.𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝐔𝟎
U0
(ii) at x = ±A (extreme position) 𝐱
𝟏 −𝐀 +𝐀
𝐏. 𝐄.𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟐 𝐤𝐀𝟐 + 𝐔𝟎
For 𝐔𝟎 = 𝟎
𝐔 𝟏 𝟐
𝑼𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝒌𝑨
(i) at x = 0 (Mean position) 𝟐
𝑷. 𝑬.𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎

(ii) at x = ±A (extreme position)

𝟏
𝑷. 𝑬.𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒌𝑨𝟐 𝐱
−𝑨 +𝑨
2. In terms of time

𝐏𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Since 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
𝟏 𝑼
𝑼 = 𝟐 𝒌𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
If initial phase (𝝓) is zero,
𝟏 𝟏
𝑼 = 𝟐 𝒌𝑨𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝒕 𝟎 𝑻/𝟒 𝑻/𝟐 𝟑𝑻/𝟒 𝟑𝑻/𝟐 𝒕 →
Total Energy (E)

Total energy in S.H.M. is given by ; E = potential energy + kinetic energy =

U+K

(i) w.r.t. position

1 1
E = 2 kx 2 + 2 k A2 − x 2
1
E = 2 kA2 = constant

(ii) w.r.t. time

1 1
E = mω2 A2 sin2 ωt + mω2 A2 cos 2 ωt
2 2
1 1
E = 2 mω2 A2 = 2 kA2 = constant
Phasor Analysis
Phasor Analysis
Phasor Diagram

Comparison between circular motion and SHM:

Physical Quantity Circular Motion SHM

R Radius Amplitude

𝛚 Angular velocity Angular frequency

(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟) Angle made by radius Phase of the particle

vector with +𝐱 axis
Phasor Analysis
 Example Find initial phase for the given situation shown in the figure ?
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
(A) 3 (B) (C) (D)
4 2 4

Solution
+𝐴
𝐴
+
2

𝑥=0

−𝐴
𝟑𝛑
Initial Phase = 𝟒
 Note

2π rad rotation takes time = T

T
1rad rotation takes = 2π
T
θ rad rotation takes = 2π × θ
90 T
T ≡ 360° ≡ 2π So, 90° means 360° × T = 4
60 T
60° means 360° × T = 6
 Example At t = 0 ; particle is at +
3
A , moving away rom mean position. At
2
A
t = ‘t’ ; it is at y = 2 moving toward the mean position. It is given that time
period is T. Find time ‘t’?
Solution

𝐓
Time (𝐭) = 𝟒
Note

If mean position is not at the origin, then we can replace 𝑥 by 𝑥 − 𝑥0 and

the equation becomes 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡, where 𝑥0 is position of the mean
position.
SHM WITH shifted mean position
 C U L AT I O N
CAL of
SHM
Calculation of Time Period for Linear SHM

Steps to Calculate Time Period for SHM

Find out equilibrium position and write down condition for that (if any).
Displace particle slightly x from equilibrium position and draw FBD at
that point.
Apply Newton’s second law and try to show proportionality between net
force (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) and x like 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = – 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑥.
– k eff x
As Fnet = ma  ma = – k eff x  a = …….(i)
m
From standard equation of SHM 𝒂 =−𝝎𝟐 𝒙 …….(ii)

Comparing the equation (i) and (ii) we will get

𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝐦
𝟐𝝅 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑
𝝎𝟐 = ⇒ 𝝎= = = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝐊 𝐞𝐟𝐟 .
Note 𝒎 𝒎 𝑻

After proving 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = – 𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 (𝒙), we can directly write

Calculation of Time Period for Linear SHM

Equilibrium
position

k
𝐦
Spring Block System in the Presence of Constant Force

NLP

k
F0
𝐦

Equilibrium
position
Vertical Spring Block System

NLP
Note

θ
Note

m
The time period for spring-mass system:

m
T = 2π
K eff.
Combination of Spring

Parallel combination
K1 K2

K eff. = K1 + K 2

Series combination

K1 K2
1 1 1
= + 𝐌
K eff K1 K 2
 Example The particle was initially at rest. Then, it was displaced slightly and
released. Calculate the time period for oscillation.

Solution 5K
6K 12K
𝐌 K

4K 6K
𝐌
 Example Calculate the time period.

Solution
Variation of different parameter during SHM

Case 1 :- A sudden impulse or additional energy is given to a body

performing SHM
 Example A block of mass ‘m’ is performing SHM with amplitude ‘A’ and time
period ‘T’. When block is at x = +A/2 then an impulse is given due to
which speed of block becomes double. Find
(a) New time period
(b) New Amplitude

Solution

13𝐴
2
Case 2 :- Collision of block with another block during SHM

Case 3 :- When some additional force acts during SHM

SHM of two particle along the same line

x1 = Asin ωt , x2 = Asin ωt + ϕ

Same Amplitude

Time period same

Mean position same

∅
∅
If both the particle have same
angular frequency
Case 1 :- When they will cross each other

When the two particles will meet each other then ∆ϕ from the extremes
will be divided equally.
Case 2 :- Maximum separation between particle

When distance between two particles is maximum then ∆ϕ divides

from the MP equally.
Particles will meet when their phasors are on same
horizontal line.

=45°
=45°
 Maximum separation will come when they both are
moving with same velocity on the opposite sides of mean
position

Dmax
ANGULAR
Simple Harmonic Motion
Comparison between Linear & Angular SHM

Linear SHM Angular SHM

F = −Kx τ = −Kθ

−K −K
a= x α= θ
M I

M I
T = 2π T = 2π
K K

x = Asin(ωt + ϕ) θ = θ0 sin(ωt + ϕ)
v = Aωcos(ωt + ϕ) ω′ = θ0 ω cos (ωt + ϕ)

a = −Aω2 sin(ωt + ϕ) α = −θ0 ω2 sin(ωt + ϕ)

PHYSICAL
Pendulum
 Types of
Physical Pendulum

Torsional Pendulum

Compound Pendulum
Compound Pendulum

When a rigid body is suspended from an axis and made to oscillate

about a hinge, then it is called a compound pendulum.
 θ d

θ
I
T = 2π mgsinθ mgcosθ
mgd mg

(I is moment of inertia about axis of rotation)

m = total mass
d = distance of COM from hinge point
Simple Pendulum

θ l

mg sin θ
mg cos θ
mg
Variations in Time Period in Non-Inertial Frame

(1) (2)

a a

g eff = g + a g eff = g − a

L L
T = 2π T = 2π
g+a g−a
Variations in Time Period in Non-Inertial Frame

θ
a g eff = g 2 + a2
tanθ =
g
(3) I
T = 2π
g 2 + a2

Note

The motion of a simple pendulum will be SHM only in those frames of

reference where the point of suspension is at rest.
The time period of a simple pendulum.

l
T = 2π
g

Time Period of simple pendulum in Non-Inertial Frame.

l
T = 2π
g eff
Torsional Pendulum

Torsional wire is a special kind of wire which produces restoring torque

proportion to angle by which it is rotated (only for small value of 𝜃)
𝜏 = – C , C = Torsional constant
I = – C where, I = Moment of inertia about the vertical axis

I
T = 2π
C
x
O
θ
 Example Find the equation of SHM after the superposition of the
x1 = 5 sin(ωt)
x2 = 5 sin(ωt + 60°).
Solution
CALORIMETRY

▪ CALORIE
Heat
▪ METRY
Measurement
Calorie

The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1g of water from

14.5°C to 15.5°C at a pressure of 1 ATM is called 1 calorie.

▪ SI unit: joule
▪ CGS: erg (1 J = 107 erg)
▪ Practical unit: calorie
Thermal Equilibrium

If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with each other, then the temperature
of the bodies will be the same.

B
A
𝐓𝐨𝐂
𝐓𝐨𝐂
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If A-B & B-C are in thermal equilibrium with each other, then A & C must be in
thermal equilibrium as well.
Specific Heat (c)

Q ∝ m∆T

Q = mcΔT

Q
c=
mΔT

The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of

a substance by 1°C or 1K is called specific heat.

It is the property of material.

 S: Joule/Kg K
Unit
Cal/g°C

cal 4.2J 1kcal 4.2KJ

SW = 1 = = =
gm°C gm°C kg°C kg°C

Swater 1 cal 2.1J 1 Kcal 2.1KJ

Sice = Ssteam = = = = =
2 2 gm°C gm°C 2 kg°C kg°C

It depends on the process of heating.

Heat Capacity

The heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of a body by 1⁰C or 1K.

Q
Heat capacity =
∆T

Heat capacity = ms J
or J°K −1
K
SI Unit

J°C −1

Note
The thermal capacity of a body depends upon the mass of the substance,
nature & geometry of the substance.
 Example A body of mass 2gm having heat capacity 2T gk is at temperature 1 K. Find
cal

the heat required to raise the temperature of the body from 1K to 4K.

Solution

2 gm

cal
S = 2T
gk

𝟑𝟎 𝐜𝐚𝐥
Principle of Calorimetry

T1 T1 > T2 T2

M1 T M2

Isolated system
Principle of Calorimetry

When two bodies at different temperatures are mixed, heat will be

transferred from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature till both acquire the same temperature.

The body at a higher temperature releases heat, while body

at a lower temperature absorbs it so that:

Heat Lost = Heat Gained (Principle of calorimetry)

Principle of calorimetry represents the law of conservation of

heat energy.
TL ≤ T ≤ TH
 Example Container A contains 10gm of H2 O is at 10oC, container B contains 20gm of
H2 O is at 20oC, container C contains 20 gm of H2 O is at 30oC. Find the final
temperature of the system if we mix the H2 O in one container. (No Heat Loss)

Solution

𝟐𝟐𝐨 𝐂
 Latent
LatentHeat
Heat of Fusion

required
Heat is to change
absorbed the
by a substance
state
of of unit
a unit massmass depends
to change itson
state
the nature
from of liquid.
solid to substance and is
called
For Ice latent heat
to water 𝐋𝐟 of
= substance.
𝟖𝟎 𝐜𝐚𝐥/𝐠𝐦
 Latent Heat of Vaporisation

Heat is absorbed by a substance

of a unit mass to change its state
from liquid to gas.
For water to steam
𝐋𝐯 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎 𝐜𝐚𝐥/𝐠𝐦
 Phase Transformation
1
θ1 = 10 × × 5 θ2 = 6 × 80 θ3 = 4 × 80
2
10gm 10gm = 480cal 4gm ice + = 320cal 10gm
= 25cal
ice at ice at 6gm H2 O H2 O at
− 5o C 0o C at 0o C 0o C

θ4 = 10 × 1 × 50
θ7 = 8 × 540 θ6 = 2 × 540 θ5 = 10 × 1 × 50 = 500cal
= 4320cal = 1080cal = 500cal
10gm 2gm steam 10gm 10gm
+ H2 O at H2 O at
steam at
8gm H2 O
100o C at 100o C 100o C 50o C

1
θ8 = 10 × × 50
2
= 250cal

10gm
steam at
150o C
Latent Heat/ Hidden Heat

Heat required to change the state of unit mass depends on the nature of
substance and is called the latent heat of a substance.

Q
L=
m

Q = mL

SI Unit

J/kg cal/gm
 Latent Heat of Fusion

Heat is absorbed by a substance of a unit mass to change its state from solid
to liquid.
For Ice to water Lf = 80 cal/gm

Latent Heat of Vaporisation

Heat is absorbed by a substance of a unit mass to change its state from liquid
to gas.
For water to steam Lv = 540 cal/gm
 Example Find amount of heat required to convert 10 gram of ice from –5°C to 2 gm
of steam and 8 gm of H2O.

Solution

1
θ1 = 10 × × 5 θ2 = 10 × 80 θ3 = 10 × 1 × 100
2
10 gm 10 gm = 800 cal = 1000 cal
= 25 cal 10 gm H2 O
ice at ice at
at 0o C
− 5o C 0o C
Power
 Example Heat is supplied at a constant rate to a mass, and it is observed that
temperature remains constant for 5 minutes. After that, the temperature
starts increasing at the rate of 2°C/min. Find the ratio of latent heat to the
Solution specific heat of the body.

𝟏𝟎:1
Temperature vs Time Graph

T F
D θ3
T2
E
B θ2
T1
C
θ1
A
t
t bc t DE
Water Equivalent

It is defined as the amount of water which, when supplied with an equal

amount of heat as that of a given body and there is the same change in
temperature then this amount of water is called water equivalent of heat.
 Example A container contains 50 gm of H2 O at 10OC. The water equivalent of the
container is 10 gm.
(a) Heat is to be given to the system so that the temperature rises to 30°C.

Solution

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐚𝐥
Problems of Mixing
 Example 20 gm Ice at −10°C, 20 gm H2 O at 20°C and 5 gm steam at 100°C is mixed
together. Find the final content and temperature of mixture.

Solution
20 gm 20 gm 5 gm
ice at H2 O steam
o
− 10 C at 20o C at 100o C

5 × 540
20 × 0.5 × 10 20 × 1 × 20
= 2700

20 gm 5 gm
ice at H2 O
o
−0 C at 100o C

20 × 80 5 × 1 × 100
= 1600 = 500

1300
Ans.
45
Elasticity

When external forces are applied, the body may get deformed. When
deformed, internal forces develop which try to restore the body in its
original shape.

The extent, to which the shape of a body is restored when the deforming
forces are removed, varies from material to material.

The property to restore the natural shape or to oppose the deformation is

called elasticity.
Microscopic Reason For Elasticity
A solid body is composed of a great many molecules or atoms arranged in
a particular fashion. Each molecule is acted upon by the forces due to the
neighboring molecules.

The solid takes such a shape that each molecule finds itself in a position
of stable equilibrium. When the body is deformed, the molecules are
displaced from their original positions of stable equilibrium.

The intermolecular distances change and restoring forces start acting on

the molecules which drive them back to their original positions and the
body takes its natural shape.
Stress

The restoring internal force acting per unit area of the deformed body is
called stress.

Internal restoring force

Stress =
Area

FInternal
Stress =
A

SI Unit : N/m2
 Example A rod of cross sectional area A and L is
shown in figure. One end of rod is fixed and
on the other end force F is applied as X
shown in figure. Find the stress at point P. F
P
Solution

Ans. F/A
 Example A rod of cross section area A, mass M and
length L is placed on a horizontal smooth M,L,A x
F
surface as shown in figure. Force F is P Smooth Surface

applied on one end of the rod. Find the

stress at point P.
Solution

x
F 1−L
Ans.
A
 TYPES
OF STRESS

LONGITUDINAL SHEAR
STRESS STRESS
When the stress is tangential or
When the stress is normal to parallel to the surface of a body
VOLUMETRIC then it is known as shear stress.
the cross sectional area ,
STRESS Due to this stress, the shape of
then it is known as the body changes or it gets
longitudinal stress. If equal normal forces twisted but not its volume.
F are applied over every
Longitudinal Stress = Ftangential
A unit surface of a body, Shear Stress =
A
There are two types of then it undergoes a
longitudinal stress : certain change in
volume. The force
(a) Tensile Stress opposing this change in
(b) Compressive Stress volume per unit area is
defined as volumetric
stress.
 Example A rod of length L and cross section area A is given. Force F is applied on both
the ends of the rod. Find,
(a) what are longitudinal and shear stress on A if cross sectional area of wire
is A as shown
(b) For what θ is longitudinal stress maximum and shear stress minimum
Solution
θ
F F
 θ
F FIN F

Fcos2 θ Fsin2θ
Ans. (a) σN = , σS =
A 2A
(b) σS max at 45°, σN max at 0°
Strain (𝛆)

change in the configuration of the body

Strain =
original configuration of the body

The relative change in the dimensions of the body which is subjected to

stress is called strain.
It is a unitless and dimensionless quantity.
TYPES
OF STRESS

LONGITUDINAL SHEAR
STRAIN STRAIN

VOLUMETRIC
STRAIN
Longitudinal Strain

change in length of the body ΔL

Longitudinal Strain = =
initial length of the body L

ΔL

Note If change is same throughout i.e. stress is constant throughout.

Shear Strain

x
tan ϕ = (Here ϕ is very small)
L

x displacement of upper face relative to the lower face

ϕ= =
L distance between two faces

ϕ = shear strain OR angle of shear

Volumetric Strain

change in volume of the body ΔV

Volumetric strain = =
original volume of the body V
Hooke’s Law
According to this law for small deformations the stress produced in a
body is directly proportional to the corresponding strain.

Stress α Strain Or Stress = E × strain

Here, E = coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity

Stress
E=
Strain
Important Points

E depends on:-
Nature of material
Impurities
Temperature

E independent from:-
Stress 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
Strain 𝐄=
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
 Young’s Modulus
Longitudinal stress
Young’s Modulus (Y) = Longitudinal strain

MODULUS Shear Modulus

Shear stress
Shear Modulus (η) = Shear strain

Bulk Modulus
Volumetric stress
Bulk Modulus (B) = Volumetric strain
 Example A rod of length L, mass M and cross section area A is lying on the smooth
horizontal surface is as shown in figure. Young's modulus is Y. Force F is
applied on one end of the rod. Find stress of point P and elongation in rod.
Solution x
F
P Smooth Surface

(M,L,A,Y)

x
F 1−L FL
Ans. , 2AY
A
 Example A rod of length L, mass M and cross section area A is lying on the smooth
horizontal surface is as shown in figure. Young's modulus is Y. Force F is
applied on both the ends of the rod. Find stress at point P and elongation in
rod. x
F 2F
Solution P Smooth Surface

(M,L,A,Y)

x
F 1+L 3FL
Ans. , 2AY
A
Equivalent Spring Constant of Rod

σ = Yε ΔL

ΔL F F
= (M,L,A,Y)
L YA

FL
ΔL =
AY

AY
ΔL = F F
L
ΔL
AY
ΔL = KΔL
L

AY
K=
L
Elastic Potential Energy
1 2
U = K eq ΔL
2

1 AY
U= ΔL2
2 L

1 AYL 2
= ΔL
2 L2
1
= AL Yε2
2
energy
energy density =
volume
 Example A thin massless wire of area of cross section A, length L and Young's
modulus Y. One end is attached to the ceiling and other end is attached to
the block of mass m. Find the elastic potential energy in the wire.
Solution
Thin wire (Mass less)
(A,Y,L)

M2 g2 L
Ans.
2AY
Stress-strain Curve
Stress
A: Proportional limit
B: Elastic Limit σu D

C: General point between B & D σy B E

C
E: Breaking Point (Fracture point) A
σy: Yield Strength
σu: Ultimate tensile Strength (Breaking stress)
⇒ Property of material of body Elastic
Reason
O
Strain
OA: tanθ = Y (Young's modulus of elasticity)
OB: Elastic region
BE: Plastic reagion
1 u
⇒ Area under curve OA = 2 σε = V
Poisson’s Ratio

Lateral strain Δd/d

(ν) = =
Longitudinal strain ΔL/L

0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

L ∆L
∆d
d F d’
Compressibility

1 1
Compressibility = =
Bulk Modulus β

Greater is young's modulus (Y) greater is the elasticity

Steel is more elastic then rubber

Coefficient Thermal Expansion

It defined for all physical quantities which depends on

temperature.

Change in unit amount of physical quantities by unit

temperature change.
The increase in dimension of the body due to the increasing in temperature
is called Thermal Expansion and it’s occur due to a symmetric nature of
potential energy curve.

ℓ0
Thermal Expansion

Types of
Thermal Expansion

Volume

Linear Area
Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion

ℓ0 ℓ = ℓ0 + Δℓ
On heating
T° C T + ΔT °C

dℓ ∝ dT

dℓ ∝ ℓ0

dℓ = α ℓ0 dT

‫ ׬‬dℓ = ‫ ׬‬α ℓ0 dT

if α is constant

Δℓ = α ℓ0 ΔT
Linear Expansion
Change in temperature

ℓ = ℓ0 (1 + α ΔT)

Coefficient of linear expansion

Final length
Initial length

Note Unit of 𝛼

°C −1 K −1
 Example Find the change in length of the rod on increasing the temperature by 5°C.

10m
Solution
α = 2𝑥 × 10−4

1
Ans. m
20
Expansion of Isotropic material

B
A
B
A θ
D
D

C C
Expansion of Isotropic material

Shape will remain same

Expansion of isotropic materials are imagine as a photographic

enlargement (zoom).
 Example On increasing the temperature which of the parameter will increase

Solution
d

ℓ2 ℓ3
b

ℓ1
Solution

ℓ2 ℓ3
b

ℓ1

Ans. d ↑, ℓ1 ↑, ℓ2 ↑, ℓ3 ↑, b ↑
In this type of expansion, the fractional change in any direction remains
same, and this expansion is analogy to photographic enlargement.

If nothing is mentioned in the problem, then we will consider is as an

isotropic expansion.

The coefficient of linear expansion have a same value when measured in

the different in the different direction and this type of expansion generally
occurs in the homogenous material.
Fractional Change

z = cx a y b
Fractional Change
Example Find fractional change in the following situations.
4 1 ℓ
(a) V = 3 πR3 (b) K.E.= 2 mV2 (c) T= 2π g

Solution

ΔV ΔR
Ans. (a) =3
V R
Δm ΔV
(b) = +2
m V
ΔT 1 Δℓ 1 Δg
(c) =2 −2
T ℓ g
 Aerial Expansion

ℓ′2

ℓ′1
ℓ1

ℓ2
Thermal Expansion
Aerial Expansion
𝑎 𝐴𝑂

𝑏
A = AO + AO β ΔT
coefficient of Superficial expansion

ΔA = AO β ΔT

Note Unit of β

°C −1 K −1
Relation between α & β

β = αx + αy

If expansion is isotropic (αx = αy = α)

β = 2α

AF = A0 1 + 2αΔT
 Volumetric Expansion
ℓ′2

ℓ′1

ℓ2

ℓ1

ℓ3
ℓ′3
Thermal Expansion
Volume Expansion

b x

c
a
z
V = Vo (1 + γ ΔT )

ΔV = Vo γ ΔT

Coefficient of cubical expansion

Note Unit of γ

°C −1 K −1
Relation between α & γ

γ = αx + αy + αz

If expansion is isotropic (αx = αy = αz = α)

γ = 3α

α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3 (isotropic expansion)
Variation in density on increasing the temperature
Change in Time Period of Simple Pendulum
Change in Time Period of Simple Pendulum

ℓ 1 Δℓ
T = 2π ΔT = ⋅T
g 2 ℓ

1
ΔT = ∝ ΔθT
2
ΔT 1 Δℓ The time in which
= Change in time
T 2 ℓ change is required

Δθ → Change in temperature

The clock will lose time i.e. will become slow in summer and will gain time
i.e. will become fast in winter
 In summer In winter

Temperature∆θ increases Temperature Δθ decreases

Length of pendulum increases Length of pendulum decreases

Time period will increase Time period will decrease

Clock will become slow Clock will become fast

1 1
Loss of time ΔT = 2 αΔθT Gain of time ΔT = 2 αΔθT
 Example A second's pendulum clock has a steel wire. The clock is calibrated at 10℃.
How much time does the clock lose or gain in one day when the temperature is
increased to 20℃? (α = 10−6 , Δθ = 10°C)

Solution
Bimetallic Strip

Two strips of equal lengths but of different coefficient of linear expansion.

It can be used in thermostat to break or make electrical contact.

This strip bends to the upside, because the metal on the downside has
expanded more than the metal on the upside.
If, 2 > 1

On heating
2

1
Thermal stress and Thermal Strain
Free Expansion

If the rod is not fixed at the end, i.e. free to expand, there
will be zero stress.
When a rod whose ends are rigidly fixed, such as to
prevent expansion or contraction, undergoes a change in
temperature due to thermal expansion or contraction, a
compressive or tensile stress is developed in it.

Due to this thermal stress, the rod will exert a large force
on the supports.
 Example If the temperature increases by ∆T. Find x given no bending of rod
takes place.

Solution 1 , 1 , L, A 2 , 2 , L, A

x
 MODES
OF HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION RADIATION

CONVECTION
 TH TL

Source Sink
Fourier’s Law for 1-D Conduction

T1 T2

dQ
∶ Rate of heat transfer (J/s)
dt

K ∶ Thermal conductivity of material

A ∶ Cross-section area normal to heat flow

dT
: temperature gradient
dx
Transient State

In this state temperature of each and every part of the rod changes with time.

Steady State

After a long time, a variable state comes when no heat is absorbed by any part. So,
the temperature of every part is constant and decreases uniformly from the hotter
end to the colder end.
The state in thermal conduction in which all the particles of the rod are saturated &
there will be no net absorption of the heat & heat flows in the object just like
current is known as steady state.

Note
In a steady state, each point has a different temperature, but it remains
constant.
 T1 T2

Source T Sink

T1

T2
x
L
For uniform rod
Thermal Resistance

ΔT ΔT
R= =
H Δ QΤΔ t

T1 H T2

∆T
Temperature of Junction

𝐓𝟏

R1

R2 R3
 Example Three identical rods are joined together as shown in the figure. Find
the temperature of the junction.
L 100℃
Given R 0 =
KA
Solution L, K, A

T
Series Combination of Rods T℃
T1℃ T2℃

L1, K1, A1R1 L2, K2, A2R2

T1℃ T2℃

Parallel Combination of Rods

L, K1, A1, R1

T1℃ T2℃

L, K2, A2, R2
 Example Two rods are connected in series as shown in figure (a). One end is maintaining the
temperature T at one end and other end of the system is contains 2g of ice which
takes 10min for melting rate of heat flow is I1. If we connects the rods in parallel
combination, then find the time taken by ice to melt.
R R
Solution 2gm of ice
T
at 0℃

2gm of ice
T
at 0℃
R
Solution R R
2gm of ice
T at 0℃

2gm of ice
T
at 0℃
R
 Example
Find the equivalent resistance. (k is constant)
(i) R12 (ii) R34

Solution 1

c
4
3

a b

2
Radiation

Qr + Qa + Qt = Q

Qr Qa Qt
Q Qr + + =1
Q Q Q

r+a+t=1

Qr
Qa Reflectivity r = Q

Qt
Qa
Absorptivity a = Q

Qt
Transmittivity t = Q
Radiation
Interactions with Matter

If t = 0, r = 0, a = 1
Black bodies

If a = 0, t = 0, r = 1
reflectors

If r = 0, a = 0, t = 1
transparent
Emitted Radiation

Due to its own temperature body emits electromagnetic waves and

these waves are called emitted Radiation

Emission of Radiation due to the molecular vibration inside the body

and its inherent property of body.
 Ts
Case 1 Tb → Body temperature
Tb
TS →Surrounding temperature

Tb > TS

Ts
Case 2
Tb

Ts > Tb

Ts
Case 3 Tb

Tb = TS
Prevost Theory of Heat Exchange

All bodies radiate thermal radiations at all temperatures &

simultaneously absorb the radiations emitted by the surroundings.

If it radiates more than what it absorbs, its temperature decreases

& vice versa.

If radiation and absorption are the same, then temperature

remains constant.
Terminology

Emissive power (E)

The total energy radiated per unit area, per unit time, is known as
emissive power:
Q
E=
At
Stefan Boltzmann Law

According to this law, the energy emitted by a black body area per
unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.

E ∝ T4

(Stefan’s constant)
E= σT 4
( = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 – K4)
Emissivity (e)

The emissive power of body w.r.t. a black body is defined as

emissivity (e).
It is also known as relative emissive power.

Ebody For black body e=1

e= 0≤e≤1
Eblack body For reflectors e=0
Absorptive Power (a)
Absorptive power of a body is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation
that is absorbed by the body.
Energy absorbed
a=
Energy incident
Kirchoff’s Law

At a given temperature, the ratio of emissive power and

the absorptivity power of all surfaces is constant, which
is equal to the emissive power of the black body at the
same temperature.

Conclusion

"Good Emitters are good Absorbers also.“

Net Rate of Heat Loss

dθ dθ dθ
= − = eσA Tb4 − Ts4
dt loss
dt E
dt a

dT −eσA 4
= Tb − Ts4
dt ms

Rate of cooling
 Example Two spherical bodies A and B, are made up of the same material and
have the same surface finish are kept at the same temperature and
the same surrounding. Find the ratio:
(a) Rate of heat loss
(b) Rate of cooling
R 2R
Solution

(A) (B)

Ans. a 1 ∶ 4
b 2∶1
Rate of Cooling by Radiation if the temperature
difference between body and surrounding is small

dT
∝ A TD − Ts
dt
 Example A body is kept at 100°C and the temperature of surrounding is 70°C.
The rate of cooling at this instant is 1°C/s. Find the rate of cooling if
the temperature of the body is 90°C.

Solution

2∘
Ans. CΤsec
3
Newton’s Law of Cooling

Valid if the temperature difference between the body & surrounding is

small.
dQ
∝ A Tb − TS
dt Net heat loss

induction convection radiation

T1 − TS
𝑙𝑛 = 𝐾𝑡
T2 − TS
Method of Approximation

T1 − T2 Τ1 + T2
Method of Approximation =k − Ts
t 2
Spectral Emissive Power

Eλ

Max

T
λMax 
Black Body Radiation Distribution Spectrum

T3 > T2 > T1
Ep3
λm3 < λm2 < λm1
Ep2

E
Ep1
T3
T2
T1
λm3 λm2 λm1 
Wein’s Displacement Law

According to it, the product of temperature (T) & m at that

temperature is always a constant.

λm T = constant b = 0.2898 cmK

1
λm ∝
T

This law explains the day-to-day observations that when a body is

heated more & more, its colour changes from red to yellow &
gradually.
Solar Constant (S)

The energy from the Sun received by the Earth per unit area per
unit time is known as solar constant (S).

Earth
𝐓𝐒 𝐝
𝐑𝐒 𝐑𝐏

Sun

Rs = Radius of sun
RP = Radius of planet
d = Distance between sun and planet
Ideal Gas Equation

Universal gas
Number of constant
moles of gas 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝐉/𝐦𝐨𝐥 − 𝐊

PV = nRT

Temperature
Pressure Volume
Ideal Gas Equation

PV = nRT
 S.T.P.
N.T.P.
(Standard
(Normal Temperature
Temperature
and Pressure)
and Pressure)
Temp. 0° C = 273.15 K 0.01° C = 273.16 K

Pressure 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2

1 atm
= 1.01325 × 105 Pa

Volume 22.4 litre 22.4 litre

Ideal Gas Equation

PV = nRT

Ideal Gas Laws:

▪ Charle's Law 𝐕 ∝ 𝐓

𝟏
▪ Boyle's Law 𝐕 ∝
𝐏

▪ Gay-Lussac's Law 𝐏 ∝ 𝐓

▪ Avogadro's Law

▪ Dalton's Partial Pressure Law 𝐏 = 𝐏𝟏 + 𝐏𝟐 + 𝐏𝟑 … …

 Types of Speeds of
Gas Molecules

Average RMS
Speed Speed
(Root Mean Square)
Most Probable
Speed
Average Speed

v1 + v2 + … … … vN
<V>=
N

8RT
vmean =
πM
Most Probable Speed

This is defined as the speed which is possessed by a maximum fraction

of a total number of molecules of the gas.

2RT 2kT
vm.p. = =
M m
RMS Speed (Root Mean Square)

vrms = < v2 >

v1 2 + v2 2 + … … … vN 2
=
N

3RT
vrms =
M
 3RT 3kT
vrms = =
MB m

8 RT 8 kT
vavg = =
π MB πm

2RT 2kT
vm.p. = =
MB m

vrms : vavg : vm.p. = 3 ∶ 2.5 ∶ 2

Degree of freedom
and
Pressure
(DOF) For Different Gas Molecules

(1) Monoatomic gas (𝐇𝐞, 𝐍𝐞, 𝐀𝐫)

vy

vx

vz

(2) Diatomic gas (𝐇𝟐 , 𝐎𝟐 , 𝐍𝟐 )

x
(3) Polyatomic gas

Polyatomic

LINEAR NON-LINEAR
𝐂𝐨𝟐 𝐇𝟐𝐎
z

x
Degree of Freedom (DOF)

Degree of freedom
Total Translational Rotational
Monoatomic 3 3 0
Dia or linear
5 3 2
polyatomic
Non-linear
6 3 3
polyatomic
Law of Equipartition of Energy (Maxwell's Law)

The total energy of an ideal gas molecule, if distributed equally

among all its degrees of freedom and the energy associated with
1
each degree of freedom is KT
2
Mean Free Path

The mean free path of a gas molecule is the average distance between
two successive collisions. It is represented by λ.

kT
λ=
2md2 P

Where, m = mass of molecules

d = molecular diameter
Thermodynamics

It is the branch of science in which we study about the heat exchange

between the system & surrounding conversion of heat into mechanical work

Thermodynamic system
It is the collection of large no. of gas molecules confined within a certain
boundary which will have certain value of pressure, volume & temperature.
Anything other than gas is surrounding.

Heat
Work done by gas

dx

F
Pgas
Graphs
P

V1 V2 V
V2
wG = න PdV
V1

V
Area under curve = ‫׬‬V 2 PdV = Work done by gas
1
 Example A thermodynamic process is to be operated from A to B, as shown in the
graph below. Find the work done in the process :-
P

Solution 3P0 B

P0 A

V
V0 3V0

Ans. 4P0 V0
Cyclic Process

Process in which final & initial state is same is cyclic process.

In cyclic process work done by gas is equal to area enclosed by curve.

If the cyclic process is clockwise in PV curve these work done by gas in +ve
& if cycle is ACW then work done by gas in –ve.
Key Point P

b π
A = (ab)
4
a
V
P

b A = ab

a
V
a b
 Example A thermodynamic process is to be operated from A to B to C, as shown in the
graph below. Find the work done in the process :-
P
Solution 3P0 B

P0 A
C

V
V0 2V0

Ans. –P0V0
First Law of Thermodynamics

Heat

Note

Work done on the gas = – Work done by the gas.

It is based on the energy conservation principle.

Put all the values in above expression with proper sign.

𝐝𝐐 = 𝐧𝐂𝐦 𝐝𝐓 Cm → Molar Heat Capacity
𝐦 n → Number of Moles
𝐧=
𝐌𝐰
Mw → Molecular weight

𝐦
𝐦𝐜𝐝𝐓 = 𝐂 𝐝𝐓 c → Specific heat capacity
𝐌𝐰 𝐦
Cm = cMw

dQ
Cm = → path function (Variable)
ndT
 Example In a process heat supplied to gas is 60 J & work done on the gas is 30 J. Find
∆U?

Solution

Ans. 90J
Molar Heat Capacity

Note

Molar heat capacity is different for different process for a given gas as value
of heat is path dependent.
State Variables, Path Variables

Internal Energy of a gas is state function it depends only on initial & final
state.
Work done by gas (W) & Heat will depend on the process & hence they are
path variables.
Molar Heat Capacity for different processes

ΔQ
Cm = nΔT Path variable

Cm = Path variable
Isochoric Process (CV )

Isobaric Process (CP )

Molar Heat Capacity

CP − CV = R (Mayor’s relation)

CP > CV

Mw CP − Mw CV = R (CV = Specific Heat Capacity)

R
CP − CV =
Mw
Adiabatic Constant ()

CP Molar Heat capacity at constant pressure

γ= =
CV Molar Heat capacity at constant volume
 fR fR 2
CV = CP = + R γ=1+
2 2 f

fR CP
CV = CP = CV + R γ=
2 CV
Monoatomic 3R 5R 5
= 1.66
2 2 3
Diatomic 5R 7R 7
= 1.4
2 2 5
Polyatomic 5R 7R 7
= 1.4
Linear 2 2 5
Polyatomic 3R 4R 4
= 1.33
Non-linear 3

γmono > γDia = γPoly (Linear) > γPoly (Non−linear)

Isothermal Process (Constant temperature)

Polytropic Process
 Example A monoatomic gas following the process as shown in graph. Find
Work done by gas (Wg)
P Monoatomic gas
Solution 3P0 B
1
wg = × (P0 + 3P0 ) × 2V0
2

P0 A
= 4P0 V0

V
V0 2V0
Cyclic Process

P
2

1 3

v
Efficiency for a Cyclic Process (η)
P
Net work done in cyclic process
η=
Total heat supply

V
 Example Find the heat supplied in the given process if volume of the gas doubles
(Piston is moving very slowly).
P0 Atmospheric
Solution pressure

Massless,
movable
V0 piston
Monoatomic
gas

Heat

Ans. 2.5P0V0
Basic information about the graph

y = kx n

n<0 n>0
X

Y 0<n<1 n=1 n>1

x
n>1
n=1

0<n<1
Y
Analysis for different process

Isochoric Process

(a) Process equation

(b) Work done by gas

(c) Molar heat capacity

(d) Bulk Modulus ()

Graph

(a) P–V (b) V–T (c) T–P

V P P

T V nR
V
Slope =
V
1
Slope ∝
V
Isobaric Process

[Pressure constant, P = 0]
(a) Process equation

(b) Work done by the gas

(c) Molar Heat capacity of gas

(d) Bulk modulus ()

Graph
(b) T–P
(a) P–V (c) V–T

P T V (1)
(2)

V P nR T
Slope =
P
P2 > P1
Isothermal Process

Temperature constant, dT = 0

(a) Process Equation

(b) Work done by gas

(c) Molar heat capacity of gas

(d) Bulk modulus

Graph

(b) V–T (c) T–P (a) P–V

T
V P

P
T V
Adiabatic Process

Q = 0
No heat exchange between system and surrounding

(a) Process Equation

(b) Work done

(c) Molar heat capacity of gas

(d) Bulk modulus ()

Graph

(a) P–V (b) T-V (c) P-T

P T P

P0

V0 V V T
 Example Gas is following the process as shown in figure, find the relation between the
work done in different process.
P P

(1) (2)

V V
v 2v v 2v
Solution

Ans. 1 W1 > W2
2 W1 > W2
Polytropic Process
(a) Process equation

(b) Work done by gas

(c) Molar heat capacity

CASE 01
If x < 1 ⟶ CM > 0

CASE 02
If 1 < x < γ ⟶ CM < 0

CASE 03
If x > γ ⟶ CM > 0

CASE 04
Bulk modulus

CASE 05

Coefficient of volumetric
 Example Monoatomic gas following the process as shown in figure find

(a) Molar Heat capacity P

(b) Work done in process A–B 2P0 B

. A
P0
Solution
45°
V
V0 2V0
Solution

Ans. (a) 2R
3P V
(b) 20 0
(c) 6P0 V0
Free expansion
hold

Well insulated
Vacuum
𝐏𝟎 𝐕𝟎 V0

Massless piston

During the free expansion of well instated container, there is no exchange of

heat in between system and surrounding. Work done by gas is also zero.
Hence ∆U will also zero. ∴ T𝑖 = Tf .
 Note Isothermal curve
P

P0
P1
tanθ = V0
(V0, P0)

V
V1

If we draw the tangent at point (V0, P0) on the isothermal curve then x and y
intercept of the tangent will be the two times of given - coordinate.
Carnot Cycle

1 1-2 : Isothermal Expansion

2-3 : Adiabatic Expansion
2
3-4: Isothermal Compression
4-1: Adiabatic Compression
4
TV γ−1 = constant
3
V
T2 V2 γ−1 = T3 V3 γ−1

T1 V1 γ−1 = T4 V4 γ−1

V2 V3
= ... 1
V1 V4
Process 1-2 Isothermal Process
V2
δW = δQ = nRTH ℓn ... 2
V1

Process 2-3 Adiabatic Process

nR TL − TH
δW = ... 3
1−γ
δQ = O

Process 3-4 Isothermal Process

V4 V1
δW = δQ = nRTL ℓn = nRTL ℓn
V3 V2
V2
= −nRTL ℓn ... 4
V1
Process 4-1 Adiabatic Process
δQ = O

nR TH − TL
δW = ... 5
1−γ

net work
η=
Qs

V nR TL − TH V2 nR TL − TH
nRTH ℓn V2 + − nRT L ℓn −
1 1−γ V1 1−γ
=
V
nRTH ℓn V2
1

TH − TL TL
η= η=1−
TH TH

(Temperature in Kelvin)
 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin Plank's Statement

It is impossible to construct a device which operates in a cycle produce work
continuously while interacting with single thermal Reservoir.

TH

TH Qs

Qs D work

D work QR

TL
Impossible
 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device which operates in a cycle and transfer
heat from low temperature reservoir to high temperature reservoir without
consuming any work / energy

TH TH

D D work

TL TL

Impossible
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Clausius Statement

TH TH

D D work

TL TL

Impossible

Heat Reservoir (Reservoir of infinite Heat capacity)

SOURCE Supplier of Heat Energy w/o change in its temp.
SINK Absorber of Heat Energy w/o affecting its temp.
Heat Engine
It is a simple device in which heat energy is partially converted into
Mechanical Work.
Heat Engine

Q s = WD + Q R ... 1
TH Source
W
η=
Qs Qs

D work Qs − QR
=
QS
QR
QR
TL Sink η=1−
QS

If Engine Works on cannot cycle

Heat Engine

If Engine Works on cannot cycle

TH Source
TL
Qs η=1−
TH

D work
Q R TL Temp of sink QR
QR = ⇒ =
Q S TH Temp of Source Q S

TL Sink Q∝T (T in Kelvin)

 Example Find:
(i) Efficiency of HE if it works on Carnot cycle. 500k
(ii) Work Done by He
100J
(iii) Amount of Heat rejected
Solution HE work

300k

Ans. η% = 40%
W = 40J
Q R = 60J
Refrigerator work

QL QH
TL RE TH

Inner space of Surrounding

Refrigerator

COP {Coefficient of Performance} : - Ratio of desired effect to work input

QL
COPR =
W
QL + W = QH

W = QH − QL

QL QL
COPR = =
W QH − QL
Refrigerator

COP {Coefficient of Performance} :- Ratio of desired effect to work input

Heat Pump work

QL QH
TL RE TH

Surrounding Room

QH QH
COPHP = =
W QH − QL

1
COPHP =
Q
1 − QL
H

1
COPHP =
η
Entropy
It is degree of Randomness or Discordances. Associated with gaseous
molecules.

δQ
ds =
T

It is Point function (or) state function

f
δQ = dU + δW = nRdT + PdV
2

f RdT PdV P nR
ds = n + PV = nRT, =
2 T T T V

Tf Vf
f dT dV
඲ds = nR඲ + nR඲
2 T V
Ti Vi
Entropy
It is Point function (or) state function

f
δQ = dU + δW = nRdT + PdV
2

f RdT PdV P nR
ds = n + PV = nRT, =
2 T T T V

Tf Vf
f dT dV
඲ds = nR඲ + nR඲
2 T V
Ti Vi

f Tf Vf
Δs = nR ℓn + nRℓn
2 Ti Vi

Adiabatic process ΔS = o, δQ = O