CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

A function is a relationship between two sets of values, where each
input has one specific output. In simple terms, you put a value in
(like a number), and the function gives you a specific result or
output.
This relationship is commonly symbolized as y = f(x), which is
said “f of x”, and y and x are related such that for every x, there is
a unique value of y. That is, f(x) cannot have more than one value
for the same x.

Imagine pressing a button on a coffee machine for a latte, espresso,

or cappuccino. The machine takes this input, follows a set process,
and produces the chosen coffee. Like a function, each input yields
a unique output—demonstrating how inputs consistently map to
specific outputs in both life and mathematics.

This report aims to explain key function concepts, covering their

types and practical applications in different situations.

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1.2 Objective
TO EXPLORE THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
OF MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS, UNDERSTAND
THEIR DIFFERENT TYPES, AND DEMONSTRATE
THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

This report focuses on exploring mathematical functions,

primarily algebraic and transcendental types. It aims to
define what a function is and explain its main components
for better understanding. Additionally, the report discusses
the practical importance of functions across various fields.

1.3 Significance of the Study

1. Provides a basic understanding of functions, essential for studying
grade 11 math topics.
2. Helps to see how functions are used to solve real-life problems.
3. Builds problem-solving skills by exploring relationships between
different variables.
1.4 Limitation of Study
The study of functions in this report is limited to basic concepts and
common types, such as linear, quadratic, and exponential functions,
as outlined in the Grade 11 curriculum. The scope does not extend
to the in-depth exploration of applications in complex real-world
scenarios.

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 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

This study was done in two major phases: theoretical and practical.
Theoretical phase involved going through textbook resources,
online articles, and class notes to form a rigid foundational
knowledge of various sets of functions. This was an important
stage for forming definitions, understanding various categories of
functions, and understanding their properties.

In the practical phase, problem-solving methods were applied.

graphing calculators, were used to plot functions visually,
identifying key characteristics such as intercepts, slopes, and
curvature.

Data collection relied on several key instruments. Textbooks were

the primary resources for defining function types and studying
fundamental concepts. Online resources supplemented the study by
providing additional examples, images, and insights into real-
world applications, making the study more comprehensive.

Various functions, including linear, quadratic, and exponential,

were categorized based on their general forms. Linear functions are
represented by the slope-intercept form y=mx+b. Quadratic
functions take the form y=ax2+bx+c showing the parabola's shape,
vertex, and axis of symmetry. Exponential functions are expressed
as y=a⋅bx.

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 CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS

3.1 Basics of Function

A function is a rule which operates on one number to give another
number. However, not every rule describes a valid function.
Functions are widely used to model real-world situations, such as
determining the speed of a vehicle over time or predicting the
trajectory of a projectile. Common types of functions include linear
functions, which create straight-line graphs, and quadratic
functions, which produce U-shaped curves known as parabolas.

3.2 Representation of function

Mapping Diagram:
A visual representation that shows how each element in domain
(input) corresponds to an element in the codomain (output).

Set of Ordered Pairs:

Functions can be expressed as sets of ordered pairs (x,f(x))(x, f(x))
(x,f(x)). For example, the function
f(x)= x2 can be represented as {(1,1),(2,4),(3,9)}\{(1, 1), (2, 4), (3,
9)\}{(1,1),(2,4),(3,9)}.

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Tabular Form:
Functions can be organized in a table format, listing input values
alongside their corresponding outputs.

Graph:
A graphical representation of a function is plotted on a Cartesian
plane, with the x-axis representing the input values and the y-axis
representing the output values. This visual allows for easy
identification of the function's behavior, such as increasing or
decreasing trends.
The above graph is the graph of function f(x)=x.

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 Equation:
Functions can be expressed using mathematical equations. For
example, a linear function can be represented as f(x)=mx+b
Equations provide a precise way to calculate output values for
given inputs.

3.3 Types of Function

1. Onto function (Surjective function)
An onto function, also known as a surjective function, is
a type of function in which every element in the codomain has at
least one corresponding element in the domain. The below given
is an example of onto function

2. One-one function (Injective Function)

A one-one function, or injective function, is
a type of function where each element in
the domain is mapped to a unique element
in the codomain. The figure given is
an example of one-one function.

3. One-one function and Onto function (Bijective function)

A bijective function is a type of function
that is both one-one (injective) and
onto (surjective). This means that
each element in the domain is
mapped to a unique element in
the codomain, and every element
in the codomain is covered by the function.

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3.4 Inverse Function and Inverse Image
An inverse function is a function that reverses the action of the
original function. If a function f maps an element x from its
domain to an element y in its codomain (denoted as f(x)= y), then
the inverse function f -1 maps y back to x (denoted as f-1(y)= x). For
a function to have an inverse, it must be bijective.
The inverse image, also known as the preimage, of a function
refers to the set of all input values that map to a specific output
value in the codomain. For a function f:A→B and an element b in
the codomain B, the inverse image f-1(b) consists of all elements a
in the domain A such that f(a)=b. For example, the below given is
graph of sine function and its inverse

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3.5 Composite Function
A composite function is a function created by combining two
functions in such a way that the output of one function becomes the
input of the other. If there are two functions, f and g, the composite
function (f∘g)(x) represents applying g to x first, and then applying ff to
the result of g(x) This can be expressed as (f∘g)(x)=f(g(x).

For example, if g(x)=x+3 and f(x)=2x, then the composite function (f∘g)
(x) would be calculated as follows:

(f∘g)(x)= f(g(x)) = f(x + 3) = 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6

Properties of Composite Functions

1. Non-Commutative: The order of composition matters. Generally,

(f∘g)(x)≠(g∘f)(x). This is because the result depends on which
function is applied first.

2. Associative Property: If you have three functions f, g, and h, then

the composition is associative, meaning:

f∘(g∘h)=(f∘g)∘h
A real-life example of a composite function is calculating the final price
of an online order with shipping and tax applied. Suppose we have a
function f(x) that calculates the price of items in the cart after applying
any discounts, where x is the initial cart total. Then, a second function
g(f(x)) could take the discounted price from f(x) and add shipping and
tax to get the final amount. The composite function g(f(x)) thus provides
the total cost after considering discounts, shipping, and tax, simplifying
the process into one calculation.

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3.6 Real Valued Functions
A real-valued function is a type of function where the output values (or
range) are real numbers. It is also known as real functions.
Example: A function f(n) = 2n, in which n= 0,1,2,3….. In this example
f(n) is the real function in which the mapping of set R’ of all integers
into R’ is assigned. Real numbers are given as real values to the set R.
3.6.1 Properties of Real Functions
 The numerator and denominator of a function must follow
Hurwitz polynomials.
 The degree of the required numerator of function must not be
greater than the degree of the denominator by more than 1.
 If the given function f(x) is a positive function, then its reciprocal
is also a positive function.
 The addition of two positive functions is also a positive function.
 However, in the case of the subtraction function, the result will be
either a positive or negative function.

3.6.2 Operations of real functions

i. Addition of Two Real Functions

g: X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, the addition

Let f and g be two different real-valued functions, then f: X → R and

of two real functions are given by (f + g): X → R, which is as

follows:

(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X

ii. Subtraction of a Real Function
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 f: X → R and g: X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊂ R.
Let f and g be two different real-valued functions, then

Then, the subtraction of two real functions are given by (f - g): X →

(f – g) (x) = f(x) –g (x), for all x ∈ X

R, which is as follows:

iii. Multiplication by a Scalar

Let f be a real-valued functions, then f: X → R and α be a scalar
where scalar mean a real number. Then, the product α f is a function
from X to R, i.e. (α f): X → R is given by

(α f) (x) = α f(x), x ∈ X
iv. Multiplication of Two Real Functions

g: X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, the

Let f and g be two different real-valued functions, then f : X → R and

multiplication of two real functions are given by (fg): X → R, which

is as follows:

(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X

v. Division of Two Real Functions

R and g: X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, the

Let f and g be two different real-valued functions, then f : X →

division of two real functions are given by (f/g): X → R, which is as

(f/g) (x) = f(x) / g(x), for all x ∈ X

follows:

Other some algebraic operations are:

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 i. (f+ k)(x)= f(x)=k
ii. (ǀfǀ)(x)= ǀf(x) ǀ
iii. (fn)(x)= [f(x)]n

3.6.3 Types of Real Valued Functions

Real valued functions can be classified into two categories.
i. Algebraic functions
ii. Transcendental functions

i. Algebraic Function
A function which is obtained by applying the algebraic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division etc. to the independent variable x is called algebraic
function.

ii. Transcendental Function

The function which is not algebraic is called a transcendental
function.

3.7 Algebraic Function

An algebraic function is an equation that allows one to input a
domain, or x-value and perform mathematical calculations to get an
output, which is the range, or y-value, that is specific for that particular
x-value.

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Algebraic functions are often algebraic expressions using a finite
number of terms, involving only the algebraic operations addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and raising to a fractional power.
Examples of such functions are:
1
i. f(x) = x
1
ii. f(x) = x 2

A graph of three branches of the algebraic

function y, where y3 − xy + 1 = 0, over the
domain 3/22/3 < x < 50.

There are many types of algebraic functions such as polynomial, linear,

quadratic, cubic, and root.

3.7.1 Constant Function

A constant function is a function
that has the same output value no matter
what your input value is. It is typically
written as f(x)=cf(x) = cf(x)=c, where c
is a fixed real number, meaning that for
any input x, the function’s output is always c.

f(x)=2

3.7.2 Identity Function

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 An identity function is a polynomial function that maps every element
to itself. So, the image of any element is the element itself. It is a
function in which the output is the same as the input.
A real-valued function f : R → R such that f(x) = x for all x in R.

slope of an identity function graph = tan 45° = 1

3.7.3 Linear Function

A linear function is a function that creates a straight-line graph and
has the form f(x)=mx+b, where m is the slope (rate of change) and b is
the y-intercept.
For example, if f(x)=3x+2, then the slope
m=3 indicates that for each unit increase
in x, f(x) increases by 3, and b=2 means
the line crosses the y-axis at 2.

3.7.4 Quadratic Function

A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
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where a, b, and c are numbers with a not equal to zero.
The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a parabola.
Parabolas may open upward or downward and vary in width or
steepness, but they all have the same basic U; shape.

The above graph is graph of a quadratic function f(x)=3x2+4x+2.

3.7.5 Polynomial Function

A polynomial function is an algebraic expression of the form f(x) =
anxn + an-1xn-1 +….. + a1x + a0 , where an, an-1 , ……. , a0 are constants and
n is a non-negative integer, representing functions like f(x) = 2x^3 - x +
5.

3.7.6 Rational Function

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 A rational function is a function that can be expressed as the ratio of
two polynomial functions, written as f(x)=p(x)/q(x) where p(x) and q(x)
are polynomials and q(x)≠0. For example, f(x)=2x+3/x-1 is a rational
function.

3.8 Transcendental Functions

Transcendental functions are functions that cannot be expressed as
finite combinations of the basic algebraic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and root extraction). They are not
derived from polynomials and include functions that transcend the scope
of algebraic functions, hence the name.
Some of the examples of transcendental functions can be log x, sin x,
cos x, etc. These functions that are non-algebraic in nature can only be
expressed in terms of infinite series.
The most familiar transcendental functions examples are the exponential
functions, logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions, hyperbolic
functions, and inverse of all these functions. The less familiar
transcendental functions examples are Gamma, Elliptic, and Zeta
functions.

3.8.1 Trigonometric Functions

Transcendental functions are functions that cannot be expressed as
finite combinations of the basic algebraic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and root extraction). They are not
derived from polynomials and include functions that transcend the scope
of algebraic functions, hence the name.
They are also known as the circular functions, since their values can be
defined as ratios of the x and y coordinates of points on a circle of radius
1 that correspond to angles in standard positions.

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The domain and range of six trigonometric functions are given below:

Graph of Sine Function

3.8.2 Exponential Function

An exponential function is a Mathematical function in the form f (x) = a x,
where “x” is a variable and “a” is a constant which is called the base of
the function and it should be greater than 0. The most commonly used

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exponential function base is the transcendental number e, which is
approximately equal to 2.71828.

These functions are used to model growth and decay processes, like
population growth and radioactive decay.

Before plotting the above graph, the following things should be

remembered.
i. All exponential functions intersect y-axis at (0,1).
ii. If a>1 then ax is an increasing function.
iii. The domain of all exponential functions is R and range is (0, ∞).

3.8.3 Logarithmic Function

The inverse of exponential functions, typically written as
f(x)=loga(x) with the natural logarithm ln(x) being a common form.
Logarithmic functions are useful for scaling, such as in measuring the
intensity of sound (decibels) or earthquake magnitudes.

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 The logarithmic function is defined as f(x) = log ax the base of the
logarithm is ‘a’. This can be read it as log base a of x. The most 2
common bases used in logarithmic functions are base 10 and base e.

3.9 Curve Sketching

Curve sketching is the process of analyzing and drawing the graph of

a function by identifying key features that define its shape and behavior.
By examining attributes like intercepts, asymptotes, symmetry, intervals
of increase or decrease, and concavity, we can create an accurate sketch
of a function’s curve without plotting numerous points.

3.9.1 Even and Odd Functions

Even and odd functions are types of functions with specific
symmetry properties, helping simplify their analysis and graphing .
1. Even Functions:
A function f(x) is even if f(−x) = f(x) for all x in the domain. This means that
the function is symmetric about the y-axis. Graphically, if we reflect an even
function across the y-axis, it looks the same. Common examples of even
functions include f(x)=x2 and f(x)= cos(x).

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 Graph of f(x)=x2

2. Odd Functions:
A function f(x) is odd if f(−x) =−f(x) for all x in the domain. This
type of symmetry means the function is symmetric about the
origin, meaning rotating the graph 180° around the origin leaves it
unchanged. Examples of odd functions include f(x)=x3 and
f(x)=sin(x).

Graph of f(x)=x3

Properties of Even and Odd Functions

i. The sum, product and quotient of two even functions are
also an even function.
ii. Any constant multiple of even function is also an even
function.

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 iii. The sum of two odd functions is odd and the constant
multiple of odd function is also an odd function.
iv. The product and quotient of two odd functions is an even
function.
v. The product and quotient of even and odd functions is an
odd function.
vi. The sum of an even and odd function is neither even nor odd
unless one of the functions is identically zero.
vii. The constant function f(x)=k is even if k≠0 and both even
and odd if k=0.
3.9.2 Periodicity of a Function
Periodicity refers to a property of certain functions where they
repeat their values in regular intervals. A function f(x) is periodic if there
exists a positive constant T (called the period) such that f(x+T) =f(x) for
all x in the domain. This means the function produces the same output
after every interval of length T, resulting in a repeating pattern over the
x-axis.The most frequently occurring periodic functions are
trigonometric functions.Periodicity is essential in physics, engineering,
and signal processing, where it helps model repeating patterns such as
sound waves, electrical currents, and seasonal patterns.

3.9.3 Symmetry of Elementary Functions

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 Symmetry in elementary functions refers to patterns within
the function’s graph that can be reflected or rotated around certain axes
or points, revealing key insights about the function's behavior.
Symmetry simplifies graphing, analysis, and calculations for functions
in many mathematical and applied contexts.
3.9.3.1 Symmetry about x-axis
A function has symmetry about the x-axis
if, for every point (x,y)) on its graph, the
point (x,y) is also on the graph. This
means that the upper half of the graph
mirrors the lower half across the x-axis.

3.9.3.2 Symmetry about y-axis

A function or relation has symmetry
about the y-axis if, for every point (x,y) on
the graph, the point (−x,y)is also on the
graph. This means the right side of the
graph mirrors the left side across the y-axis.
Examples of Functions with Y-Axis Symmetry:
2
 f(x)=x (a parabola opening upward)

 f(x)= cos(x) (a periodic cosine wave)

3.9.3.3 Symmetry about origin

A function or relation has symmetry
about the origin if, for every point
(x,y)on the graph, the point (−x,−y)
is also on the graph. This symmetry
implies that rotating the graph 180°
around the origin leaves it unchanged.
Examples of Functions with Origin Symmetry:
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  f(x)=x3 (a cubic function)
 f(x)= sin(x) (a sine wave)

3.9.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions (Monotonicity)

Monotonicity refers to whether a function consistently increases or
decreases over an interval.

3.9.4.1 Increasing Function

A function f(x) is increasing on an interval if, for any x1<x2,
f(x1) ≤ f(x2). This means the function rises as x moves from left to right.
3.9.4.2 Decreasing Function
A function f(x) is decreasing on an interval if, for any
f(x1 )≥ f(x2)Here, the function falls as x increases.

Monotonicity is helpful in analyzing the behavior of functions and is

often determined using the first derivative f′(x)): if f′(x)>0, the function
is increasing; if f′(x)<0, it’s decreasing.

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3.9.5 Asymptote
An asymptote is a line that
a graph approaches but never
actually, touches or crosses
as it heads toward infinity.
Asymptotes represent the
Behavior of a function at
extreme values of x or y,
showing how the function
behaves as it grows very
large or very small.
There are three types of Asymptotes:
1. Horizontal Asymptote: A line y=cy = cy=c that a function
approaches as x→∞x or x→−∞.

2. Vertical Asymptote: A line x=c where the function becomes

undefined, often due to division by zero.

3. Oblique (Slant) Asymptote: A diagonal line that a function

approaches as x→∞ when the degree of the numerator is one higher
than the denominator.

3.10 Continuity
A function is continuous if its graph can be drawn without lifting the
pencil—meaning there are no breaks, jumps, or holes. Mathematically, a
function f(x) is continuous at a point x=c if:
1. f(c) is defined.
2. The limit limx→c f(x) exists.
3. limx→cf(x)=f(c)

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In simpler terms, for a function to be continuous at x=c, the function
value and the approaching value from both sides must be the same.
3.10.1 Discontinuity and Types of Discontinuity
Discontinuity in a function occurs when there’s a break, jump, or
gap in the graph, meaning the function is not continuous at a certain
point. Discontinuities can be classified into several types:
1. Removable Discontinuity:
Occurs when a single point on the graph is missing, but the
function can be redefined to make it continuous. This often
happens if there’s a hole in the graph, such as in
f(x)=x2-1/x-1 at x=1 (where a point could be "filled in").

2. Jump Discontinuity:
Occurs when there’s a sudden change or "jump" in function values,
making the left-hand and right-hand limits unequal. This is
common in piecewise functions, like a step function.

3. Infinite Discontinuity:
Happens when the function heads to infinity at a certain point,
usually due to division by zero. An example is f(x)=1x1/x at x=0 ,
where the values of f(x) become infinitely large or small as xxx
approaches zero.

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3.10.2 Properties of Continuous Function

 Intermediate Value Property: A continuous function on [a,b] takes

on every value between f(a) and f(b).
 Extreme Value Property: A continuous function on a closed interval
[a,b] reaches both a maximum and minimum.
 Operations: The sum, difference, product, and quotient (where
defined) of continuous functions are also continuous.
 Composition: The composition of two continuous functions is also
continuous at the specified point.

3.10.3Examples of Continuous Function

 A constant function f(x) = c is continuous on R.

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 An identity function f(x) = x is continuous on R.
 Every polynomial function is continuous on R.
 Sine and Cosine are continuous on R but tangent is discontinuous at
π/2 and its odd integral multiples.
 e x is continuous on R and lnx is continuous on R + .

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION

The study of functions is fundamental in mathematics, helping to

analyze relationships between variables across diverse fields. Functions
provide a framework to understand how changes in one variable impact
another, making them essential for interpreting complex systems. By
examining different types of functions—such as linear, quadratic,
polynomial, exponential, and logarithmic—we gain insight into their
unique characteristics and practical applications in areas like physics,
economics, engineering, and computer science. This study has
highlighted the various ways functions can be defined, represented, and
analyzed both graphically and algebraically, allowing us to interpret
trends, intercepts, slopes, and asymptotic behavior with greater
precision.
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Throughout this report, concepts such as domain, range, continuity, and
asymptotes have proven integral for analyzing functions in-depth.
Understanding continuity, for example, is essential in calculus,
especially when studying limits and derivatives, while knowing the
domain and range ensures appropriate function application within
specified conditions. Ultimately, the study of functions is not only
foundational in theoretical mathematics but also indispensable in solving
practical problems across various disciplines, underscoring their value in
both daily life and professional settings.

Bibliograph
Britannica, Introduction to Functions
Mathcentre, Introduction to Functions (2009)
Oklahoma State University, Real Valued Functions
Arpita Srivastava, collegedunia.com, Real Valued Functions:
Types, operation & examples
Wikipedia, Algebraic Function
Splash learn, Identity Function
Larry Green, Lake Tahoe Community College,
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
Vedantu, Transcendental functions
BYJU’S, Period of a Function
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY, Continuity and IVT
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Mathway.com (a graphing calculator)

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