QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, MIXED RESEARCH

In order to be able to carry out research, it is essential to have basic concepts and definitions and
to start from them when developing a research project.

INTRODUCTION.

When making the decision to enter the field of scientific research, it is extremely
important that the researcher knows the type of approach that must be put into practice in
order to respond to a research problem.

When we visualize the scope of the approach, we can establish whether or not it is
feasible to carry out the study. Similarly, some authors refer to the fact that in the field of
science there is no method that is better than another, but rather we are faced with variability
in terms of approximations and approaches to the phenomena under study. The current trend
is closer to the combined use of approaches, which has been called triangulation.

To understand the complexity of the methods and their uses, it is necessary to know
them separately, which is why, for the purposes of our research, we will approach the
quantitative approach. In its title we can find the nature of the method, therefore, we can say
that quantifying refers to providing evidence to a theory that is held to explain something. To
do this, it uses a deductive process, which means that assumptions are made from a general
premise.

A method does not emerge by itself, in this sense, we will analyze the epistemological
foundations that give strength to the approach. Known as positivism, we refer to a neologism
that maintains that "methods and doctrines are inseparable in their study" and for positivist
science to be built, the participation of the senses is necessary.

Discovering the great structures that strengthen the integration of a method surrounds
man with a series of knowledge that will progressively familiarize him with the world around
him, with his interactions and how he can help achieve an order that ends up benefiting a
group.

1. Quantitative approach to research.

Throughout the history of science and philosophy, various schools of thought have
emerged, such as Dialectical Materialism and Positivism, among others, which have given
rise to different paths in the search for knowledge. And due to the different postulates that
support it, since the second half of the 20th century these currents have been polarized into
two main approaches: quantitative and qualitative.
 The quantitative approach emerged from a branch of philosophy called logical
positivism, which operates with strict rules of logic, truth, laws, and predictions.

Its researchers maintain that truth is absolute and that a single reality can be defined by
careful measurement. To find the truth, the researcher must put aside his or her personal
values, beliefs, feelings and perceptions since they cannot enter into the measurement.

Sampieri 2007, establishes that data collection based on measurement is used

secondarily, then data analysis is carried out and research questions are answered, in this way
we test the previously established hypotheses, relying on numerical measurement, counting,
and the use of statistics to try to accurately establish patterns in a population. For example, a
census is a quantitative approach to the demographic study of a country's population.

Similarly, Sampieri establishes that during the process, maximum control is sought to
avoid possible explanations other than the study proposal (hypothesis), and that if these arise,
they can be discarded, uncertainty is excluded and error is minimized.

The quantitative approach to research uses a positivist, hypothetical-deductive, objective,

particularistic and results-oriented global conception to explain certain phenomena. It is most
directly developed in the task of verifying and testing theories through representative sample
studies. Apply tests, interviews, questionnaires, scales to measure attitudes and objective
measures, using instruments subjected to validation and reliability tests. In this process,
statistical techniques are used in data analysis and the results are generalized.

Quantitative research is conducted with the purpose of testing theory by describing

variables (descriptive research). Examining relationships between variables (correlational
research). Determine cause-effect interactions between variables (quasi-experimental and
experimental research).

1.1. Objectives of Research with a Quantitative Approach.

· The measurement of variables susceptible to being quantified.

 The verification of hypotheses supported by theories legitimized by the academic

community.
 The definition of social policies that are supported by indicators of service coverage,
establishment of needs, employment levels, productivity, and demographic variable intake.
 Human behavior and social situations and relationships from their external and
measurable manifestations.
 Testing theories or analytical categories.
 Generalize the results of the research process to broad populations.

1.2. Epistemological Position of the Quantitative Approach.

Its epistemological basis is Positivism.

  Perception of reality: objective, exclusive, measures social facts, opinions or
individual attitudes.
 Reasoning: It is of a deductive type.
 Purpose: verification, confirmation, reduction, demonstration of causality.
 Principle of truth: particularistic, stable, predetermined, focused on similarities.
 Research perspective: from outside (outside the data).
 Validity and analysis: statistical significance to quantify social reality, causal
relationships and their intensity.
 Scope of results: nomothetic, quantitative search for general laws of behavior.

1.3. Disadvantages and Limitations of the Approach:

Being based on the fact that social reality is the image and likeness of physical reality, and
that its epistemological source is positivism, it grants a static character to the social world.
Therefore, its approach is restricted to what is measurable, quantifiable and to maintaining
what is established.

Likewise, by making a subjective and intersubjective selection of indicators whether

related to processes, facts, structures, people. It leads to the fragmentation of the reality of the
variables, that is, they never see a phenomenon in an integrated way, but rather a set of
particles of the phenomena related to the observation.

2. Quantitative Paradigm.
It is based on the method of Francis Bacon, the mathematics of Descartes and Galileo, the
experimental method of Pascal and the physics of Newton, as well as the vision of the
materialists of the 18th century. The paradigm is a reality constructed and composed of causes
and effects, to predict and control events, behaviors or other facts, where the scientist must
quantify the causes and effects, and with the intention of maximizing the objectivity of the
data and results, isolates or separates the data from its context (Chizzotti, 1991).

2.1. Characteristics of the Quantitative Paradigm.

 He defends the use of quantitative methods, using counting, measuring and abstract
reasoning techniques.
 It has greater application to medium and global social systems, and to groups or
categories of people within them.
 It has a positivist global conception.
 It seeks the causes of social phenomena, paying little attention to the subjective states
of individuals.
 It refers to experimental, random, quasi-experimental techniques, objective tests,
multivariate statistical analysis, sample studies, among others.
 It uses a closed model of logical-deductive reasoning, from theory to propositions.
 It comes from the natural and agricultural sciences.
 It has been developed most directly for the task of verifying or confirming theories
(previous studies).
  Penetrating and controlled measurement.
 . It is objective.
 Perspective from outside.
 Verification-oriented, confirmatory, reductionist, inferential and hypothetical-
deductive.
 Results-oriented.
 Reliable, solid and repeatable data.
 Multiple case studies.
 Assume a stable reality.
 Its purpose is the verification and increase of knowledge.
 The research design is determined, therefore, the object of study is adapted to the
method.
3. Positivism.

Also known as the scientific method, scientific research, it was developed thanks to
Auguste Comte in the 19th century, in Western Europe thanks to a series of economic, social,
and ideological transformations. Its philosophical foundations are based on the way of
capturing knowledge as a simple description of the phenomena considered sensitive according
to Willian James, positivism states that only that which has been verified will be true. It
resurfaced in the mid-20th century as a reaction to the New School movement, and is based
on Skinner's behavioral theory and contributions from Campbell and Stanley.

Positivism is much more than a concept that has been the protagonist of one hundred
years of Western philosophy. When we speak of him, we are referring to a whole intellectual
orientation that has extended its influence beyond the Philosophical Academy and has
permeated and permeates the mentalities, attitudes and practices of contemporary man. He
proclaimed that science, especially sociology, should tend towards better administration of
science, towards the illumination of concepts and techniques of order.

From a scientific point of view, positivism must be considered in two different aspects:
as a method and as a system. As a method, it refers to scientific and philosophical research: as
a system, it comprises a set of statements about the object of science.

The positivity of science leads positivist thinkers to combat the idealistic and spiritualist
conceptions of reality, which the positivists considered metaphysical, although they often fell
into metaphysical positions very similar to those they always criticized. Within the positivist
currents we can mention: ideological, empirical, methodological or conceptual, sociological,
realist, neopositivism, and legal positivism.

3.1. Positivist Approach.

It assumes that the social world, like the natural world, is governed by laws that can be
investigated through systematic observation and experiment.

The positivist insistence on quantification and generalization has led to the creation of an
image of the individual who is distinguished by his subjection to powerful forces that limit his
 unique character and make his actions possible. To explain a little, positivism gives the
following example: the medium is a complex whole, composed of gas, water vapor, solid,
gross, organized bodies, both more or less endowed with light, electricity and heat.

In order to live, the organized being presupposes an environment that it uses and in which
it develops; an environment necessarily in relation to both the internal and external parts of
the being, but above all to the latter. Therefore, we must necessarily know the constitution of
the media and the laws of their relations with all organisms before studying the acts of
organized beings.

3.2. Characteristics of Positivism (According to Dobles, Zúñiga, 1996).

 The subject discovers knowledge.

 The subject has access to reality through the senses, reason and the instruments he
uses in this regard.
 Valid knowledge is scientific.
 There is a reality accessible through experience
 Reality is a correspondence between what man knows and the reality he discovers.
 The scientific method is the only valid one.
 The scientific method is descriptive.
 Subject and object of knowledge are independent.
 Value neutrality is a principle of research.

3.3. Quantitative Paradigm from the Positivist Approach.

 Positivists assume that scientists can almost automatically achieve objective

knowledge by studying both the social and natural world.
 Positivists claim that the natural and social sciences share a basic methodology, that
they are similar not by virtue of the subject matter they deal with but because they use the
same logic of inquiry and similar research procedures.
 Positivists commonly conceive of a mechanistic natural and social order.
 Atoms, molecules and their combinations can be entirely described according to the
laws of the mathematics of elementary particles.

Quantitative, qualitative and mixed approaches

Once we have developed the research problem, questions, objectives and hypothesis, the
design is developed and the sample to be used in the study is selected according to the chosen
approach. The next stage consists of collecting relevant data on the variables, events,
communities or objects involved in the research (Gómez, 2006:121).

In this context, Hernández, Fernández and Baptista (2010:4) in their work Research
Methodology, maintain that all research work is based on two main approaches: the
quantitative approach and the qualitative approach, which together form a third approach: The
mixed approach.
 The research approach is a systematic, disciplined and controlled process and is directly
related to the research methods, which are two: the inductive method, generally associated
with qualitative research, which consists of going from particular cases to generalization;
while the deductive method is usually associated with quantitative research, whose
characteristic is to go from the general to the particular. The purpose of the following topic is
to explain the different approaches used in scientific research and that represent the key and
guide to determining consistent, clear, objective and significant results.

Quantitative approach

As mentioned in previous pages, one of the most important and decisive steps in research is
the choice of the method or path that will lead to obtaining valid research results that respond
to the initially stated objectives. The way of working, the acquisition of information, the
analyses carried out and, consequently, the type of results obtained will depend on this
decision; the selection of the research process guides the entire investigative process and,
based on it, the objective of any investigation is achieved.

Gómez (2006:121) points out that from a quantitative perspective, data collection is
equivalent to measuring.

According to the classical definition of the term, to measure means to assign numbers to
objects and events according to certain rules. Many times the concept becomes observable
through empirical references associated with it. For example, if we want to measure violence
(concept) in a certain group of individuals, we should observe verbal and/or physical
aggression, such as shouting, insults, pushing, punching, etc. (empirical references).

Quantitative studies aim to explain a social reality seen from an external and objective
perspective.

Its intention is to seek the accuracy of measurements or social indicators in order to generalize
its results to broad populations or situations. They work fundamentally with numbers,
quantifiable data (Galeano, 2004:24).

During the numerical quantification process, the measuring or data collection instrument
plays a central role. Therefore, they must be correct, or indicate what is of interest to measure
with ease and efficiency; in this regard, Namakforoosh (2005:227) explains that a measuring
instrument considers three main characteristics:

* Validity: refers to the degree to which the test is measuring what it actually intends to
measure.
* Reliability: refers to the accuracy and precision of measurement procedures.
* Feasibility: refers to the factors that determine the possibility of realization, which are such
as: economic factors, convenience and the degree to which the measuring instruments are
interpretable.

For his part, Gómez (2006:122) defines that an adequate measurement instrument:
Is one that records observable data that truly represent the concepts or variables that the
researcher has in mind, in quantitative terms, the reality that is desired to be captured is truly
captured, although there is no perfect measurement, the result is as close as possible to the
representation of the concept that the researcher has in mind.

Every quantitative measurement instrument suggests Gómez (2006:124-125) follows the

following procedure:

a) List the variables that you intend to measure or observe.

b) Review its conceptual definition and understand its meaning.

c) Review the operational definitions of the variables, that is, how each variable is measured.
d) If an already developed measurement instrument is used, ensure that it has proven
reliability and validity; the instrument must be adapted to the research context.
e) Indicate the level of measurement of each reference and, therefore, that of the variables.
f) Indicate how the data will be coded (assign a numerical symbol) in each item and variable.

g) Apply a pilot test of the measuring instrument.

h) Modify, adjust and improve the measurement instrument after the pilot test.

Within each specific instrument, Sabino (1992:108-109) points out, two different aspects
can be distinguished: form and content:

The form of the instrument refers to the type of approximation we establish with the
empirical, to the techniques we use for this task;
The content is expressed in the specification of the data we need to obtain; it is therefore
specified in a series of items that are nothing other than the same indicators that allow us to
measure the variables, but which now take the form of questions, points to observe, elements
to record, etc.

In this way, the instrument itself synthesizes all the previous research work: it summarizes
the contributions of the theoretical framework by selecting data that correspond to the
indicators and, therefore, to the variables or concepts used; but it also expresses everything
that is specifically empirical about our object of study because it synthesizes, through the
collection techniques it uses, the specific design chosen for the work.

Regarding the characteristics, process and benefits that identify the quantitative approach,
Hernández et al (2010:3) point out the following:

Characteristics, process and benefits of the quantitative approach

Characteristics Process Kindnesses
Measures phenomena Sequential Generalizes results
Use statistics Deductive Control
of super phenomena
Hypothesis test Probative Precision
Makes cause-effect analysis Analyze objective reality Replica
 Prediction

Source: Prepared by the author of this thesis based on Hernández Sampieri 2010:3

The above table shows the characteristics, processes and benefits of the quantitative
approach. The authors point out that it is sequential and probative since each stage precedes
the next, so steps cannot be skipped. Its main characteristic is that it is rigorous, although
some phase can be redefined. When measuring phenomena and testing hypotheses, cause-
effect deductions are required, such that when analyzing reality, if there is a lack of
consistency, the results are analyzed again.

Thomas, Nelson and Silverman (2005:346) detail some basic contrasting characteristics
between qualitative and quantitative research, which are observed.

Contrasting Features of Qualitative and Qualitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative
ResearchComponent

Hypothesis Inductive Deductive

Sample Resolute, small Random, big

Control Natural, real world Laboratory

Data collection researchesprimary instrumentObjective instrumentation

Design Flexible, can be changed It is

determined in advance

Source: Thomas, Nelson and Silverman (2005:346).

Conducting research from a quantitative perspective plays an important role, since it aims
to shorten the information, making it easier for the researcher to collect data and thus find the
solution to their problem.

Mixed approach

From the combination of both approaches, mixed research arises, which includes the same
characteristics of each of them. Grinnell (1997), cited by Hernández et al (2003:5) points out
that the two approaches (quantitative and qualitative) use five similar and related phases:
a) They carry out observation and evaluation of phenomena.
b) Establish assumptions or ideas as a result of the observation and evaluation carried out.
c) They test and demonstrate the degree to which assumptions or ideas are well-founded.
d) Revise such assumptions or ideas on the basis of evidence or analysis.
e) Propose new observations and evaluations to clarify, modify, consolidate and/or
substantiate assumptions or ideas; or even to generate new ones.

Approaches to scientific research

QUALITATIVE ORQUANTITATIVE ORMIXED OR COMBINATION

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE
Initial Surveys Includes the characteristics
immersion in the field of the qualitative and quantitative
approaches.
Contextual interpretationExperimentation

Flexibility Patterns (relationships

between
variables)
Questions Questions and hypotheses
Data collection Data collection

Source: from Hernández, et al, (2006:3-24).

The Table allows to analyze the qualities of both research approaches, qualities that are
valuable and that have made notable contributions to the advancement of science,
comparatively speaking neither is better than the other, the combination of both allows us to
obtain better results in the research, on the one hand quantitative research gives us the
possibility of generalizing results and gives us control, replication and comparison of the
study phenomena with other similar studies; qualitative research provides depth in
information, dispersion, interpretive richness, contextualization, details, fresh, natural,
holistic, flexible inquiry and unique experiences due to its proximity to the environment.

The deductive process is not sufficient by itself to explain knowledge. It is mainly useful
for logic and mathematics, where knowledge from science can be accepted as true by
definition. Something similar happens with induction, which can only be used when the truth
value of the general statement can be demonstrated from the validity of the particular
statement. The combination of both methods means the application of deduction in the
elaboration of hypotheses, and the application of induction in the findings. Induction and
deduction have greater objectivity when they are considered as probabilistic.

Considering the characteristics of both approaches, on the one hand the quantitative
approach by using data collection and analysis to answer research questions and test
previously established hypotheses and by relying on numerical measurement, counting and
statistics to accurately establish patterns of behavior in a population, and on the other hand,
the qualitative approach, by being used first to discover and refine research questions and by
being based on data collection methods without numerical measurement, such as descriptions
and observations and due to its flexibility it moves between events and their interpretation,
between answers and the development of theory.

To develop this work, the mixed approach was used, since both are intertwined in most of
their stages, so it is convenient to combine them to obtain information that allows
triangulation. This triangulation appears as an alternative in this research in order to have the
possibility of finding different paths to lead to the broadest understanding and interpretation
of the phenomenon under study.

In conclusion, the mixed approach is a process that collects, analyzes and links
quantitative and qualitative data in the same study or a series of investigations to answer a
question. In this research, the quantitative approach is applied to determine numerical results
using the survey technique and the case study tradition to explain, describe and explore
information about a specific public policy program, which is unique and particular in its kind
and which is of vital importance to society, as we will analyze below.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH.

In order to be able to carry out research, it is essential to have basic concepts and
definitions and to start from them when developing a research project.

Research concepts

Research is a systematic, organized and objective process, the purpose of which is

to answer a question or hypothesis and thus increase knowledge and information
about something unknown. Likewise, research is a systematic activity aimed at
obtaining, through observation and experimentation, new information and
knowledge needed to expand the various fields of science and technology.

Research can also be defined as the action and effect of carrying out intellectual
and experimental activities in a systematic manner with the purpose of increasing
knowledge about a certain subject and with the aim of expanding scientific
knowledge, without pursuing, in principle, any practical application.
To know philosophically speaking means to theoretically grasp objects, their qualities,
their modes, their relations, in a word, to possess the truth or at least to anxiously seek
it.
The set of certain or probable rational knowledge that is obtained in a methodical
manner and verifiable with reality, is organized and transmitted, and is called Science.

Science:
The current definition of "science" is the accumulation of systematic knowledge. The
object of science is not the world or nature: its object is constituted from the negation of
the results of intuition. Its central core does not reside in the subject or the object (as
interpreted by traditional epistemology), but in the relationships that exist between the
two.
Furthermore, it is knowledge with a logical basis, its own method and a specific
objective that allows for forecasting. It is a set of certain or probable rational
knowledge that is obtained in a methodical manner and verifiable with reality, is
organized and transmitted. "A system of beliefs to which we are committed."
Classification of sciences:
• Exact Sciences that only admit principles, effects and demonstrable facts,
such as mathematics and physics.
• Humanities Sciences that study matters related to manifestations of human beings,
such as history, philosophy or psychology.
• Natural Sciences that study matters related to nature, such as biology, zoology
or geology.
• Occult Knowledge and practices related to magic, alchemy, astrology and
similar subjects, which are not based on scientific experimentation.
• Social Sciences that study human behavior in society and its forms of
organization, such as anthropology or sociology.

Investigation:
Investigate comes from the Latin "in" (in), vestigare (to find, to investigate). "It is a
reflective, systematic, controlled and critical procedure that aims to discover facts,
phenomena and laws." (Ander - Egg).
In the most generic sense, research is the process of producing new knowledge
(scientific and non-scientific). It can never be an incidental, casual observation,
since it is an activity made up of: Selective and localized observation, since it is the
search for essential information, whether about a phenomenon (fact or
process) or on a subject, always from a comparison with a frame of reference,
whether constituted by previous experiences or by a conceptualization or a theory
and always by means of a method, more (scientific) or less systematized.
• Health Research: "It is the process of producing knowledge that aims to study
health conditions and social responses to these conditions"
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Method:
It derives from the Greek roots meta (towards, along) and odos (path).
"It is the path to follow through a series of operations, rules and procedures established
in advance in a voluntary and reflective manner to achieve a certain goal." (Ander -
Egg)
"The method should not be seen as a ritual, it is nothing in itself, it only has value in
the context of research, as a mechanism of interrelation between the subject and
the object" (Rodríguez, 1997)
"It is the path to follow through a series of operations, rules and procedures established
in advance in a voluntary and reflective manner to achieve a certain goal."
Scientific Method: It is the rigorous procedure that logic structures as a means for the
acquisition of knowledge. It is the proposed procedure followed in research to discover
the forms of existence of the processes of the universe, to unravel their internal and
external connections, to generalize and deepen the acquired knowledge.
Elements of the Scientific Method:

Concepts: They represent abstractions or logical constructions that explain a

fact or phenomenon.
Definitions: Closely related to the concepts, the formulation of hypotheses
depends on both, prepared on paper, has information printed in ink on
specific topics to develop, investigate or learn about.
Hypothesis: It is a plausible assumption or conjecture about relationships
between facts or phenomena, subject to verification.
Variables: A characteristic or property of a fact or phenomenon, which can
vary between units or sets.
 Dimensions: Aspects or facets, each of the magnitudes of a set that serve to
define a phenomenon.
Indicators: They constitute the sub-dimensions of the variables; they refer to
components or indices of the fact or phenomenon being studied.

To reach knowledge, it is developed in two ways: inductive and deductive.

Inductive Logical Method.
It is the reasoning that, starting from particular cases, rises to general
knowledge. This method allows for the formation of hypotheses, investigation of
scientific laws, and demonstrations. Induction can be complete or incomplete.
Specifically instrumental component of research, referring especially to the
operational part of the process, that is, to the techniques, procedures and tools
of all kinds that intervene in the development of the research.

Hypothetico-Deductive Method.
A researcher proposes a hypothesis as a consequence of his or her inferences from
the body of empirical data or from more general principles and laws. In the first case,
the hypothesis is reached through inductive procedures and in the second case,
through deductive procedures. It is the first path of logical deductive inferences.

Methodology:
"Set of methods followed in scientific research." (Becerra, 1997)
"It is the science of method." Specifically instrumental component of research,
referring especially to the operational part of the process, that is, to the techniques,
procedures and tools of all kinds that intervene in the development of the research.
Specifically instrumental component of research, referring especially to the
operational part of the process, that is, to the techniques, procedures and tools of
all kinds that intervene in the development of the research.

Technique:
The method is not enough nor is it everything; procedures and means are needed
to make the methods operational. Techniques are located at this level. Technical
Set of procedures and resources used by a science or art. Expertise or ability to
use these procedures and resources. Ability to perform something, or to achieve
something.
Set of procedures used by a science, art or skill. The history of technology is that of
human progress in its material aspect, with the consequent
repercussions on the intellectual and spiritual order. This is based on the use of the
various sources of energy that nature offers and its evolution was as slow at the
beginning as it has been rapid in recent times. Tools that allow solving the
methodological problem of research.
Research Techniques: are the procedures related to problem selection, hypothesis
formulation, work planning, information gathering, graph preparation and report writing.

Technology:
Technology is a broad concept that encompasses a set of techniques, knowledge and
processes, which are used for the design and construction of objects to satisfy human
needs. In society, technology is a consequence of science and engineering, although
many technological advances came after these two concepts. The word technology
comes from the Greek tekne (technique, craft) and logos (science, knowledge).

The Theory.
It refers to the relationships between facts or the ordering of them in some way that
makes sense. Theory is an instrument of science in the following sense: it defines the
main orientation of a science, in that it indicates the kinds of data to be abstracted; it
presents a scheme of concepts by means of which the relevant phenomena are
systematized, classified and related to each other through a summary of the facts in:
a) an empirical generalization
b) generalizing systems; predicts facts; and points out clear points in our
knowledge.

GLOSSARY

Analysis: Breaking down the elements that make up the totality of data, to classify
and reclassify the material collected from different points of view in order to choose
the most precise and representative one.

Science: Systematic sets of knowledge, with which, through the establishment of

universal principles and laws, man explains, describes and transforms the world
around him.

Concept: Symbol that represents the similarities of very diverse phenomena.

Field study: These are investigations that are carried out in the environment where
the problem to be investigated develops.
Descriptive study: It is used to describe the most important characteristics of the phenomenon
to be studied.

Exploratory study: Its objective is to assist the researcher to define the problem, establish
hypotheses and define the methodology to formulate a definitive research study.

Method: It is a logical process through which knowledge is obtained. Analytical method: The
elements of a phenomenon are distinguished and each of the elements is reviewed in an
orderly manner separately.

Deductive method: It consists of obtaining particular conclusions from a universal law.

Dialectical method: It studies phenomena in their relationships with others and in their state of
continuous change, since nothing exists as an isolated object.

Inductive method: It is a process by which, from the study of particular cases, conclusions or
universal laws are obtained that explain or relate the phenomena studied.

Synthetic method: Apparently isolated facts are related and a theory is formulated that unifies
the various elements.

Procedure: Chronological sequence of operations to carry out an activity.

Process: Sets of stages or steps performed to carry out a function.

Synthesis: Method that proceeds from the simple to the complex, from the elements to the
whole. Integration of isolated parts into a whole that unifies all the elements.

Technique: It is the set of instruments and means through which the method is carried out.

Theory: It is the set of concepts, categories and laws that objectively reflect reality.

Introduction to Epistemology and Basic Concepts in Research

The acquisition of knowledge requires a series of stages and steps over time; for
this, a theoretical basis is necessary that improves the process of understanding
knowledge.

This process is explained through epistemology, which derives from two Greek
words: episteme, knowledge, and logia, study. In most texts the word
epistemology is that science, or part of science, in charge of the theory of
knowledge; Aristotle recognized it as the science that seeks to know things in their
essence and their causes. (1,2) Therefore, Epistemology is the science that studies
what and how scientific knowledge is, epistemology bases the knowledge
considered true on those that are only beliefs, to obtain scientific knowledge as a
product. (3)
There is no precise definition of knowledge, although it is an activity of daily life. To
know is to group the things that are known about objects, their qualities,
characteristics, shapes, among others. The Royal Spanish Academy defines
knowing as the process of finding out through the exercise of intellectual faculties
the nature, qualities and relationships of things. Knowing is a process through
which an individual becomes aware of his reality and in this, a set of
representations is presented about which there is no doubt of its veracity. (4)

With information about “something” or “someone”, one has the ability to describe its
characteristics, and one confidently asserts that one knows it, since one possesses that
“knowledge”. When a subject is of interest, the natural attitude is to inquire, gather data,
expand or investigate knowledge and/or phenomena. (5) The "natural" attitude of inquiring or
following the trail is known as research, however not all research is considered scientific
research; because to refer to scientific research it should comply with being "a reflective,
systematic, controlled and critical procedure that aims to discover or interpret the facts and
phenomena, relationships and laws of a certain area of reality. (6)

Therefore, it is established that the difference between any investigation and scientific
research lies precisely in the fact that the latter has a Method, which is defined as: the
path to follow to reach a certain end, the series of steps, rules, procedures, established in
advance to reach that goal. However, the method has no value in isolation; it only has
value when it serves as a mechanism of interrelation between the subject (researcher) and
the object (what is investigated).
The most widely used method to obtain certain or probable knowledge is the Scientific
Method, defined as a set of steps to generate valid knowledge, through reliable
instruments that allow the replicability of the results, that is, the ability to repeat the
experiments anywhere and by anyone.

Method
Set of steps to achieve the goal

When knowledge is obtained in a methodical and orderly manner, capable of being

verified in reality, it becomes certain or probable, then it is transmitted in an
organized manner and is known as Science, this set of certain or probable
knowledge is classified according to its characteristics.
 Exact Sciences: such as physics and mathematics that only admit principles,
effects and demonstrable facts.
 Human Sciences: such as history, philosophy, psychology, which study everything
related to human beings.
 Natural Sciences: such as biology, zoology, botany, which study matters related to
nature.
 Social Sciences: such as anthropology or sociology, which aim to study human
behavior in society and their interaction with the world around them. (7,8)

Science is a structure, a system of theories, principles, laws and categories that

observes three levels: theoretical, methodological and technical; due to its logical
structure, science is closely related to theory, method and technique.(9) In order to
determine the sciences, methods, techniques, procedures and tools have been applied
that together make up the Methodology,(5) below are defined some of the basic
terms used in research:

 Concept: Symbolic construction of the mind that, beyond sensory data, tends
to reach the essence of objects and groups them into a single set.
 Definition: Proposition composed of terms considered as known and that allow an
object to be recognized by its main characteristics. (8)
 Technique that is derived from the Greek word téchne, which means art, according to
the Royal Spanish Academy, that is, it is a set of knowledge, procedures or resources
that a science uses, practical knowledge to obtain a desired result, it is something more
practical and requires "manual and/or
 intellectual, usually with the use of tools. Techniques are often passed on from
person to person, and each person adapts them to their needs and can improve
them.”
 Technology from the Greek tekne (technique, craft) and logos (science, knowledge) is
the set of knowledge, procedures and techniques aimed at designing and building objects
that satisfy human needs. Unlike technique, it arises from knowledge obtained
scientifically, reflectively and with the help of technique. (9)
 Theory: is a logical proposition that establishes general principles and laws that
guide the explanation of various facts that have been observed.

Throughout the history of Science, various schools of thought have emerged, such as
Empiricism, Dialectical Materialism, Positivism, Phenomenology and Structuralism,
which have given rise to different paths in the search for knowledge, and from these
two research approaches are derived: Quantitative Approach that studies
phenomena and facts, is deductive; and Qualitative Approach that allows to study
the thoughts and feelings of people and/or societies without numerical data, and is
inductive and the combination of both approaches is called Mixed Approach. (10)

Book: Hernandez R, Fernandez C, Baptista P. Research methodology [Internet]. Fifth. Mexico City: McGraw-Hill; 2006
For a better understanding of the above diagram, other important terms are defined:
 Approach: The methodological approach corresponds to the first step in defining the
way in which the data will be collected, how they will be analyzed and interpreted. The
approach includes everything from research design to data collection.
 Deduction: Reasoning derived from premises or propositions leading to a more
concrete and specified truth. Method by which one proceeds from the universal to the
particular, from the known to the unknown.
 Induction: The examination of a certain number of particular observed facts, as
a basis for general information, from the particular to the universal. (8)

When approaching research, not only is the research defined, but the types of
research are determined:
 Field research: Incorporates the elements of the theoretical framework in an
activity developed at the "scene of the events", in addition to documenting the
information involved in the field; with the aim of obtaining new information through
the collection of data extracted directly from the place where the phenomena
studied take place.
 Documentary research: It is the orderly and logical process that presents a selection of
what experts have said or written about a topic, the results of which will be scientifically
valid. With the possibility of establishing a connection of ideas between several authors
and the ideas of the researcher. (11)

In each of the investigations, the design of the same must be established from the
beginning in order to determine the methodology to be used in each one. The following
graph shows the research designs:

Pure experiments

Experimental

Quasi-experiments
Design of
investigation
Transversals
Non-experimental,
observational or descriptive

Longitudinal
1. Experimental:
a. They manipulate the cause, there is always a cause variable and an effect,
that is, a dependent variable and an independent variable.
i. In Humans,itrequiresacontrolgroupandrandomization.Theyarefurthersubdividedinto:
1. Pure experiments: they are subdivided into:
a. Randomized Clinical Trial: in sick patients
b. Field trial: in healthy patients
c. Community Trial: in population groups
2. Quasi-experiments: developing hypotheses
ii. In Laboratory: Requires a control group and randomization, they are divided into:
1. In Vitro
2. In Vivo
2. Non-
experimental:

a. Observational: They do not manipulate the Independent Variable, in other

words the cause. They may not have cause-effect.
i. Descriptive: It does not present the cause or effect relationship. It
details the characteristics of the same, which are in turn subdivided
into:
1. Transversal or Prevalence: the study variable is evaluated in
the subjects only once
2. Longitudinal: the study variable is evaluated in subjects more
than once, that is, over time.
3. Correlation: they measure the strength of the relationship
between one variable and another, which can be very
strong, strong, moderate, low or very low correlation.
4. Case report or series: describes how a patient with a certain
pathology was treated
ii. Analytical: If they present cause and effect, the researchers do not
manipulate the cause variable, it is already present spontaneously, they
are further subdivided into:
1. Cases and controls: which start from an effect to reach the
cause, include a group of cases that present the disease,
that is, the effect, and a group of controls that do not present
the disease but have the same characteristics as the case.
2. Prospective cohort study, starting with those exposed and
not exposed to the cause for the development of the
disease, to determine its acquisition. (10)
 RESEARCH IDEA

To carry out research, the starting point is the generation of an idea.“Ideas constitute the
first approach to the reality that will be investigated” (Hernández, R., Fernández, C. and
Baptista, P. (1997:2).

Certainly, it seems that this stage is easy, and it is, as long as the researcher has experience
in the research field and extensive knowledge in his/her disciplinary area, in addition to
having developed the thinking skills necessary for research such as observation, reflection,
distinction, analysis, synthesis, among others, where the questions and their quality are the
fundamental basis of the researcher's work. Without questions the mind is empty and
without motivation towards knowledge. In the case of a student who is beginning his
training as a researcher, it is important that he recognizes and values that he is the generator
of knowledge that begins with the idea of research, which is nothing other than the
observation and analysis of his reality in his professional field.

Some theorists have developed guidelines, proposals, criteria, and procedures for selecting
a topic to help researchers who are starting out in this activity.

It is the conceptualization based on the researcher's reflection on some

What is the
aspect of reality that draws his attention and that through analysis
research idea?
raises a problem that meets characteristics that make it viable for the
design of a research protocol.

It is the starting point of all research, without ideas there is no

Why is it
research and without research there is no knowledge and there is no
important?
science.

What aspects should

be considered when Some theorists recommend:
choosing the topic?
Cervo and Bervian, (1991) “Selecting a topic is equivalent to
eliminating those that, for plausible reasons, should be avoided
and focusing on the one that deserves priority” (p.50)

Criteria:

• The research topic is any subject that needs better definitions,

 greater precision and clarity than already exists on it.

• Make the selection in relation to a delimited field, within the

respective science that the study deals with.

• The reasons that may lead the researcher to formulate research

questions are of two types: intellectual, based simply on
the desire to know or understand, and practical, based on
the desire to know in order to do something better or more
effectively.

• Theoretical or practical, the topic must correspond to the

researcher's taste, provide valuable experiences and
contribute to the progress of science. You should avoid
easy and uninteresting topics.

• Be appropriate to the researcher's capacity and training.

• Correspond to the possibilities of time and economic resources.

• Take into account the bibliographic material, which must be

sufficient and available. Hernandez, R. et al. (1997)
They emphasize the following aspects: Vagueness in
ideas.

• Most initial ideas are vague and require careful analysis to be

transformed into more precise and structured approaches.

Need to know the background.

• Knowing previous studies, research and work helps you

not to investigate what has already been investigated.

• Structure the research idea more formally.

• Select the main perspective from which the research idea

will be approached. Tamayo, M. (1987). He points
out that selecting the topic is equivalent to
 considering two aspects: Subjective: of a personal
nature

• Interest.

• Enthusiasm.

• I like the topic.

• Ability to develop it.

• Time.

• Resources. Objectives: related to the topic.

• That the topic meets the requirements for the adequate

development of the research design.

• Utility of the theme.

• Originality of its approach.

In general terms, a research idea must meet the following

characteristics:

• Clara.

• Original.

• Attractive.

What are the • Innovative.

characteristics of a good
research idea? • Motivating.

• Of social interest.

• With internal consistency.

• Of interest and pleasure to the researcher. In the case of a

student seeking a degree, the topic must:

• Belong to the student's area of knowledge.

The stage of selecting the research topic is very important, however, it is even more
important to transform the topic into a problem. As long as the topic remains just a topic,
and there is no problematization of it, it can be stated with absolute certainty that the
investigation has not begun.

• Be within the lines of research determined by the school or faculty.

• Be approved by the thesis advisor.

Is there a procedure that allows me as a researcher to formulate questions that guide

reflection for the generation of a good research idea?Researcher Dr. Oscar Soria (1989)
designed a procedure based on questions that guide the student's reflection to generate the
research idea. It is based on four fundamental questions, which in turn generate other
questions. They are as follows:

What are you trying to investigate? What is the objective of the study? What
questions do you want to answer? What facts or data do you base your
THAT?
argument on to justify the importance of the topic?Is the topic important,
relevant, useful?

What information do you need to answer these questions? Is available?Where

is the information you need to answer your research questions? Who owns it?
AS?
What means can you use to obtain the information that answers the research
questions? Do they exist or should you design them?

SO THAT?

Do you want to solve a problem? What is that problem? Do you aim to

advance scientific knowledge in your discipline?What results do you
dare to anticipate?What other uses do you plan to give to your studio?
 Thesis, book, article? others?

WHO IS What audiences are interested in your study?What other audiences

INTERESTED might be interested in your study?What audiences will be affected by
? the research results?Do you anticipate any reaction to the publication of
the study you are outlining?

Sources of ideas for research

Ideas can originate from sources that are not related to their quality, that is, they can arise
in:

Readings of books, magazines, newspapers and theses; Personal conversations

Observations of facts, or movies Beliefs

Presentiments, in public places, etc.

After the idea is defined, it may be a topic of conversation that is brought to a group of
friends in order to refine or modify it. It is recommended that the researcher immediately
consult the information or research topic in scientific articles, magazines, or newspapers.

Where do research ideas come from?

Where a variety of people meet, such as in restaurants, hospitals, banks, industries,

universities and different forms of association.

By exposing oneself to political campaigns, legislation and popular elections. When

reading political propaganda magazines, etc.

Need to be informed about the background of the research

Each idea to be developed needs to be known in detail so that it can be converted into a
precise and structured approach; for this we need to know the studies, research and
previous works regarding our study topic.

It is necessary not to delve into any topic that has already been studied in great depth.
However, even if some topics have already been sufficiently studied, such as that of the
family, they could be given a novel touch if they are analyzed from a different perspective,
that is, they can investigate how the family is presented in Mexican soap operas.
Structure the research idea formally. If the topic to be addressed is confusing and not
structured, it is necessary to consult several bibliographic sources and establish
communication with an expert in the subject, in order to clearly and formally outline what
you want to investigate.

Choose the main perspective from which the research idea will be addressed. Although the
views on human behavior are the same, there are countless ways in which a topic would be
approached depending on the discipline of the area in question. The study may have a
communicational, sociological, psychological, marketing, etc. approach.

Preliminary research of the topics

• There are topics already researched from which written information and analysis of
previously studied research can be obtained.

• There are also topics that are less structured and formalized and have not been
investigated in depth, making it necessary for the researcher to do an exhaustive
search for what has not been published, or to resort to informal means such as
experts on the subject, teachers, friends, etc.

• Other topics are even less researched and have little or no structure, requiring an
effort to find at least some researched data on the topic. Guidelines for producing
ideas According to Dankhe (1986) there are various criteria for producing research
ideas that are useful: Ideas that are useful provoke and intrigue the researcher in a
personal way.“They are not necessarily new, but they are novel.”Ideas that are
useful can be used to develop theories and solve problems. What is formulating
the research problem?

• In this research step, what is simply sought is to delimit or formulate the research
idea more clearly.

• Before establishing or stating the problem in a concrete and precise manner, it must
be tested whether the problem can be investigated with scientific procedures.

• Within the formulation, the researcher may immediately find how to present the
problem. However, in other cases it may be necessary to become more familiar with
the research topic and consider the amount of time it will take if scientific data is
still scarce. According to Ackoff (1953) If the researcher still needs to expand his
knowledge or resources on the subject:

“The researcher must be able not only to conceptualize the problem, but also to verbalize it
in a clear, precise and accessible way. Sometimes you know what you want to do but you
cannot communicate it to others and you need to make a greater effort to translate your
thoughts into understandable terms, since currently most research requires the
collaboration of many people.” (Hernández Sampieri, R., pg. 10)

How is the formulation of the research problem composed?

• Research goals: The objective of the research is established. If you are to take the
direction of contributing to or solving a problem, then you must specify how the
study is to solve it. However, if the goal is to test a theory, then it must be clearly
stated how it will be tested.

• Since research goals are “study guides,” they must be clearly defined to avoid
deviations as the research is carried out.

• The goal of the research is intended to be achievable and at the same time the
researcher can specify his goal more thoroughly or even modify it as the research
takes direction.NOTE: It is necessary to formulate a series of questions that guide
the researcher to focus on the various aspects of the problem to be investigated.
“General questions should be clarified and delimited to outline the problem area and
suggest relevant research activities.”

Justify the research

• It is crucially important to make the why of the research known by explaining why
it is beneficial to carry out the research and whether any benefit will come from it.

• In all cases of proposals or works that are made in writing or presented before a
jury, we need to give the reason or the why of said proposal or research. Standards
to evaluate the potential of an investigation the following criteria evaluate the
usefulness of a study or proposal, but at the same time "are flexible and by no
means exhaustive."

• Convenience: What is it for?

• Social relevance: what is the significance for society? Who would benefit from the
research results? How?

• Practical implications: Will it help solve any practical problems?

• Theoretical value: Will any knowledge gaps be filled? Can the information obtained be
used to comment on, develop or support a theory? Does it offer the possibility of
fruitful exploration of some phenomenon? Can you suggest ideas, recommendations
or hypotheses for future studies?
• Methodological utility: Can it help create a new instrument to collect or analyze data?
Does it help define a variable concept, or relationship between variables? Do you
suggest how to study a population more appropriately?

Is research feasible?

It should be considered whether the research is within our financial and material resources
to enable us to carry it out.

Research Results: The formulation of a scientific research problem may not be carried out
according to the person's criteria if it includes moral or aesthetic judgments.