Electrical Circuits 1

Dr. Magdy A. Abdelhay

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 Chapter 8
Circuit Theorems

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Thevenin’s Theorem

It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is

variable (usually called the load) while other elements are fixed.
As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be connected
to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the
variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all
over again.
To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by
which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.

Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in
series with a resistor RTh , where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit in Figure 15(a)
can be replaced by that in Figure 15(b).
The circuit to the left of the terminals a-b in Figure 15(b) is known as
the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Figure 15: Replacing a

linear two-terminal
circuit by its Thevenin
equivalent: (a) original
circuit, (b) the Thevenin
equivalent circuit.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
To find the Thevenin equivalent voltage VTh and resistance RTh ,
suppose the two circuits in Figure 15 are equivalent. Two circuits are
said to be equivalent if they have the same voltage-current relation at
their terminals.
If the terminals a-b are made open-circuited (by removing the load),
no current flows, so that the open-circuit voltage across the terminals
a-b in Figure 15(a) must be equal to the voltage source VTh in Figure
15(b), since the two circuits are equivalent.

Figure 16: Finding VTh and RTh .

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Thevenin’s Theorem

Thus VTh is the open-circuit voltage across the terminals as shown in

Figure 16(a); that is,
VTh = voc (22)
Again, with the load disconnected and terminals a-b open-circuited,
we turn off all independent sources. The input resistance (or
equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit at the terminals a-b in
Figure 15(a) must be equal to RTh in Figure 15(b) because the two
circuits are equivalent.
Thus, RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off, as shown in Figure 16(b); that
is,
RTh = Rin (23)

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Thevenin’s Theorem

To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance, we need to consider

two cases.

CASE 1
If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources.
RTh is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals
a and b, as shown in Figure 16(b).

CASE 2
If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources.
As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off
because they are controlled by circuit variables.

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Thevenin’s Theorem

Figure 17: Finding RTh when circuit has dependent sources.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine the
resulting current io .
Then
vo
RTh =
io
as shown in Figure 17(a).
Alternatively, we may insert a current source at terminals a-b as shown
in Figure 17(b) and find the terminal voltage vo . Again RTh = vo /io .
Either of the two approaches will give the same result.
In either approach we may assume any value of vo and io .
For example, we may use vo = 1 V or io = 1 A, or even use
unspecified values of vo or io .
Note
It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the negative
resistance (v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying power. This is
possible in a circuit with dependent sources; Example 10 will illustrate this.
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Thevenin’s Theorem
Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL , as shown in Figure
18(a).

Figure 18: A circuit with a load: (a) original circuit, (b) Thevenin equivalent.
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Thevenin’s Theorem

The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load
are easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at
the load’s terminals is obtained, as shown in Figure 18(b).
From Figure 18(b), we obtain

VTh
IL = (24)
RTh + RL
RL
VL = RL IL = VTh (25)
RTh + RL
Note from Figure 18(b) that the Thevenin equivalent is a simple
voltage divider, yielding VL by mere inspection.

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Example 8

Example 8: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in

Figure 19, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through
RL = 6, 16, and 36 Ω.

Figure 19: For Example 8.

Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a
short circuit) and the 2-A current source (replacing it with an open
circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Figure 20(a).

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Example 8
Thus,
4 × 12
RTh = 4||12 + 1 = +1=4 Ω
16
To find VTh consider the circuit in Figure 20(b). Applying mesh analysis to
the two loops, we obtain
−32 + 4i1 + 12(i1 − i2 ) = 0, i2 = −2 A
Solving for i1 , we get i1 = 0.5 A Thus,
VTh = 12(i1 − i2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30 V

Figure 20: For Example 8: (a) finding RTh , (b) finding VTh .
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Example 8
Alternatively, it is even easier to use nodal analysis. We ignore the 1-Ω
resistor since no current flows through it. At the top node, KCL gives
32 − VTh VTh
+2=
4 12
or
96 − 3VTh + 24 = VTh ⇒ VTh = 30 V
as obtained before. We could also use source transformation to find VTh .
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21: The Thevenin equivalent circuit for Example 8.

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Example 8

The current through RL is

VTh 30
IL = =
RTh + RL 4 + RL
When RL = 6,
30
IL = =3A
10
When RL = 16,
30
IL = = 1.5 A
20
When RL = 36,
30
IL = = 0.75 A
40

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Example 9
Example 9: Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Figure 22 at
terminals a-b.

Figure 22: For Example 9.

Solution:
This circuit contains a dependent source, unlike the circuit in the previous
example. To find RTh we set the independent source equal to zero
but leave the dependent source alone.
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Example 9
Because of the presence of the dependent source, however, we excite the
network with a voltage source vo connected to the terminals as indicated
in Figure 23(a). We may set vo = 1 V to ease calculation, since the circuit
is linear. Our goal is to find the current io through the terminals, and then
obtain RTh = 1/io (Alternatively, we may insert a 1-A current source, find
the corresponding voltage vo , and obtain RTh = vo /1.)

Figure 23: Finding RTh and VTh for Example 9.

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Example 9
Applying mesh analysis to loop 1 in the circuit of Figure 23(a) results in

−2vx + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or vx = i1 − i2

But −4i2 = vx = i1 − i2 ; hence,

i1 = −3i2 (26)

For loops 2 and 3, applying KVL produces

4i2 + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0 (27)

6(i3 − i2 ) + 2i3 + 1 = 0 (28)

Solving these equations gives
1
i3 = − A
6

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Example 9

But io = −i3 = 1/6 A. Hence,

1V
RTh = =6Ω
io
To get VTh , we find voc in the circuit of Figure 23(b). Applying mesh
analysis, we get
i1 = 5 (29)
−2vx + 2(i3 − i2 ) = 0 ⇒ vx = i3 − i2 (30)

4(i2 − i1 ) + 2(i2 − i3 ) + 6i2 = 0

or
12i2 − 4i1 − 2i3 = 0 (31)

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Example 9

But 4(i2 − i1 ) = vx . Solving these equations leads to i2 = 10/3. Hence,

VTh = voc = 6i2 = 20 V

The Thevenin equivalent is as shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24: The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Figure 22.

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Example 10

Example 10: Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Figure

25 at terminals a-b.

Figure 25: For Example 10.

Solution:
The first thing to consider is that, since we have no independent sources in
this circuit, we must excite the circuit externally. In addition, when you
have no independent sources you will not have a value VTh ; you will
only have to find RTh .

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Example 10
The simplest approach is to excite the circuit with either a 1-V
voltage source or a 1-A current source.
Since we will end up with an equivalent resistance (either positive or
negative), I prefer to use the current source and nodal analysis which
will yield a voltage at the output terminals equal to the resistance
(with 1 A flowing in, is equal to 1 times the equivalent resistance).
As an alternative, the circuit could also be excited by a 1-V voltage
source and mesh analysis could be used to find the equivalent
resistance.

Figure 26: For Example 10.

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Example 10
We start by writing the nodal equation at a in Figure 26 assuming io = 1 A

2ix + (vo − 0)/4 + (vo − 0)/2 + (−1) = 0 (32)

Since we have two unknowns and only one equation, we will need a
constraint equation.
ix = (0 − vo )/2 = −vo /2 (33)
Substituting Eq. (33) into Eq. (32) yields

2(−vo /2) + (vo − 0)/4 + (vo − 0)/2 + (−1) = 0

1 1
= (−1 = + )vo − 1 or vo = −4 V
4 2
Since vo = 1 × RTh , then
vo
RTh = = −4 Ω
1
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Example 10
The negative value of the resistance tells us that, according to the
passive sign convention, the circuit in Figure 25 is supplying power.
Of course, the resistors in Figure 25 cannot supply power (they absorb
power); it is the dependent source that supplies the power.
This is an example of how a dependent source and resistors could be
used to simulate negative resistance.
Evaluate the solution:
The best way to do this is to perform a check, using a different
approach, and see if we obtain the same solution.
Let us try connecting a 9-Ω resistor in series with a 10-V voltage
source across the output terminals of the original circuit and then the
Thevenin equivalent.
To make the circuit easier to solve, we can take and change the
parallel current source and 4-Ω resistor to a series voltage source and
4-Ω resistor by using source transformation.
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Example 10
This, with the new load, gives us the circuit shown in Figure 27.
We can now write two mesh equations.
8ix = 4i1 + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0
2(i2 − i1 ) + 9i2 + 10 = 0
Note, we only have two equations but have 3 unknowns, so we need a
constraint equation. We can use
ix = i2 − i1

Figure 27: For Example 10.

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Example 10

This leads to a new equation for loop 1. Simplifying leads to

(4 + 2 − 8)i1 + (−2 + 8)i2 = 0

or
−2i1 + 6i2 = 0 or i1 = 3i2
−2i1 + 11i2 = −10
Substituting the first equation into the second gives

−6i2 = 11i2 = −10 or i2 = −10/5 = −2 A

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Example 10
Using the Thevenin equivalent is quite easy since we have only one loop,
as shown in Figure 28.
−4i + 9i + 10 = 0 or i = −10/5 = −2 A
Satisfactory? Clearly we have found the value of the equivalent circuit as
required by the problem statement. Checking does validate that solution
(we compared the answer we obtained by using the equivalent circuit with
one obtained by using the load with the original circuit). We can present
all this as a solution to the problem.

Figure 28: For Example 10.

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Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN , where IN is the short-circuit current through
the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.

Thus, the circuit in Figure 29(a) can be replaced by the one in Figure
29(b).

Figure 29: (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit.

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Norton’s Theorem
We find RN in the same way we find RTh .
In fact, from what we know about source transformation, the
Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; that is,
RN = RTh (34)
To find the Norton current IN , we determine the short-circuit current
flowing from terminal a to b in both circuits in Figure 29.
It is evident that the short-circuit current in Figure 29(b) is IN .
This must be the same short-circuit current from terminal a to b in
Figure 29(a), since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus,
IN = isc (35)

Figure 30: Finding Norton current IN .

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Norton’s Theorem
Observe the close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems:
RN = RTh as in Eq. (34), and

VTh
IN = (36)
RTh

This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source

transformation is often called Thevenin-Norton transformation.

Since VTh , IN and RTh are related according to Eq. (36), to determine the
Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.
The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.
The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all
independent sources are turned off.
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Norton’s Theorem

We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes the
least effort and use them to get the third using Ohm’s law. Example 11
will illustrate this.

Also, since
VTh = voc (37)
IN = isc (38)
voc
RTh = = RN (39)
isc
the open-circuit and short-circuit tests are sufficient to find any Thevenin
or Norton equivalent, of a circuit which contains at least one independent
source.

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Example 11

Example 11: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Figure
31 at terminals a-b.

Figure 31: For Example 11.

Solution:
We find RN in the same way we find RTh in the Thevenin equivalent
circuit. Set the independent sources equal to zero. This leads to the
circuit in Figure 32(a), from which we find RN .
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Example 11

Figure 32: For Example 11; finding: (a) RN , (b) IN = isc , (c) VTh = voc .
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Example 11

Thus,
20 × 5
RN = 5||(8 + 4 + 8) = 5||20 = =4Ω
25
To find we short-circuit terminals a and b, as shown in Figure 32(b). We
ignore the 5-Ω resistor because it has been short-circuited. Applying mesh
analysis, we obtain

i1 = 2 A, 20i2 − 4i1 − 12 = 0

From these equations, we obtain

i2 = 1 A = isc = IN

Alternatively, we may determine IN from VTh /RTh . We obtain VTh as the

open-circuit voltage across terminals a and b in Figure 32(c).

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Example 11
Using mesh analysis, we obtain
i3 = 2 A
25i4 − 4i3 − 12 = 0 ⇒ i4 = 0.8 A
and
voc = VTh = 5i4 = 4 V
Hence,
VTh 4
IN = = =1A
RTh 4
as obtained previously. This also serves to confirm Eq. (39) that
RTh = voc /isc = 4/1 = 4 Ω. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is as
shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33: Norton equivalent of the circuit in Figure 31.

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Example 12
Example 12: Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in
Figure 34 at terminals a-b.

Figure 34: For Example 12.

Solution:
To find RN , we set the independent voltage source equal to zero and
connect a voltage source of vo = 1 V (or any unspecified voltage vo ) to
the terminals. We obtain the circuit in Figure 35(a).
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Example 12
We ignore the 4-Ω resistor because it is short-circuited. Also due to the
short circuit, the 5-Ω resistor, the voltage source, and the dependent
current source are all in parallel. Hence, ix = 0. At node a,
1V
io = = 0.2 A and
5Ω
vo 1
RN = = =5Ω
io 0.2

Figure 35: For Example 12: (a) finding RN , (b) finding IN .

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Example 12

To find IN , we short-circuit terminals a and b and find the current isc , as

indicated in Figure 35(b). Note from this figure that the 4-Ω resistor, the
10-V voltage source, the 5-Ω resistor, and the dependent current source
are all in parallel. Hence,
10
ix = = 2.5 A
4
At node a, KCL gives
10
isc = + 2ix = 2 + 2(2.5) = 7 A
5
Thus,
IN = 7 A

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Maximum Power Transfer

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to

a load.
There are applications in areas such as communications where it is
desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.
We now address the problem of delivering the maximum power to a
load when given a system with known internal losses.
It should be noted that this will result in significant internal losses
greater than or equal to the power delivered to the load.

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Maximum Power Transfer
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a
linear circuit can deliver to a load.
We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL .
If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for
the load, as shown in Figure 36, the power delivered to the load is
 2
2 VTh
p = i RL = RL (40)
RTh + RL

Figure 36: The circuit used for maximum power transfer.

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Maximum Power Transfer
For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed.
By varying the load resistance RL the power delivered to the load
varies as sketched in Figure 37.
We notice from Figure 37 that the power is small for small or large
values of RL but maximum for some value of RL between 0 and ∞.
We now want to show that this maximum power occurs when RL is
equal to RTh . This is known as the maximum power theorem.

Figure 37: Power delivered to the load as a function of RL .

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Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance

equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh ).

To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate p in Eq.

(40) with respect to RL and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

(RTh + RL )2 − 2RL (RTh + RL )

 
dp 2
= VTh
dRL (RTh + RL )4
 
2 (RTh + RL − 2RL )
= VTh =0
(RTh + RL )3
This implies that

0 = (RTh + RL − 2RL ) = (RTh − RL ) (41)

which yields,
RL = RTh (42)
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Maximum Power Transfer

The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting Eq. (42) into

Eq. (40), for
V2
pmax = Th (43)
4RTh

Note
Equation (43) applies only when RL = RTh . When RL 6= RTh we
compute the power delivered to the load using Eq. (40).

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Example 13

Example 13: Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
circuit of Figure 38. Find the maximum power.

Figure 38: For Example 13.

Solution:
We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage
VTh across the terminals a-b.

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Example 13

To get RTh we use the circuit in Figure 39(a) and obtain

6 × 12
RTh = 2 + 3 + 6||12 = 5 + =9Ω
18

Figure 39: For Example 13: (a) finding RTh , (b) finding VTh .

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Example 13
To get VTh , we consider the circuit in Figure 39(b). Applying mesh
analysis gives

−12 + 18i1 − 12i2 = 0, i2 = −2 A

Solving for i1 , we get i1 = −2/3. Applying KVL around the outer loop
to get VTh across terminals a-b, we obtain

−12 + 6i1 + 3i2 + 2(0) + VTh = 0 ⇒ VTh = 22 V

For maximum power transfer,

RL = RTh = 9 Ω

and the maximum power is

2
VTh 222
pmax = = = 13.44 W
4RTh 4×9
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