Electrical Circuits 1

Dr. Magdy A. Abdelhay

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 Chapter 10
First-Order Circuits

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Introduction

In this chapter, we shall examine two types of simple circuits: a circuit

comprising a resistor and capacitor and a circuit comprising a resistor
and an inductor. These are called RC and RL circuits, respectively.
We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying
Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for resistive circuits.
The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely
resistive circuits results in algebraic equations, while applying the laws
to RC and RL circuits produces differential equations, which are
more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.
The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL
circuits are of the first order. Hence, the circuits are collectively
known as first-order circuits.

A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

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The Source-Free RC Circuit
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly
disconnected. The energy already stored in the capacitor is released
to the resistors.
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged
capacitor, as shown in Figure 1.
The resistor and capacitor may be the equivalent resistance and
equivalent capacitance of combinations of resistors and capacitors.
Our objective is to determine the circuit response, which we assume
to be the voltage v(t) across the capacitor.

Figure 1: A source-free RC circuit.

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The Source-Free RC Circuit
Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t = 0,
the initial voltage is
v(0) = V0 (1)
with the corresponding value of the energy stored as
1
w(0) = CV02 (2)
2
Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Figure 1 yields
iC + iR = 0 (3)
By definition, iC = Cdv/dt and iR = v/R Thus,
dv v
C + =0 (4)
dt R
or
dv v
+ =0 (5)
dt RC
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The Source-Free RC Circuit
This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative
of v is involved. To solve it, we rearrange the terms as
dv 1
=− dt (6)
v RC
Integrating both sides, we get
t
ln v = − + ln A
RC
where ln A is the integration constant. Thus,
v t
ln = − (7)
A RC
Taking powers of e produces
v(t) = Ae−t/RC
But from the initial conditions, v(0) = A = V0 . Hence,

v(t) = V0 e−t/RC (8)

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The Source-Free RC Circuit

This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an

exponential decay of the initial voltage.
Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical
characteristics of the circuit and not due to some external voltage or
current source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of

voltages and currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources of
excitation.

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The Source-Free RC Circuit
The natural response is illustrated graphically in Figure 2.
Note that at t = 0 we have the correct initial condition as in Eq. (1).
As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero. The rapidity with
which the voltage decreases is expressed in terms of the time
constant, denoted by τ , the lowercase Greek letter tau.

Figure 2: The voltage response of the RC circuit.

The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay to a factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value.
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The Source-Free RC Circuit

This implies that at t = τ Eq. (8) becomes

Vo e−τ /RC = Vo e−1 = 0.368Vo

or
τ = RC (9)
In terms of the time constant, Eq. (8) can be written as

v(t) = V0 e−t/τ (10)

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The Source-Free RC Circuit
It is evident from Table 1 that the voltage v(t) is less than 1 percent
of V0 after 5τ (five time constants).
Thus, it is customary to assume that the capacitor is fully discharged
(or charged) after five time constants.
Notice that for every time interval of the voltage is reduced by 36.8
percent of its previous value, v(t + τ ) = v(t)/e = 0.368v(t) regardless
of the value of t.

Table 1: Values of v(t)/V0 = e−t/τ

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The Source-Free RC Circuit
Observe from Eq. (10) that the smaller the time constant, the more
rapidly the voltage decreases, that is, the faster the response. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.
Whether the time constant is small or large, the circuit reaches steady
state in five time constants.

Figure 3: Plot of v/V0 = e−t/τ for various values of the time constant.
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The Source-Free RC Circuit
With the voltage v(t) in Eq. (10), we can find the current iR (t),
v(t) V0 −t/τ
iR (t) == e (11)
R R
The power dissipated in the resistor is
V02 −2t/τ
p(t) = viR =
e (12)
R
The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is
Z t Z t 2
V0 −2t/τ
ωR (t) = pdt = e dt
0 0 R
t
τ V02 −2t/τ 1
=− e = CV02 (1 − e−2t/τ ), τ = RC
2R 0 2
Notice that as t → ∞, ωR → 21 CV02 which is the same as ωc (0), the
energy initially stored in the capacitor. The energy that was initially stored
in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.
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The Source-Free RC Circuit

In summary:
The Key to Working with a Source-free RC Circuit Is Finding:
1 The initial voltage V (0) = v0 across the capacitor.
2 The time constant τ .
With these two items, we obtain the response as the capacitor voltage
vC (t) = v(t) = v(0)e−t/τ .
Once the capacitor voltage is first obtained, other variables (capacitor
current iC , resistor voltage vR , and resistor current iR ) can be
determined.
In finding the time constant τ = RC, R is often the Thevenin
equivalent resistance at the terminals of the capacitor; that is, we
take out the capacitor C and find R = RTh at its terminals.

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Example 1

Example 1: In Figure 4, let vC (0) = 15 V. Find vC , vx and ix for t > 0.

Figure 4: For Example 1.

Solution:
We first need to make the circuit in Figure 4 conform with the standard
RC circuit in Figure 1. We find the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin
resistance at the capacitor terminals. Our objective is always to first
obtain capacitor voltage vC . From this, we can determine vx and ix .

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Example 1
The 8 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in series can be combined to give a 20 Ω
resistor. This 20 Ω resistor in parallel with the 5 Ω resistor can be
combined so that the equivalent resistance is
20 × 5
Req = =4Ω
20 + 5
Hence, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Figure 5, which is analogous to
Figure 1. The time constant is
τ = Req C = 4(0.1) = 0.4 s

Figure 5: Equivalent circuit for the circuit in Figure 4.

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Example 1

Thus,

v = v(0)e−t/τ = 15e−t/0.4 V, vC = v = 15e−2.5t V

From Figure 4, we can use voltage division to get vx ; so

12
vx = v = 0.6(15e−2.5t ) = 9e−2.5t V
12 + 8
Finally,
vx
ix = = 0.75e−2.5t A
12

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Example 2
Example 2: The switch in the circuit in Figure 6 has been closed for a
long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the
initial energy stored in the capacitor.

Figure 6: For Example 2.

Solution:
For t < 0 the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc, as
represented in Figure 7(a).
Using voltage division
9
vC (t) = (20) = 15 V, t<0
9+3
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Example 2
Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the
voltage across the capacitor at t = 0− is the same at t = 0 or
vC (0) = V0 = 15 V

Figure 7: For Example 2: (a) t < 0, (b) t > 0.

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Example 2
For t > 0 the switch is opened, and we have the RC circuit shown in
Figure 7(b). [Notice that the RC circuit in Figure 7(b) is source free; the
independent source in Figure 6 is needed to provide or the initial energy in
the capacitor.] The 1 Ω and 9 Ω resistors in series give
Req = 1 + 9 = 10 Ω
The time constant is
τ = Req C = 10 × 20 × 10−3 = 0.2 s
Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0 is
v(t) = vC (0)e−t/τ = 15e−t/0.2 V
or
v(t) = 15e−5t V
The initial energy stored in the capacitor is
1 2 1
ωC (0) = CvC (0) = × 20 × 10−3 × 152 = 2.25 J
2 2
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The Source-Free RL Circuit
Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown
in Figure 8.
Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to
be the current i(t) through the inductor.
At t = 0 we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0 , or
i(0) = I0 (13)

Figure 8: A source-free RL circuit.

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The Source-Free RL Circuit

With the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as

1
ω(0) = LI02 (14)
2
Applying KVL around the loop in Figure 8,

vL + vR = 0 (15)

But vL = Ldi/dt and vR = iR. Thus,

di
L + Ri = 0
dt
or
di R
+ i=0 (16)
dt L

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The Source-Free RL Circuit
Rearranging terms and integrating gives
Z i(t) Z t
di R
=− dt
I0 i 0 L
i(t) t
R Rt
ln i =− ⇒ ln i(t) − ln I0 = − +0
I0 L 0 L
or
i(t) R
ln =− (17)
I0 L
Taking the powers of e, we have

i(t) = I0 e−Rt/L (18)

This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential

decay of the initial current.
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The Source-Free RL Circuit

The current response is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: The current response of the RL circuit.

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The Source-Free RL Circuit
It is evident from Eq. (18) that the time constant for the RL circuit is

L
τ= (19)
R

with τ again having the unit of seconds. Thus, Eq. (18) may be written as

i(t) = I0 e−t/τ (20)

With the current in Eq. (20), we can find the voltage across the resistor as

vR (t) = iR = I0 Re−t/τ (21)

The power dissipated in the resistor is

p = vR i = I02 Re−2t/τ (22)

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The Source-Free RL Circuit

The energy absorbed by the resistor is

t t
1 2 −2t/τ t
Z Z
L
ωR (t) = pdt = I02 Re−2t/τ dt = − τ I0 Re , τ=
o o 2 0 R
or
1
ωR (t) = LI02 (1 − e−2t/τ ) (23)
2

Note that as t → ∞, ωR → 21 LIo2 , which is the same as ωL (o) the initial

energy stored in the inductor as in Eq. (14). Again, the energy initially
stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.

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The Source-Free RL Circuit

In summary:

The Key to Working with a Source-free RL Circuit Is to Find:

1 The initial current i(0) = I0 through the inductor.
2 The time constant τ of the circuit.
With the two items, we obtain the response as the inductor current
iL (t) = i(t) = i(0)e−t/τ .
Once we determine the inductor current other variables (inductor
voltage vL , resistor voltage vR , and resistor current iR ) can be
obtained.
Note that in general, R in Eq. (19) is the Thevenin resistance at the
terminals of the inductor.

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Example 3
Example 3: Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix (t) in the
circuit of Figure 10.

Figure 10: For Example 3.

Solution:
There are two ways we can solve this problem. One way is to obtain the
equivalent resistance at the inductor terminals and then use Eq. (20). The
other way is to start from scratch by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the
inductor current.
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Example 3
Method 1 The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin
resistance at the inductor terminals. Because of the dependent source, we
insert a voltage source with v0 = 1 V at the inductor terminals a-b, as in
Figure 11(a). (We could also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals.)
Applying KVL to the two loops results in
1
2(i1 − i2 ) + 1 = 0 ⇒ i1 − i2 = − (24)
2
5
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0 ⇒ i2 = i1 (25)
6

Figure 11: Solving the circuit in Figure 10.

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Example 3

Substituting Eq. (25) into Eq. (24) gives

i1 = −3 A, i0 = −i1 = 3 A

Hence,
vo 1
Req = RTh = = Ω
io 3
The time constant is
1
L 2 3
τ= = 1 = s
Req 3
2
Thus, the current through the inductor is

i(t) = i(0)e−t/τ = 10e−(2/3)t A, t>0

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Example 3
Method 2 We may directly apply KVL to the circuit as in Fig. 11(b).
For loop 1,
1 di1
+ 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0
2 dt
or
di1
+ 4i1 − 4i2 = 0 (26)
dt
For loop 2,
5
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0 ⇒ i2 = i1 (27)
6
Substituting Eq. (27) into Eq. (26) gives
di1 2
+ i1 = 0
dt 3
Rearranging terms,
di1 2
= − dt
i1 3
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Example 3
Since i1 = i we may replace i1 with i and integrate:
i(t) t
2
ln i =− t
i(0) 3 0
or
i(t) 2
ln =− t
i(0) 3
Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain
i(t) = i(0)e−(2/3)t = 10e−(2/3)t A, t>0
which is the same as by Method 1.
The voltage across the inductor is
 
di 2 −(2/3)t 10
v = L = 0.5(10) − e = − e−(2/3)t V
dt 3 3
Since the inductor and the 2 Ω resistor are in parallel,
v
ix (t) = = −1.6667e−(2/3)t A, t>0
2
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Example 4

Example 4: The switch in the circuit of Figure 12 has been closed for a
long time. At t = 0 the switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t > 0.

Figure 12: For Example 4.

Solution:
When t < 0 the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit to
dc. The 16 Ω resistor is short-circuited; the resulting circuit is shown in
Figure 13(a).

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Example 4

Figure 13: Solving the circuit of Fig. 12: (a) for t < 0, (b) for t > 0.

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Example 4

To get i1 in Figure 13(a), we combine the 4 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in

parallel to get
4 × 12
=3Ω
4 + 12
Hence,
40
i1 = =8A
2+3
We obtain i(t) from i1 in Figure 13(a) using current division, by writing
12
i(t) = i1 = 6 A, t<0
12 + 4
Since the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously,

i(0) = i(0− ) = 6 A

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Example 4

When t > 0 the switch is open and the voltage source is disconnected. We
now have the source-free RL circuit in Figure 13(b).
Combining the resistors, we have

Req = (12 + 4)||16 = 8 Ω

The time constant is

L 2 1
τ= = = s
Req 8 4
Thus,
i(t) = i(0)e−t/τ = 6e−4t A

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Example 5
Example 5: In the circuit shown in Figure 14, find io , vo and i for all
time, assuming that the switch was open for a long time.

Figure 14: For Example 5.

Solution:
It is better to first find the inductor current i and then obtain other
quantities from it.
For t < 0, the switch is open. Since the inductor acts like a short circuit to
dc, the 6 Ω resistor is short-circuited, so that we have the circuit shown in
Figure 15(a).
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Example 5

Figure 15: The circuit in Figure 14 for: (a) t < 0, (b) t > 0.

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Example 5
Hence, io = 0, and
10
i(t) = = 2 A, t<0
2+3
vo (t) = 3i(t) = 6 V, t<0
Thus i(0) = 2.
For t > 0 the switch is closed, so that the voltage source is short-circuited.
We now have a source-free RL circuit as shown in Figure 15(b). At the
inductor terminals,
RTh = 3||6 = 2 Ω
so that the time constant is
L
τ= =1s
RTh
Hence,
i(t) = i(0)e−t/τ = 2e−t A, t>0
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Example 5

Since the inductor is in parallel with the 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors,

di
vo (t) = −vL = −L = −2(−2e−t ) = 4e−t V, t>0
dt
and
vL 2
io (t) = = − e−t A, t>0
6 3
Thus, for all time,
 (
0 A, t<0 6 V, t<0
io (t) = 2 vo (t) = −t
− e−t A, t > 0 4e V, t > 0
3
(
2 A, t<0
i(t) = −t
2e A, t ≥ 0

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