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Lesson 10 - Boolean Algebraic Axioms and

Duality Principle
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, students will be able to;

• identify axioms in Boolean algebraic sets.

• apply Boolean algebraic axioms to prove basic theorems Boolean algebra.

• use duality principle to Boolean algebraic theorems.

10.1 Introduction
Boolean algebra is the basis for the modern computer and design of various other electronic
devices. The circuits in computers and other electronic devices have inputs, each of which is
either a 0 or a 1, and produce outputs that are also 0s and 1s. Circuits can be constructed
using any basic element that has two different states. Such elements include switches that can
be in either the on or the off position. In 1938 Claude Shannon showed how the basic rules of
logic, first given by George Boole in 1854 in his The Laws of Thought, could be used to design
circuits. These rules form the basis for Boolean algebra.

10.2 Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0, 1}. Electronic
and optical switches can be studied using this set and the rules of Boolean algebra. The three
operations in Boolean algebra that we will use most are complementation, the Boolean sum
and the Boolean product.

• Complement - Complement of an element is denoted with a bar, is defined as follows:

0̄ = 1 and 1̄ = 0.

• Boolean Sum - It is denoted by + or by OR, has the following values:

1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0.

• Product - It is denoted by · or by AND, has the following values:

1 · 1 = 1, 1 · 0 = 0, 0 · 1 = 0, 0 · 0 = 0.

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Example 10.1

Find the value of (1 · 0) + (0 + 1).

Solution.
Using the definitions of complementation, the Boolean sum and the Boolean product, it
follows that

(1 · 0) + (0 + 1) = 0 + 1
=0+0
=0

10.3 Boolean Function

Definition 10.1: Boolean Function
Let B = {0, 1}. Then B n = {(x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn ) : xi ∈ B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is the set of all
possible n-tuples of 0s and 1s. The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes
values only from B, that is, if its only possible values are 0 and 1. A function from B n
to B is called a Boolean function of degree n.

Example 10.2

The function F (x, y) = xy from the set of ordered pairs of Boolean variables to the set
{0, 1} is a Boolean function of degree 2 with F (1, 1) = 0, F (1, 0) = 1, F (0, 1) = 0 and
F (0, 0) = 0. The values of the function F are displayed in the below table.

Example 10.3
Find the value of the Boolean function

F (x, y, z) = x · y + z̄.

Solution.
The values of this function are shown in the below table.

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10.4 The Abstract Definition of a Boolean Algebra

It is useful to define Boolean algebras abstractly. Once it is shown that a particular structure
is a Boolean algebra, then all results established about Boolean algebras in general apply to
this particular structure. Boolean algebras can be defined in several ways. The most common
way is to specify the properties that operations must satisfy, as is done in Definition 10.2.

Definition 10.2: Boolean Algebra

A Boolean algebra is a set B together with two operations, generally denoted + and ·,
such that for all a and b in B both a + b and a · b are in B and the following properties
hold:

• (B-1) Commutative Laws

For all a and b in B

(a) a + b = b + a
(b) a · b = b · a

• (B-2) Associative Laws

For all a, b and c in B

(a) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(b) (a · b) · c = a · (b · c)

• (B-3) Distributive Laws

For all a, b and c in B

(a) a + (b · c) = (a + b) · (a + c)
(b) a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)

• (B-4) Identity Laws

There exist distinct elements 0 and 1 in B such that for all a in B,

(a) a + 0 = a
(b) a · 1 = a

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• (B-5) Complement Laws

For each a in B, there exists an element in B, denoted ā and called the complement
or negation of a, such that,

(a) a + ā = 1
(b) a · ā = 0

We will sometimes designate a Boolean algebra by (B, +, ·,¯, 0, 1). We say 0 is the zero
element, 1, is the unit element and ā is the complement of a.

10.5 Duality
The dual of any statement in a Boolean algebra B is the statement obtained by interchanging
the operations + and ·, and interchanging their identity elements 0 and 1 in the original
statement.

Example 10.4
Find the dual of the following boolean expressions.

(a) (1 + a) · (b + 0) = b

(b) A · (B + C) = (A · B) + (A · C)

Solution.
Interchanging · signs and + signs and interchanging 0s and 1s in these expressions pro-
duces their duals. The duals are (0 · a) + (b · 1) = b and A + (B · C) = (A + B) · (A + C),
respectively.

10.6 Identities of a Boolean Algebra

There are many identities in Boolean algebra. Theorem 10.1 gives a list of some important
Boolean identities, which comes as rules to simplify Boolean expressions.

10.1 Theorem: Let B be any Boolean algebra.

(i) Uniqueness of Complement Law

∀a, x ∈ B, if a + x = 1 and a · x = 0, then x = a.

(ii) Double Complement Law

∀a ∈ B, a=a

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(iii) DeMorgan’s Laws

∀a, b ∈ B

(a) a + b = a · b
(b) a · b = a + b

(iv) Absorption Laws

∀a, b ∈ B

(a) (a + b) · a = a
(b) (a · b) + a = a

(v) Complements of 0 and 1

(a) 0 = 1
(b) 1 = 0

(vi) Boundedness Laws

∀a ∈ B

(a) a + 1 = 1
(b) a · 0 = 0

(vii) Idempotent Laws

∀a ∈ B

(a) a + a = a
(b) a · a = a

Example 10.5

Show that the distributive law a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c is valid.

Solution.
The verification of this identity is shown in the below table.

The identity holds because the last two columns of the table agree.

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Example 10.6

Prove the absorption law (a + b) · a = a using the other identities of Boolean algebra.

Solution.
(a + b) · a = (a + b) · (a + 0) (Identity law)
= a+b·0 (Distributive law)
= a+0 (Boundedness law)
= a (Identity law)

Self-Assessment Exercises
1. Prove the following properties of boolean algebras. Give a reason for each step.

(a) a · [b + (a · c)] = (a · b) + (a · c)
(b) (a + b) · (a + b) = b
(c) (a · b) + (a · 1) = a · (a + b) · b

2. Find the values of these expressions.

(a) 1 · 0
(b) 1 + 1
(c) 1 + 0

3. Use a table to express the values of each of these Boolean functions.

(a) F (x, y, z) = x · y + y · z
(b) F (x, y, z) = x · y · z + (x · y · z)

4. Find the duals of these Boolean expressions.

(a) x · y · z + x · y · z
(b) x · z + x · 0 + x · 1

Suggested Reading
Chapter 10: Kenneth Rosen, (2011) Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 7th Edition,
McGraw-Hill Education.