Fluid Mechanics

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 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 2
Fluid Statics

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
27/303
2-1
 Fluid Statics
• Fluids can NOT remain at rest under the presence of shear stress.
• In other words, fluids at rest can NOT support any shear stress (they are free of
shear).
• For static fluids we can only talk about normal stress which is equal to pressure.
• Determining the pressure distribution within a static fluid is the main task here.
• Applications include
• Pressure distribution in still atmosphere and oceans.
• Pressure measurement using manometers.
• Forces acting on submerged solid bodies.
• Bouyancy and stabilitiy of floating bodies.
• Fluids in rigid body motion are also free of shear
forces and their analysis is very similar to that of
static fluids. They’ll be studied later in ME 305. http://www.cromwell.org.nz/aerial_photos/pages/Clyde Dam_jpg.htm
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2-2
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• As we dive deep into the sea we feel more pressure in our ears.
• When we travel to high altitudes atmospheric pressure decreases.
• Following fluid element in a static fluid is not moving because no net force acts
on it.

dz

Dam dx
dy

• Body force acting on the fluid element should be balanced by another force.
• This other force is due to the difference in pressure acting on different faces of
the fluid element.
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2-4
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• Exercise : In a static fluid body force is balanced by the pressure gradient. If
weight is the only body force show that this results in the following hydrostatic
force balance.
−𝛻𝑝
−𝛻𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔 = 0
Net pressure force Body force per unit
per unit volume volume
𝜌𝑔

• It is common to select 𝑔 to be in negative z direction, i.e. 𝑔 = −𝑔 𝑘

In this case the above general fluid statics equation reduces to −𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑧
𝑧
• pressure does not change in x or y directions,

• pressure changes in z direction as 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜌𝑔

𝑔
𝜌𝑔
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2-5
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid (cont’d)
• To integrate the above equation to get 𝑝(𝑧) we need to know how do 𝜌 and 𝑔
change with 𝑧.
• It is safe to consider 𝑔 to be constant. At sea level it is 9.807 m/s2 and at 14 km
altitude it is 9.764 m/s2.
• Also for simplicity let’s consider constant density (incompressible fluid).

• If 𝜌𝑔 is constant 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜌𝑔 can be integrated to give

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = constant
𝑝1
𝑔 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2
𝑝2 ℎ
𝑧1 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )
𝑧
𝑧2 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Dam

• As we go down in a constant density fluid pressure increases with depth linearly. 32/303
2-6
 U.S. Standard Atmosphere

60 60

50 50

Altitude z [km]
Altitude z [km]

40 40

30 30

20 20.1 km 20
-56.5 oC
Troposphere

10 11 km 10

0 0
-60 -40 -20 0 15 0 40 80 120
Temperature [oC] Pressure [kPa]
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2-9
 Absolute vs Gage Pressure
• Absolute pressure is measured with respect to complete vacuum.
• Certain pressure measuring devices measure pressure with respect to the ambient
pressure, which is usually the atmospheric pressure. This is called gage pressure.

• It is customary to use gage pressure values for tire pressure and blood pressure.
• When your car’s manual says that you need to inflate the tires to 30 psi, it is
actually trying to say 30 psi gage (30 psi g). If the local atmospheric pressure is
95 kPa, absolute pressure of air inside the tires would be

101.3 kPa
30 psi + 95 kPa = 301 kPa
14.7 psi

Tire pressure is 301 kPa absolute

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 95 kPa
Pressure gage reads
30 psi g = 206 kPa g 34/303
2-10
 Pressure Measuring Devices - Mercury Barometer
• In 1643 Toricelli demonstrated that atmospheric pressure can be measured using a
mercury barometer. Greek word “baros” means weight.
Mercury vapor
B 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 ≈ 0
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ?
h 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
A 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
𝜌𝑚

• For 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101,325 Pa and 𝜌𝑚 = 13,595 kg/m3 mercury rise will be ℎ = 0.76 m.
• mmHg is a unit used for pressure. It gives the pressure difference between the top
and bottom of a 1 mm mercury column.

kg m
1 mmHg = 13595 3 9.81 2 10−3 m = 133.4 Pa
m s
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 mmHg 35/303
2-11
 Pressure Measuring Devices - Aneroid Barometer
• Aneroid means “without fluid”.
• Aneroid barometer measures absolute pressure.
• It has a vacuumed chamber with an elastic surface.
• When pressure is imposed on this surface, it deflects
inward.
www.stuffintheair.com
• Due to this deflection the needle will rotate and
show the pressure.
• After proper calibration, a barometer can also be
used as an altimeter, to measure altitude. Below a
certain altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases 1
millibar for each 8 m of ascent.
• To read more about the aneroid barometer
http://www.bom.gov.au/info/aneroid/aneroid.shtml
www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com

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 Pressure Measuring Devices - Bourdon Gage
• Measures the gage pressure. Patented at 1849.
• A bent elliptical tube is open and fixed at one end, and
closed but free to move at the other end.
• When pressure is applied to this tube it deflects and the
pointer connected to its free end shows the gage
pressure (pressure with respect to the atmospheric
pressure outside of the tube). Front

• When the tube is disconnected the pointer shows zero.

• It can be used for the measurement of liquid and gas
pressures upto 100s of MPa.

Back
www.discoverarmfield.co.uk 37/303
2-13
 Pressure Measuring Devices - Manometer
• Manometers are used to measure pressure differences using liquid columns in tubes.
• Working principles are
• any two points at the same elevation in a continuous liquid have the same pressure.
• pressure increases as 𝜌𝑔ℎ as one goes down in a liquid column.

𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝐷

= 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2

𝜌3 B
B
h A h3
𝜌1 A h
A h
A h1
𝜌 h2 𝜃
𝜌 B C 𝜌
C D
𝜌2
𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑝𝐵 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑝𝐴
= 𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 38/303
2-14
 Pressure Measuring Devices - Pressure Transducer
• Pressure transducers generate an electrical signal as a function of the pressure they
are exposed to.
• They work on many different technologies, such as
• Piezoresistive
• Piezoelectric
• Capacitive
• Electromagnetic
• Optical
• Thermal
http://www.lefoo.com
• etc.
• They can be used to measure pressure fluctuations in time.
• Differential types can measure pressure differences.

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2-15
 Hydrostatic Forces Acting on Submerged Surfaces
• Pressure always acts perpendicular to a surface.

Exercise : Show the variation of pressure force acting on the walls of the following
containers. Pay attention to both magnitude and direction.
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

• The task is to find the resultant pressure force acting on a submerged surface and
point of application of the resultant pressure force.
• Different techniques can be used such as : 1. Direct Integration Method
2. Pressure Prism Method
3. Force Component Method 40/303
2-16
 Direct Integration Method
• This general technique can be used to calculate the resultant pressure force on
planar or curved surfaces.
• We simply integrate the pressure variation on a surface to get the resultant force 𝐹𝑟 .
𝑝0

𝐹𝑟 ℎ • Planar plate is on the 𝑥𝑦 plane.

𝑑𝐹
• Differential force 𝑑𝐹 acts on the
differential area 𝑑𝐴.

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 = (𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ) 𝑑𝐴

𝑦 • Integrate 𝑑𝐹 over the plate area

to get the resultant force

𝐹𝑟 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝑥 𝐴
𝑦
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𝑑𝐴 2-17
 Direct Integration Method (cont’d)
• 𝐹𝑟 acts through a point called center of pressure (CP).
• Coordinates of CP are calculated by equating the moment created by the distributed
pressure along an axis to the moment created by 𝐹𝑟 along the same axis.
𝑝0

𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝐹
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴

CP 𝑦 𝑥𝐶𝑃 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑝 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
𝑥
𝑦 𝑦𝐶𝑃
𝑑𝐴 𝑦𝐶𝑃 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑦 𝑝 𝑑𝐴
𝑥𝐶𝑃 𝑥 𝐴

𝑦
CP
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2-18
 Pressure Prism Method
• This is an alternative (and easy) technique to calculate hydrostatic forces acting on
submerged planar surfaces.
• Consider an imaginary prism with the surface of interest being its base and the
amount of pressure acting on the surface being its height.

𝑝0

ℎ𝐴 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑∀𝑃𝑃
𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝐹 ℎ
𝐹𝑟 = 𝐴
𝑑𝐹
ℎ𝐵
CP 𝐹𝑟 = ∀𝑃𝑃 = volume of the
𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐴 pressure prism
𝑦
(𝑥𝐶𝑃, 𝑦𝐶𝑃) corresponds to the
coordinates of the centroid of
𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐵 𝑑𝐴 the pressure prism.
𝑑∀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴
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2-19
 Buoyancy Force
• Consider a body that is fully submerged (could be floating also) in a static fluid.
• A distributed pressure force acts all around the body.

3D
body

Left and right parts

have the same vertical
projetion.

• Using the force component method we can show that the net horizontal pressure
force acting on the body is zero.
• Net vertical pressure force is however is not zero. It is called the buoyancy force.
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2-27
 Buoyancy Force (cont’d)

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
Net vertical force on 𝑑𝐴 is
𝑑∀ 𝑑𝐹1 ℎ1
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑑𝐹2 − 𝑑𝐹1
ℎ2 = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝑑𝐴
= 𝜌𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑∀

• Overall vertical force is obtained by integrating the above expression, which gives

𝐹𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔∀𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

• Buoyancy force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
submerging the body into the fluid, which is known as the Archimedes principle.
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2-28
 Hydrometer
• A hydrometer uses the principle of buoyancy to measure the density of a liquid.
• First it is calibrated by dipping it into a liquid of known density, such as water.

Marked for Stem

water Water mark
ℎ

Water Another liquid

Cross sectional
(𝜌𝑤 ) (𝜌)
Volume inside area of stem
water (known)
(known)
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔∀1 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔(∀1 − 𝐴ℎ)

𝜌 ∀1 Movie : Hydrometer
=
𝜌𝑤 ∀1 − 𝐴ℎ

• We read ℎ and then calculate the unknown 𝜌.

• Stem may be marked so that we can directly read 𝜌. 46/303
2-29
 Capillarity
• When a glass tube is immersed into a liquid, which wets the surface, such as water,
adhesive forces between the glass and water exceed cohesive forces in water, and
water rises (capillary rise) in the glass tube.
• This vertical rise continues until the surface tension forces are balanced with the
weight of the water column in the tube.
• For a non-wetting fluid, such as mercury, the force balance results in a different
configuration known as capillary drop.

Glass tube

water mercury
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2-30
 Capillarity (cont’d)
𝐷
• Due to surface tension the meniscus (free surface 𝜎 𝜎
q q
inside the tube) will be curved and there will be a 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝
pressure difference between the two sides of it 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡
ℎ
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝 > 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝
• This pressure difference is balanced with surface
𝜌
tension forces. Writing a vertical force balance for
the meniscus
𝜋𝐷 2 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝜎 𝜋𝐷 cos(𝜃) = (𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝 − 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 )
4 𝜎 𝜎
• Writing the manometer equation for the liquid
between the meniscus and the free surface 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Movie : Capillary Rise
4 𝜎 cos(𝜃)
• Combining these two equations we get ℎ =
𝜌𝑔𝐷
• Note that the pressure change of ambient air over
the distance ℎ is negligibly small. 48/303
2-31
 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 3
Kinematics of Fluid Flow
49/303

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.

3-1
 Field Representation
• As a fluid moves, its properties in general change from point to point in space and
from time to time.
• In field representation of a flow, fluid and flow properties are given as functions of
space coordinates and time.
𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 , 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
• If there is no time dependency in a flow field, it is said to be steady, otherwise it is
unsteady.

Movie Movie Movie Movie

Steady and von Karman Wing tip vortices Flow around a car
unsteady flows vortex street

50/303
3-2
 Different Viewpoints for Fluid and Solid Mechanics
• In solid mechanics we are usually interested in how material moves or deforms.
We focus our attention on material and follow its motion/deformation.

http://www.protee-united.com http://en.wikiversity.org

• We locate a solid particle (or group of particles) at an initial time and study their
motion in time to determine where they go.
• We are interested in particles’ trajectories and their final positions, such as golf
ball’s point of hitting or maximum deflection of the beam’s center point.

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3-3
 Different Viewpoints for Fluid and Solid Mechanics (cont’d)
• However, in fluid mechanics we are generally interested in how things
behave/change at a point, on a surface or inside a volume. We focus our attention
not on material, but on space.

http://w3.shorecrest.org/~Lisa_Peck/Physics http://www.fluidlogger.com

• For a lift force generating wing, we need to know the pressure distribution over
the wing. We are not really interested in the original locations of fluid particles
that cause the lift or where they go after they passed over the wing.
• To measure the amount of liquid flowing in a pipe, we need to make calculations
on a certain cross section of it. We do not need to follow the fluid particles that
pass through the cross section.
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3-4
 Lagrangian (Material) Description
Material (Lagrangian) Description: Identified fluid particles are followed in the course
of time as they move in a flow field.
• NOT preferred in fluid mechanics, more suitable to solid mechanics.

• Consider a particle P flowing in the following converging duct.

Time Particle P’s speed [m/s]

t0 5
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t1 8
P P t2 10
P P P
t3 15
t4 20

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3-5
 Lagrangian (Material) Description (cont’d)
• In following a particle, the only independent
variable is time.
• Space coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of particle P are NOT
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
independent variables.
P P
• When we select a particle by identifying it at its P P P
initial location at an initial time, its location at a
future time, say 𝑡3 , depends on which particle we
are following and the value of 𝑡3 .

• Properties of particle P are in general expressed as

position of P : 𝑟𝑃 𝑡 ,
Lagrangian
velocity of P : 𝑉𝑃 𝑡 ,
description
density of P : 𝜌𝑃 𝑡 , etc.

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3-6
 Eulerian (Spatial) Description
Spatial (Eulerian) Description: Attention is focused at fixed points (or area or volume) in
the flow field and the variation of properties at these points (or area or volume) are
determined as fluid particles pass through these points.
• This is the preferred viewpoint for fluid mechanics.
• Consider the same duct flow, but now concentrating at two points, A and B.

Time Speed at A Speed at B

t0 5 20
B t1 5 20
A
t2 5 20
t3 5 20
t4 5 20

55/303
3-7
 Eulerian (Spatial) Description (cont’d)
• Now both time and space coordinates are
independent variables.
• Location of point A (or B) does NOT depend on the B
A
flow field or time.
• Fluid and flow properties at a point (e.g. point A) are
expressed as
velocity : 𝑉𝐴 𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 , 𝑡 ,
Eulerian
density : 𝜌𝐴 𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 , 𝑡 ,
description
pressure : 𝑝𝐴 𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 , 𝑡 , etc.

• The duct flow described in the previous slides is said to be steady if the flow
properties (such as velocity) do not change with time.
• For steady flows time is NOT a variable in the Eulerian description.
• But time is always an independent variable in the Lagrangian description, even for
steady flows. Without time, a fluid particle simply can not move.
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3-8
 Differential vs. Integral Formulation
• Differential formulation provides a very detailed solution of a flow field.
• When coupled with Eulerian point of view, it provides information at all points in
the problem region at all times of interest.
• It requires the solution of differential equations for conservation laws (mass,
momentum and energy).
• Analytical solution of conservation equations are available only for a few very
simple problems. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) provides an alternative.

Detailed solution of the

flow field on a pump
impeller
http://www.grc.nasa.gov

Parts of a centrifugal pump

http://www.mcnallyinstitute.com 57/303
3-12
 Differential vs. Integral Formulation (cont’d)
• Integral formulation when coupled with Eulerian viewpoint focuses at a fixed
region of space (control volume)
• It provides less information compared to differential approach.
• But it has much simpler mathematics. No DE solution is required.
• It is used to determine gross flow effects (not details), such as the lift force
generated by a wing or the shaft work required to run a pump.
𝑉2 , 𝐴2 , 𝑝2

𝑉1 , 𝐴1 , 𝑝1 Shaft
work

Integral analysis for a

control volume
around a pump
58/303
3-13
 Lagrangian - Eulerian Relation
• Consider a property 𝑁 in a flow field.
• At time 𝑡 fluid particle P passes through a point A in space.

At time 𝑡, particle P
A passes through point A

𝑧 𝑟𝑃 (𝑡) Path of
particle P
𝑦
𝑥

• We want to determine a relation in the following form.

Rate of change of property 𝑁 of Rate of change of property 𝑁 at

=
particle P at time 𝑡 from a Lagrangian point A from an Eulerian point of
point of view view
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3-14
 Lagrangian - Eulerian Relation (cont’d)
• Property 𝑁 in Eulerian description is given as 𝑁 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
• Total change of this property is
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Change of 𝑁 in both Change of 𝑁 in time Change of 𝑁 in space

time and space

• Divide both sides by 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑁 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑁 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑁 𝑑𝑧
= + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤

𝑑𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁
= + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

(𝑉 ∙ 𝛻)𝑁 60/303
3-15
 Lagrangian - Eulerian Relation (cont’d)
𝑑𝑁 𝜕𝑁
= + 𝑉∙𝛻 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Material derivative Convective derivative

(Substantial derivative) Local derivative
(Total derivative) (Partial derivative)

• Material derivative : Rate of change of property 𝑁 in the material description

(following a particle)
• Partial derivative : Rate of change of property 𝑁 with time only. For a steady flow
this term is zero for any property.
• Convective derivative : Change of property 𝑁 with respect to space only, i.e. at a
fixed time. If there is no flow this term is zero, i.e. properties of a stationary fluid
particle may change with time only.

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3-16
 Lagrangian - Eulerian Relation (cont’d)
𝑑𝑁 𝜕𝑁
= + 𝑉∙𝛻 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Hot
𝑢1 𝑢2 > 𝑢1 𝑢3 < 𝑢2
𝑇2 > 𝑇1

Cold
𝑇1
• Steady state uniform flow in a converging-
diverging nozzle.
• Steady state operation of a water heater. • Fluid particles first accelerate and than
• Fluid heats up in the heater. decelerate.

• 𝜕𝑇/𝜕𝑡 of any fluid particle is zero, but • 𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑡 of a fluid particle is zero, but 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑡 is not zero. is not zero.

• Convective derivative of 𝑇 is not zero. • Convective derivative of 𝑢 is not zero.

62/303
3-17
 Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
𝑑𝑁 𝜕𝑁
• Selecting 𝑁 = 𝑉 in equation = + 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻 𝑁 acceleration of a fluid
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
particle can be obtained as
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎= = + 𝑉∙ 𝛻 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Local acceleration Convective acceleration

• Components of the acceleration vector in Cartesian coordinate system are

𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = = + 𝑉∙ 𝛻 𝑢 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = = + 𝑉∙ 𝛻 𝑣 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = = + 𝑉∙ 𝛻 𝑤 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
63/303
3-18
 Flow Classification as 1D, 2D and 3D
• Depends on the number of space coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) required to specify the
velocity field.
• 3D Flow : 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
2D Flow : 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑧 or 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑦, 𝑧
1D Flow : 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥 or 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑦 or 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑧

• For some problems use of (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) is more suitable than (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

𝑟 Axisymmetric
𝑧 flow. Nothing
depends on 𝜃

Fully developed flow in a Decelerating flow in a pipe of

constant diameter pipe increasing diameter
1D flow 2D flow
𝑉(𝑟) 𝑉(𝑟, 𝑧) 64/303
3-21
 Flow Classification as Steady, Unsteady
• Steady flow : Local derivatives (𝜕 /𝜕𝑡) are zero in a flow field. Properties at a fixed
point do not change in time.
• See slide 3-17 for two examples.
• A centrifugal pump working constantly at the same speed between the same
input and output conditions is said to be working steadily.

• Unsteady flow : Local derivatives of properties are nonzero. Properties at a fixed

point change in time.
• If the inlet water temperature of the heater shown in slide 3-17 changes with
time, it will be a unsteady flow.
• Pulsatile blood flow in our veins is unsteady. But it is a special kind of unsteady
flow, it is time periodic. It repeats itself after a certain period.
• von Karman vortex street of slide 3-2 is also unsteady and time periodic.
• A gusty wind blowing over a house is unsteady.

65/303
3-22
 Flow Classification as Steady, Unsteady (cont’d)
• Sometimes an unsteady flow can be studied as steady by a proper choice of
reference frame.
• Consider the following wing moving at a constant speed in still air.

• For an observer fixed at the ground this flow is

unsteady.
• At an upstream point A, initially air speed is zero.
But as the wing approaches point A, it will push
the air there. Observer fixed at the ground sees A
different things at point A (and also at other
points) at different times.
http://w3.shorecrest.org/~Lisa_Peck/Physics

• The same flow becomes steady with respect to

an observer moving with the wing.
• This observer will always see the same air motion around her. Air will always
approach with the same speed. Nothing will change in time, except her wrinkles if
she watches the air flow for too long.
66/303
3-23
 Flow Classification as Laminar, Turbulence
• Laminar flow is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move
smoothly with respect to each other.
• Laminar flow is usually associated with low speeds and high viscosities.
• Turbulent flow has random, unsteady fluctuations. It is inherently 3D. There is
intense mixing and rotationality.
• Turbulent flow is usually associated with high speeds.
• Turbulent flows are, by far, the most common.
• Although a turbulent flow always have unsteadiness in it, it may be steady in
the mean (in a time averaged sense).

Movie Movie Movie

Laminar flow over Laminar to turbulent Wake behind a cylinder
cylinders and airfoils transition in a pipe

67/303
3-24
 Pathlines, Streaklines and Streamlines
• These are three different flow visualization techniques.
• Pathline is a line traced out by a fluid particle as it flows in a flow field.
• Pathline is a Lagrangian concept.
• In laboratory it can be generated by marking (dying) a small fluid element and
taking time exposure photograph of its motion.
• Streakline consists of all particles in a flow that have previously passed through a
common point.
• In laboratory it can be generated by continuously injecting dye at a point and
observing the collection of dyed particles as they move in the flow.
• Streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity field.
• It is a mathematical tool, rather than a laboratory one.

• For a steady flow all these three are the same.

• For an unsteady flow they are all different.
Movie
Pathline, streakline and
streamline comparison for
unsteady oscillating plate flow 68/303
3-25
 Obtaining Streamlines Mathematically
• Consider a streamline in a 2D flow field. 𝑦
𝑉
• At any point velocity vector will be tangent to it
• Slope of the line at any point (𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥) should 𝑣
be equal to the velocity component ratio (𝑣/𝑢) 𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
= 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
which can also be written as =
𝑢 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
• This can be generalized to a 3D flow as = =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤

• If the velocity field is known as a function of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 (and 𝑡 if the flow is

unsteady), the above equation can be integrated to give the equation of
streamlines.

Exercise : For the velocity field given by 𝑉 = 2𝑥𝑖 − 2𝑦𝑗 , determine the equation of
the streamline that passes through point P(2,2,0).
69/303
3-26
 Closed System vs. Control Volume
• A closed system (or just system) is a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass.
• It can change its position and shape, but it always contains the same fluid
particles.
• It is separated from the surroundings by system boundaries, which is closed to
mass transfer. Fluid particles can not pass through it.
• It is related to the Lagrangian point of view.
• It has the advantage that basic laws (conservation of mass, momentum, energy)
can be written for it in a very natural and simple way.

Initially the closed After using, the closed

system for the parfume system is partly inside and
is inside the spray can partly outside. It follows
perfume’s motion. 70/303
3-27
 Closed System vs. Control Volume (cont’d)
• A control volume (CV) is a fixed region of a flow field.
• It can NOT change its position or shape, but it contains different fluid particles at
different times.
• It is separated from the surroundings by control surface (CS), which is open to
mass transfer. Fluid particles can pass through it.
• It is related to the Eulerian point of view.
• Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT) is used to convert basic laws into a form
suitable to CV use.

After using, CV does not change

Initial shape shape. It does not follow
of the CV. perfume’s motion. It has an
exit, through which fluid leaves.71/303
3-28
 Basic Laws Written for a System
Conservation of Mass : Mass of a closed system does not change, i.e. time rate of
change of a closed system’s mass is zero.

𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠
=0 where 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑑∀
𝑑𝑡 ∀𝑠𝑦𝑠

Conservation of Linear Momentum (Newton’s 2nd Law) : Sum of all external forces
acting on a system is equal to the time rate of change of linear momentum.

𝑑𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝐹= where 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑑∀
𝑑𝑡 ∀𝑠𝑦𝑠

Conservation of Angular Momentum : Sum of all external torques acting on a system

is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum.

𝑑𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑇= where 𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑟 × 𝑉 𝑑∀
𝑑𝑡 ∀𝑠𝑦𝑠
72/303
3-29
 Basic Laws Written for a System (cont’d)
Conservation of Energy (1st Law of Thermodynamics) : Energy of a closed system
changes by heat and work interaction with its surroundings as follows

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑄+𝑊 = where 𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑒 𝑑∀
Dot means 𝑑𝑡 ∀𝑠𝑦𝑠
“time rate of
change of ”.
𝑑
Same as 𝑑𝑡 𝑉2
𝑒 = 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
2

Total energy Internal energy Kinetic energy Potential energy

per unit mass per unit mass per unit mass per unit mass

𝑄 : rate of heat transfer (heat coming into the system is positive)

𝑊 : rate of work done (work done on the system is positive)

73/303
3-30
 Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)
• All basic laws are naturally written for a closed system.
• But we want to use CVs to study fluid mechanics problems.
• RTT is a general relation between the rate of change of a fluid property in a
closed system and the corresponding control volume.

𝑑𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑 𝜕
= 𝜌 𝜂 𝑑∀ = 𝜌 𝜂 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝜂 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

where 𝑁 is any extensive property such as 𝑚, 𝑃, 𝐻 or 𝐸.

𝜂 is the corresponding intensive property such as 1, 𝑉, 𝑟×𝑉 or 𝑒.

𝑉 is the velocity of the fluid at the control surface (CS) and 𝑛 is the unit outward
normal of the CS.

Exercise : Study the derivation of RTT from the distributed handout.

74/303
3-31
 Reynolds Transport Theorem (cont’d)
𝑑𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑 𝜕
= 𝜌 𝜂 𝑑∀ = 𝜌 𝜂 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝜂 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Rate of change of
Rate of change of
property 𝑁 in the Rate at which property
property 𝑁 within the = +
corresponding CV 𝑁 exits the CV
system.
(zero for steady flows)

• We do not evaluate the left hand side directly, instead use the equivalents such as

Zero : for mass conservation

𝐹 : for linear momentum conservation
𝑇 : for angular momentum conservation
𝑄 + 𝑊 : for energy conservation
75/303
3-32
 Reynolds Transport Theorem (cont’d)
• Let’s apply RTT to the spray can example.

• For mass conservation, 𝑁 = 𝑚 and 𝜂 = 1

𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝜌 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Amount of mass that

Time rate of change of leaves the can in unit time
perfume's mass inside the A positive value (Nonzero
Zero = +
spray can. A negative only at the little opening
value. that the gas can escape
from)

76/303
3-33
 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 4
Integral Formulation of Fluid Flow

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
77/303
4-1
 Reynolds Transport Theorem
𝑑𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝜌 𝜂 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝜂 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Rate of change of
Rate of change of
property 𝑁 in the Rate at which property
property 𝑁 within the = +
corresponding CV 𝑁 exits the CV
system.
(zero for steady flows)

Conservation Eqn 𝑁 𝜂 Left hand side

Mass 𝑚 1 Zero
Linear Momentum 𝑃 𝑉 𝐹
Angular Momentum 𝐻 𝑟×𝑉 𝑇
Energy 𝐸 𝑒 𝑄+𝑊
78/303
4-2
 Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)

• Taking 𝑁 = 𝑚 and 𝜂 = 1, RTT becomes

𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 0 = 𝜌 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Rate of change of Net rate of mass

mass in the CV exiting through
the CS

𝜕
𝜌 𝑑∀ < 0 : Mass inside the CV decreases with
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
time

𝐶𝑆
𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 > 0 : The amount of mass leaving the CV is
in balance with the above term
CV
79/303
4-3
 Mass Flow Rate (𝑚)
• The surface integral of the continuity equation is known as the mass flow rate (𝑚).
It has the units of kg/s.
𝑛
𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝛼 𝑉
CV

>0 if 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 > 0 outflow

CS
• 𝑚 = at a solid wall or for a flow
=0 if 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 = 0
parallel to the CS
<0 if 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 < 0 inflow

𝑛 𝑉
𝑛, 𝑉
80/303
4-4
 Volumetric Flow Rate (𝑄) and Average Velocity (𝑉)
• For constant density flows volumetric flow rate (𝑄) can be defined as
𝑚
𝑄= = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜌 𝐴
• 𝑄 has the units m /s.
3

• Average velocity over a section of a flow field is defined as

𝑚 𝑄
𝑉= or 𝑉= if 𝜌 is uniform over A
𝐴
𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝐴

𝑟2
𝑢 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 1− 2 𝑉
𝑅

𝑉 is defined such that these two cases

provide the same flow rate. 81/303
4-5
 Average Velocity and Uniform Flow
• Uniform flow through an area (a part of a CS) is a commonly used simplification,
in which we assume that flow and fluid properties are constant over the area.

Non-uniform Corresponding
velocity profile uniform velocity
profile

Pipe area is 𝐴.
Average velocity is 𝑉.
Mass flow rate through the pipe is 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
Volumetric flow rate is 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
82/303
4-6
 Continuity Equation for Steady Flow

• For a steady flow (time independent flow) partial time derivative of RTT is zero,
and the continuity equation reduces to

𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝐶𝑆

• Continuity equation for a steady flow is 𝑚𝑖 + 𝑚𝑜 = 0

𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠

• For a common case of unidirectional, uniform flow with a single inlet and single
exit
1
2 Continuity : −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 + 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 0

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

83/303
4-7
 Continuity Equation for Incompressible Flow

• For an incompressible flow (not necessarily steady) density is constant and

continuity equation simplifies as
𝜕
𝜌 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Zero since volume
of a CV is constant

𝜕∀𝐶𝑉
𝜌 + 𝜌 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0 → 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆

• For a common case of unidirectional, uniform flow with a single inlet and single
exit
1
2 Continuity : −𝐴1 𝑉1 + 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 0

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
84/303
4-8
 Conservation of Linear Momentum

• Taking 𝑁 = 𝑃 and 𝜂 = 𝑉, RTT becomes

𝑑𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝐹= 𝜌𝑉𝑑∀ + 𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Sum of external Rate of change of Rate of linear

forces acting on linear momentum in momentum exiting
the CV the CV through the CS

• For a steady flow partial time derivative is zero. First term drops

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆

85/303
4-13
 Conservation of Linear Momentum (cont’d)

• For the common case of steady, unidirectional, uniform flow with a single inlet
and single exit
1
2
𝑥

𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌2 𝑉22 𝐴2 − 𝜌1 𝑉12 𝐴1 = 𝑚 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

• Hint : Direction of momentum exchange rate at a boundary is always in the

direction of 𝑛 .
86/303
4-14
 Conservation of Angular Momentum

• Taking 𝑁 = 𝐻 and 𝜂 = 𝑟 × 𝑉, RTT becomes

𝑑𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝑇= 𝜌(𝑟 × 𝑉)𝑑∀ + 𝜌(𝑟 × 𝑉) 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Sum of external Rate of change of Rate of angular

torques acting on angular momentum in momentum exiting
the CV the CV through the CS

• For a steady flow partial time derivative is zero. First term drops

𝑇= 𝜌(𝑟 × 𝑉) 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆

87/303
4-22
 Conservation of Energy

• Taking 𝑁 = 𝐸 and 𝜂 = 𝑒, RTT becomes

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝑄+𝑊 = 𝜌𝑒𝑑∀ + 𝜌𝑒 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Rate of heat transfer into Rate of change of Rate of energy exiting

the system and rate of energy in the CV through the CS
work done on the system

• 𝑄 > 0 if heat is added into the system.

𝑊 > 0 if work is done on the system.

• Specific energy, 𝑒, includes internal, kinetic and potential energy terms

𝑉2
𝑒 = 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
2
88/303
4-24
 Conservation of Energy (cont’d)

𝜕 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄+𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑆 2

• Most common forms of work in fluid systems are

• shear work : work done on the CS due to viscous stresses. Can be made
negligibly small by a proper CV selection.
• shaft work : e.g. energy delivered to the fluid by a pump or energy
extracted from the fluid by a turbine.
• flow work : energy necessary to push a certain amount of fluid into the CV
or out of the CV. It depends on the pressure and velocity vector at an inlet
or an exit.
𝑊𝑓 = −𝑝 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐴

89/303
4-25
 Conservation of Energy (cont’d)

• 𝑊𝑓 is treated separately from other types of work and it is added to the last
integral of the energy equation.

𝜕 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
𝑄+𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑆 𝜌 2

𝑝
• Using the definition of enthaply ℎ = 𝑢 + energy equation becomes
𝜌

𝜕 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄+𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑑∀ + 𝜌 ℎ+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑆 2

where 𝑊 does NOT include flow work.

90/303
4-26
 Conservation of Energy (cont’d)

• For a steady, single inlet - single exit flow with uniform properties at inlet and exit
sections
exit

𝑚
𝑧
inlet
Datum

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
𝑄+𝑊 =𝑚 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
𝜌 2 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

• Dividing both sides by the constant mass flow rate

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
𝑞+𝑤 = 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
𝜌 2 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 91/303
4-27
 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 5
Bernoulli Equation

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
92/303
5-1
 Bernoulli Equation (BE)
• BE is a simple and easy to use relation between the following three variables in a
moving fluid
• pressure
• velocity and
• elevation
• It can be thought of a limited version of the 1st law of thermodynamics.
• It can also be derived by considering Newton’s 2nd law of motion written for a
fluid particle moving along a streamline in an inviscid fluid.

Movie: Streamlines

93/303
5-2
 Derivation of the BE
• Main limitation of the BE is the omission of viscous forces.

Exercise : A fluid partcile moves along a streamline for the following 2D, steady flow
in the 𝑥𝑧 plane. Derive the steady version of the BE by considering the pressure and
body forces in the streamline direction acting on this fluid partcile.

𝑔 𝑠

𝑧
𝑥 𝑛

94/303
5-3
 Pressure Variation Normal to the Streamlines
• What happens in Slide 5-3 if we write the equation of motion not along the
streamline, but normal to the streamline.
𝑠
𝑔
𝑛
𝑧
𝑅 : Radius of curvature

Center of curvature

• For steady flows we obtain the following equation (see Munson’s textbook)
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉 2
−𝜌𝑔 − =
𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝑅
• 𝑅 = ∞ corresponds to a straight streamline.
• 𝑅 < ∞ corresponds to a change in the flow direction, i.e. a curved streamline. This is
accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure gradient and fluid weight
normal to the streamline.
95/303
5-7
 Pressure Variation Normal to the Streamlines (cont’d)
• If gravitational effects are negligible, or if the flow is in a horizontal plane

𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉 2
=−
𝜕𝑛 𝑅

• Therefore when streamlines are curved, pressure increases with distance away from
the center of curvature.
• The pressure difference is necessary to balance the centrifugal acceleration
associated with the curved streamlines.

Pressure increases
in – 𝑛 direction Curved streamlines
of a flow field

96/303
5-8
 Pressure Variation Normal to the Streamlines (cont’d)
• For straight and parallel streamlines (𝑅 = ∞) pressure variation across the
streamlines is hydrostatic (as if the fluid is not moving)

Pressure variation normal

to the streamlines is as if
𝑔 the fluid is static

𝑧 Straight streamlines
of a flow field

𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑧

• If gravity is negligible or flow is in the horizontal plane, pressure does not change
across straight streamlines.

97/303
5-9
 Pressure, Pressure and Pressure
𝜌𝑉 2
𝑝 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = constant along a streamline
2

Static pressure Hydrostatic pressure

Dynamic pressure

Stagnation pressure

Total pressure

• Static pressure is also known as the thermodynamic pressure. To measure it one

should move along the fluid, thus being static relative to the fluid.
• Dynamic pressure represents the rise in pressure as a fluid slows down along a
streamline.
• BE says that “total pressure along a streamline is constant”.

98/303
5-10
 Simple Pitot Tube
• Pitot tube is a device used for speed measurement.
• It is a simple tube with a 90 degree bend.
• It measures flow speed using the Bernoulli principle.

http://www.daylife.com/photo/00sl2OC8dr9rc

Pitot tube on a Formula 1 car Pitot tubes on a passanger aircraft

• Read about the role of Pitot tube malfunctions on plane crashes.

http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1362487/plane_crashes_and_pitot_tubes.html?cat=15
99/303
5-12
 Simple Pitot Tube (cont’d)

• Fluid flows in an open channel from left to right.

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 ℎ1
• We want to measure the speed at point 𝑥.
ℎ0 • Fluid fills the Pitot tube and rises inside it to a
𝑥 level of ℎ1 above the free surface.
𝑜
• The aim of using a Pitot tube is to create a
stagnation point at point 𝑜 with zero velocity.

BE between points 𝑥 and 𝑜

0
𝜌𝑉𝑥2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2
𝑝𝑥 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑜
2 2

𝑉𝑥 = 2(𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑥 )/𝜌

• With a Pitot tube we actually measure the pressure difference between points 𝑥
and 𝑜 and convert this difference to a speed difference using the BE.
100/303
5-13
 Simple Pitot Tube (cont’d)

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 ℎ1
• Fluid in the tube is static therefore
ℎ0 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ0 +ℎ1 )
𝑥 𝑜 which is called the stagnation pressure.

• As mentioned in Slide 5-9 “if the streamlines are straight and parallel in a flow field,
the pressure varies across the streamlines as if the fluid is static”
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ0
which is the static pressure at point 𝑥.

• Using 𝑝𝑜 and 𝑝𝑥 in the 𝑉𝑥 equation of the previous slide

2 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑥
𝑉𝑥 = → 𝑉𝑥 = 2𝑔ℎ1
𝜌
101/303
5-14
 Use of Pitot Tube with a Piezometer

• For the flow in a closed channel or pipe we

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 ℎ1 need to use an additional tube called the
ℎ2
piezometer (static tube).
ℎℎ00
• Piezometer is used to measure the static
𝑥 𝑜 pressure at point 𝑥 as
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ0 + ℎ2 )

• Using the Pitot tube : 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ0 +ℎ1 )

• BE between points 𝑥 and 𝑜 gives the unknown speed as : 𝑉𝑥 = 2(𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑥 )/𝜌

𝑉𝑥 = 2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

102/303
5-15
 Combined Pitot Static Tube (Prandtl’s Tube)
• Instead of measuring static pressure at point 𝑥
𝜌 𝑎 using a piezometer, a second tube is used
𝑥 around the Pitot tube.
𝑜
• Static pressure holes (point 𝑎) of the outer tube
are located such that they measure correct
ℎ𝑚 upstream static pressure, i.e. 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑥 .
𝜌𝑚 • Two tubes provide the necessary pressure
difference measurement using the mercury in it.
• It is possible to use pressure transducers instead
of mercury columns to obtain accurate digital
readings.

• The required pressure difference is 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑥 = 𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌 𝑔ℎ𝑚

• Using this in the BE we get

𝜌𝑚
𝑉𝑥 = 2(𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑥 )/𝜌 → 𝑉𝑥 = 2𝑔ℎ𝑚 −1
𝜌
103/303
5-16
 Be Careful in Using the Bernoulli Equation
• The simplest and the most commonly used BE that we studied in the previous slides
may lead to unphysical results for problems similar to the following ones.
• BE will be extended in the next slide to solve some of these problems.

Fluid Mechanics, by Çengel and Cimbala

104/303
5-17
 Extended Bernoulli Equation (EBE)
• It is a modified version of the BE to include affects such as viscous forces, heat
transfer and shaft work.
• Remember the energy conservation equation for a single inlet, single exit CV with
uniform properties.
𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
𝑞+𝑤 = 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
𝜌 2 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

• Arranging this equation we get

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑢𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − 𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 − 𝑞 − 𝑤𝑠
𝜌 2 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝜌 2 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡

Shaft work done

per unit mass
Original BE Frictional work per
unit mass (𝑤𝑓 )
105/303
5-18
 Extended Bernoulli Equation (cont’d)
𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑤𝑓 − 𝑤𝑠
𝜌 2 1
𝜌 2 2

• Flow is from location 1 (upstream) to location 2 (downstream).

• Shaft work (𝑤𝑠 )
• For a turbine, which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, the work is
done by the fluid and 𝑤𝑠 is negative.
• For a pump, which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, the work is
done on the fluid and 𝑤𝑠 is positive.

• Frictional work (𝑤𝑓 ) is the amount of mechanical energy converted into thermal
energy due to viscous action.
• It corresponds to a rise in the internal energy of the fluid (heat up the fluid) or to
the heat that is lost to the surroundings.
• Although possible heat addition to the fluid is also included in this term, it is
almost always used to represent a loss (a positive quantity in the above equation).
106/303
5-19
 ‘‘Head’’ Form of the EBE
• Dividing both sides of the EBE by 𝑔 we get

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = + +𝑧 + ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2

Pressure Velocity Elevation Total head at 2 Friction Pump or

head head head (ℎ𝑡2 or 𝐻2 ) head turbine head

Total head at 1
(ℎ𝑡1 or 𝐻1 )

• EBE can simply be written has

ℎ𝑡 1 = ℎ𝑡 2 + ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑠

Total head at a downstream location is equal to the total head at an upstream

location plus the head due to shaft work minus the head loss due to frictional losses.
107/303
5-20
 Pump and Turbine Head (ℎ𝑠 )
• Pump head ℎ𝑠 is related to the power delivered to the
fluid by the pump (𝒫𝑓 ) as follows 𝑄

𝒫𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎ𝑠 2
where 𝑄 is the volumetric flow rate that passes
through the pump.
𝑄
• Power delivered to the fluid is related to the power
consumed by the pump (𝒫𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 ) through the pump 1
efficiency (𝜂𝑝 )
𝒫𝑝
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 =
𝒫𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
• For a turbine power extracted from the fluid is calculated in a similar way.
𝒫𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎ𝑠
• Power produced by the turbine is smaller than the extracted fluid power
𝒫𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 =
𝒫𝑓 108/303
5-21
 Toricelli Equation
• Discharge of a liquid from a large reservoir through an orifice (hole) was previously
studied in Slide 5-5.

1 • BE between the free surface and the orifice is

𝐻 𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
2 𝑝1 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2
𝑉2 2 2

𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 , 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝐻 , 𝑉1 ≈ 0

𝑉2 = 2𝑔𝐻 (Toricelli Equation)

Movie : Toricelli
• Discharge through the orifice with an area 𝐴𝑜 is

𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉2 𝐴𝑜

• This value will be corrected in the following slides.

109/303
5-24
 Vena Contracta and Contraction Coefficient
• Depending on the geometry of the orifice, flow field near the exit may be as follows.

𝐴𝑜 = 𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡

𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝐴𝑜
𝐴𝑗
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜

Munson, Young, Okiishi’s Textbook 110/303

5-25
 Vena Contracta and Contraction Coefficient (cont’d)
• Vena Contracta (VC) is the cross section of the jet where
the streamlines are straight and parallel.
𝐴𝑗 𝐴𝑜 • This is the section at which pressure is equal to 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 .
• Contraction coefficient : 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐴𝑗 /𝐴𝑜

• So the correct BE should be written between the free surface and the jet of the VC
section (not the exit section).
0
1 𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉𝑗2
𝑝1 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝𝑗 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑗
2 2
𝐻 j
𝑉𝑗 𝑉𝑗 = 2𝑔𝐻

• Discharge through the orifice is 𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑔𝐻 𝐴𝑗 → 𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑔𝐻 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜

111/303
5-26
 Velocity and Discharge Coefficients
• The actual discharge would be even less due to viscous effects, disregarded in the BE.
• Velocity coefficient (𝐶𝑣 ) corrects this as follows
𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑔ℎ 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝐴𝑜
• 𝐶𝑣 can be determined experimentally for a given orifice geometry.
• Discharge coefficient (𝐶𝑑 ) combines contraction and velocity coefficients as follows

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣

• Therefore discharge through the orifice can be given as

𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑔ℎ 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜

112/303
5-27
 Obstruction Flow Meters
• They are used to measure flow rates
through pipes. General idea is
• to place an obstacle inside the pipe Orifice
and force the fluid to accelerate and meter
pass from a narrow area.
• measure the pressure difference
between the low-velocity, high-
Nozzle flow
pressure upstream and the high-
meter
velocity, low-pressure downstream.
• use the BE to relate this pressure
difference to the flow rate in the
pipe. Venturi
meter
Movie : Venturi meter

113/303
5-28
 Orifice Meter

𝐷 𝑉1 𝑑 𝑉2

1 o 2
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝑑 2 𝐴2 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜
𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑜 =
4 4

• Section 1 is an upstream section with an average velocity of 𝑉1 .

• Section o has the orifice plate with the hole diameter 𝑑.
• Section 2 is the Vena Contracta section of the jet leaving the orifice.
• 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 (or they difference) are measured and known.

114/303
5-29
 Orifice Meter (cont’d)
• Bernoulli Equation between points 1 and 2
𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
𝑝1 + = 𝑝2 +
2 2
• Continuity equation for a CV between sections 1 and 2
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 → 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑉
4 1 4 2

• Combine these two equations to eliminate 𝑉1 and obtain 𝑉2 as

2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) 𝑑2
𝑉2 = where 𝛽 = 𝐶𝑐 2
𝜌 (1 − 𝛽2 ) 𝐷

• Flow rate through the pipe is given by

2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴2
𝜌 (1 − 𝛽2 )

115/303
5-30
 Orifice Meter (cont’d)
• This flow rate can be corrected for viscous effects using the discharge coefficient

2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴2
𝜌 (1 − 𝛽2 )

• 𝐶𝐷 is experimentally determined and provided by the manufacturer (see the next

slide).

• For the nozzle flow meter and Venturi meter, the same equation can be used.
• The only difference is that 𝐶𝐶 = 1 for these devices.

116/303
5-31
 𝐶𝐷 Graphs for Obstruction Flow Meters
0.66 D 1.00
D/2 𝛽 = 0.2

0.64 V
D 0.98
d 𝛽 = 0.8
𝐶𝐷𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
0.62 𝛽 = 0.7 0.96
𝐶𝐷𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 D
V
d

0.60 0.94
104 105 106 107 108
𝛽 = 0.2 𝑅𝑒
0.58
104 105 106 107 108 1.00
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷/𝜇
0.98
𝐶𝐷𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖
Range of values
0.96 depending on specific
Venturi geometry

0.94
104 105 𝑅𝑒 107 108 117/303
5-32
 Obstruction Flow Meters (cont’d)
• Comparison of obstruction type flow meters

Cost Ease of Installation Pressure Loss

Orifice meter Cheap Difficult High
Nozzle flowmeter Medium Difficult Medium
Venturi meter High Difficult Low

• Other types flow meters

• Rotameter ( youtube.com/watch?v=2dfIWNYJwZM )
• Thermal flow measurement ( youtube.com/watch?v=YfQSf2NBGqc )
• Vortex type flow meter ( youtube.com/watch?v=GmTmDM7jHzA )
• Ultrasonic flow meter ( youtube.com/watch?v=Bx2RnrfLkQg )
• Coriolis flow measurement ( youtube.com/watch?v=XIIViaNITIw )
• Turbine flow meter
• Weirs (for open channels)
118/303
5-33
 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 6
Differential Formulation of Fluid Flow

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
119/303
6-1
 Motion of a Fluid Element (Fluid Kinematics)
• In a general flow field, fluid motion can be decomposed into the following 4
components
Movie :
1) translation 3) rotation
Fluid deformation
2) linear deformation 4) angular deformation

Original fluid
element
Deformed fluid
element

= + + +

Overall Linear Angular

= Translation + + Rotation +
motion deformation deformation
120/303
6-2
 Fluid Kinematics (cont’d)
• Consider the following 2D, differential fluid element with corner A moving with a
velocity of 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 .
• Velocity components of the other corners can be determined as follows using first-
order Taylor series approximation.

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑦 𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
D 𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
C 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑣
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢
A 𝑢 𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥
B 𝜕𝑥
𝑥
121/303
6-3
 Fluid Kinematics (cont’d)
• Due to different velocities of each corner, fluid element will move and deform in a
small time elapse of 𝑑𝑡.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑦
C’
D’
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑣 B’ 𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 A’
𝜕𝑦

D C
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑣
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥
A B
𝑦
𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 122/303
6-4
 1) Translation
• Only the position of the fluid element changes. Its size, orientation and shape remain
the same.
• All corners are moving with the same 𝑢 and 𝑣 velocity.

𝑑𝑥
𝑦
D’ C’
𝑑𝑦
A’ B’

𝑣 𝑑𝑡 D C

A B 𝑥

𝑢 𝑑𝑡

123/303
6-5
 2) Linear Deformation
• Only the size of the fluid element changes. Its position, orientation and shape
remain the same.
• Corner A is fixed, because all its motion was previously considered in translation.
• Corner B moves in 𝑥 direction only and corner D moves in 𝑦 direction only.

𝜕𝑣 D C
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑦 D’ C’

B B’ 𝑥
A, A’
𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥
124/303
6-6
 2) Linear Deformation (cont’d)
• When we extend linear deformation to 3D, size changes in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• These values can be positive or negative.

• Size changes can also be expressed as linear strains as ‘‘Size change / Original size’’
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜀𝑥 = = 𝑑𝑡 , 𝜀𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡 , 𝜀𝑧 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧

• Comparison of initial and final volume of a 3D fluid element provides an important

quantity called dilation.
125/303
6-7
 2) Linear Deformation (cont’d)
• Initial volume of fluid element in 3D : ∀𝑖 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
• Final volume of fluid element :
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
∀𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
∀𝑓 ≈ 1 + + + 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Very small terms that 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
include products like
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 are neglected.

• Dilation is the rate of change of volume per initial volume Divergence of

the velocity field
∀𝑓 − ∀𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
Dilation = = + + = 𝛻∙𝑉
∀𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

126/303
6-8
 2) Linear Deformation (cont’d)
• Dilation (𝛻 ∙ 𝑉) is related to the compressibility of the flow.
• For incompressible flows dilation is zero, i.e. fluid element’s size can not change.

Incompressible → 𝛻∙𝑉 =0

Exercise : In the cylindrical coordinate system divergence of velocity is

1 𝜕 𝑟𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑧
𝛻∙𝑉 = + +
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑟
Repeat the dilation calculation of the previous slide for a
differential fluid element in cylindrical coordinate system 𝑟
and see if you can get the above result or not. 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝜃
127/303
6-9
 3 & 4) Rotation and Angular Deformation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥
• In translation and linear deformation, changes due to and are not considered.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
• These terms cause a combined rotation and angular deformation.
• In rotation only orientation of the fluid element changes.
• In angular deformation shape of the fluid element changes.

Rotation
𝜕𝑢 Rotation and 𝛼𝐴𝐵 − 𝛼𝐴𝐷
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 angular
𝜕𝑦 2
deformation
𝑦
𝛼𝐴𝐵 − 𝛼𝐴𝐷
2
C’
Angular
D D’ 𝛼𝐴𝐵 + 𝛼𝐴𝐷
C 𝜕𝑣 deformation
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2
B’ 𝜕𝑥
𝛼𝐴𝐷 𝛼𝐴𝐵 + 𝛼𝐴𝐷
𝛼𝐴𝐵
𝑥
A, A’ B 2
128/303
 3) & 4) Rotation and Angular Deformation
• Due to combined rotation and angular 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡
deformation, sides AB and AD will rotate as 𝜕𝑦
shown.
𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑣 D D’ C
tan 𝑑𝛼 ≈ 𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐵 = 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 B’
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
tan 𝑑𝛽 ≈ 𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐷 = = 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐷 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
B
A
• Angular speeds of sides AB and AD are 𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐵

𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐵 𝜕𝑣
𝜔𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐷 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝐴𝐷 =− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦
Line AD rotates CW if 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 is positive. But a
CW angular speed should be negative. Minus
sign is added for this purpose. 129/303
6-12
 3) Rotation
• Rate of rotation of fluid element ABCD 𝜔𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
about the 𝑧-axis is defined as the average C’
of the angular speeds of two mutually
perpendicular lines AB and AD. D’ D C

1 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = (𝜔𝐴𝐵 + 𝜔𝐴𝐷 ) = − B’
2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜔𝑧 A 𝜔𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
B

• For a 3D flow field angular speeds around 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes are defined in a similar way

1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜔𝑥 = − , 𝜔𝑦 = −
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

130/303
6-13
 3) Rotation (cont’d)
• Angular velocity vector is defined as

1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1
𝜔 = − 𝑖+ − 𝑗+ − 𝑘 = 𝛻×𝑉
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

Curl of velocity
• In cylindrical coordinate system

1 1 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕 𝑟𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑟

𝜔 = 𝛻×𝑉 = − 𝑖𝑟 + − 𝑖𝜃 + − 𝑖𝑧
2 2 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

• Vorticity of a flow field is defined as

𝜉 = 2𝜔 = 𝛻 × 𝑉

• For an irrotational flow vorticity (or angular velocity, or curl of velocity) is zero
everywhere in the flow field.
131/303
6-14
 4) Angular Deformation
• Angular deformation is related to the rate of 𝑑𝛼𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑦
change of the right angle between sides AB 2 C’
and AD, which is

𝑑𝛼𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝛼𝐴𝐷 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 D D’ C

= + = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

where 𝛼𝑥𝑦 is the shear strain in the 𝑥𝑦 plane.

B’
𝑑𝛼𝑥𝑦
A B 𝑑𝑥
• For a 3D flow field rate of shear strains in 𝑦𝑧 2
and 𝑥𝑧 planes can be defined in a similar way
𝑑𝛼𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝛼𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

132/303
6-15
 4) Angular Deformation (cont’d)
• Remember that for a Newtonian fluid shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear
strain. For a flow in the 𝑥𝑦 plane
𝑑𝛼𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜏𝑥𝑦 =𝜇 =𝜇 +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 This 2nd term was zero for the “flow between
parallel plates” example that was studied in Part
1. In a general flow field it is not necessarily zero.

• There is a direct link between shear stress and rotationality.

• Pressure or body forces can not rotate a fluid element.
• But shear forces can create rotation.
• Shear (viscous) forces are especially important close to solid boundaries.
• Away from the solid boundaries flow may be assumed irrotational.
• A totally irrotational flow is an idealization, which can not exist in real life. But it
is still a very useful assumption. Many aerodynamic studies are based on
irrotational theory. 133/303
6-16
 Differential Formulation of Continuity Equation
• Consider the following infinitesimal control volume, which has the mass flow rate per
area components of 𝜌𝑢, 𝜌𝑣 and 𝜌𝑤 at its center.
• Mass flow rates passing through the faces can be determined using first order TSE.

𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝑑𝑧
𝜌𝑤 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝑑𝑦 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝑑𝑦
𝜌𝑣 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝜌𝑣 𝜌𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝑦 2

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑧
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑦
𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝑑𝑧 𝑥
𝜌𝑤 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 2
134/303
6-19
 Continuity Equation (cont’d)
• Add all the mass fluxes through the faces to get net mass outflow per unit time
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
+ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• This net mass outflow rate should be balanced with the rate of change of mass with
the differential CV
𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝜌
= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

resulting in the continuity equation in differential form

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Rate of change of Net mass outflow

mass within the per unit time
differential CV
135/303
6-20
 Continuity Equation (cont’d)
𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝜕𝜌
+ + + =0 → + 𝛻 ∙ (𝜌𝑉) = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

• Opening up the dot product

𝜕𝜌
+ 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻𝜌 + 𝜌 𝛻∙𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑁 𝜕𝑁
( using = + 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻 𝑁 for density )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+𝜌 𝛻∙𝑉 =0 → +𝜌 + + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• For a steady flow, using the first boxed equation : 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑉 = 0

• For an incompressible flow, using the second boxed equation : 𝛻∙𝑉 =0

136/303
6-21
 Streamfunction (𝜑)
• Streamfunction is a mathematical tool that can be used to define a flow field using a
single scalar instead of multiple velocity components.
• It can be defined for ‘‘2D incompressible’’ or ‘‘2D steady’’ flows.
• Consider a 2D incompressible flow in the 𝑥𝑦 plane.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
• Continuity equation : 𝛻 ∙ 𝑉 = 0 → + =0 (for a flow in the 𝑥𝑦-plane)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

• Velocity field is defined by two components 𝑢 and 𝑣, but they are related via the
continuity equation.
• If we define a function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) as

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑢= , 𝑣=−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

continuity equation is automatically satisfied, i.e.

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2𝜑
+ = + − = − = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
137/303
6-23
 Euler’s Equation of Motion
• Euler’s equation is the differential form of linear momentum conservation for inviscid
flows.
• To derive it consider the pressure and body forces acting on a differential fluid
element. Pressure is 𝑝 at the element’s centroid.
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑧
𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝑝− 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2

𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑝
𝑝− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝑧
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝑏 𝑦
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑝+ 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑧
𝑝− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑏 is the body force
𝜕𝑧 2 per unit mass 138/303
6-26
 Euler’s Equation (cont’d)
• Sum of all the forces will accelerate the fluid element as follows

−𝛻𝑝 𝑑∀ + 𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑎

1 𝜕𝑉 1
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 − 𝛻𝑝 or + (𝑉 ∙ 𝛻)𝑉 = 𝑓𝑏 − 𝛻𝑝
𝜌 𝜕𝑡 𝜌

• Three components of the Euler’s equation in the Cartesian coordinate system are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑎𝑥 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑥 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑎𝑦 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑦 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑎𝑧 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑧 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧
139/303
6-27
 Use of Euler’s Equation for Fluids in Rigid Body Motion
• Consider a body of fluid that is in rigid body motion, i.e. it moves as if it is a solid
body with fluid particles having no relative motion with respect to each other.
• In such a case, fluid is free of shear stress.
• Two examples of this are fluids moving with constant linear acceleration and fluids
rotating around an axis with constant angular velocity.

Constant linear acceleration

𝑎
Liquid causes a tilted planar free
surface.

Liquid
𝜔
Stationary liquid Rotation at constant speed
with a horizontal causes a curved (parabolic)
free surface free surface.
Liquid
140/303
6-29
 Fluids in Rigid Body Motion (cont’d)
• For a fluid in rigid body motion, there are no viscous forces.
• It is under pressure and body forces, similar to a static fluid.
• But the difference is, now we have nonzero acceleration.
• Euler’s equation is valid for fluids in rigid body motion
1
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 − 𝛻𝑝
𝜌

• In the common case of body force being due to fluid’s weight : 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑔

1
𝑎 = 𝑔 − 𝛻𝑝
𝜌
This is zero for a static fluid. It is NOT zero
for a fluid accelerating as a rigid body.

• Nonzero acceleration will cause a change in pressure distribution.

141/303
6-30
 Fluids in Rigid Body Motion (cont’d)
1
𝑎 = 𝑔 − 𝛻𝑝
𝜌

For a static fluid For a fluid moving with For a fluid rotating at
constant linear acceleration constant speed
𝑎=0
𝑎 = constant 𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑟)
𝛻𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔
𝛻𝑝 = 𝜌(𝑔 − 𝑎) 𝛻𝑝 = 𝜌(𝑔 − 𝑎)

𝜔
𝑎
𝑔 𝛻𝑝 𝑔 𝑔
𝛻𝑝

Red lines are constant pressure

lines. 𝛻𝑝 is perpendicular to them.
142/303
6-31
 Navier-Stokes Equation
• Navier-Stokes equation is the differential form of linear momentum conservation for
viscous flows.
• Pressure, viscous and body forces need to be considered.

Note : Only 𝑥 components 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑧

of the surface forces are 𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥
shown for clarity. 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜏𝑦𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2

𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑧
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝑏
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑦
𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
𝜕𝑧 2
143/303
6-34
 Navier-Stokes Equation (cont’d)
• Add all the forces and substitute the sum into Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion.
• Express normal and viscous stresses in terms of pressure and velocity components.
• Skipping the details (you are NOT responsible for them), for a Newtonian fluid with
constant viscosity and constant density, we get

𝜕𝑉 1
𝑎 = + 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻 𝑉 = 𝑓𝑏 − 𝛻𝑝 + 𝜈 𝛻 2 𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜌

Euler’s Additional viscous term.

Equation 𝜈 = 𝜇/𝜌 : Kinematic viscosity
𝛻 2 : Laplace operator

• Navier-Stokes equation can also be written in terms of dynamic viscosity by multiplying

all the terms with density

𝜕𝑉
𝜌 + 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑓𝑏 − 𝛻𝑝 + 𝜇𝛻 2 𝑉
𝜕𝑡 144/303
6-35
 Navier-Stokes Equation (cont’d)
• Components in the Cartesian coordinate system are

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢

𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝜌𝑓𝑏 𝑥 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝜌𝑓𝑏 𝑦 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝜌𝑓𝑏 𝑧 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

• These equations can be solved analytically only for a few simple geometries and
boundary conditions. Sample solutions are given in the following slides.

Exercise : Find the three components of the Navier-Stokes equations in cylindrical

coordinate system from a fluid mechanics textbook and write them at the back of this
slide.

145/303
6-36
 Navier-Stokes Equation (cont’d)
• For a general 3D flow, unknown variables are three velocity components, pressure and
density, a total of 5 scalar unknowns.
• We need 5 scalar equations. They are the three components of the Navier-Stokes
equation, continuity equation and the energy equation (we have not studied
differential form of the energy equation).
• Energy equation brings a new unknown, temperature. We need a 6th equation, called
the equation of state which relates pressure, temperature and density.
• Now 6 equations for 6 unknowns can be solved, but it is practically impossible to get
analytical solutions of these equations, except for a few simple problems.

• Other than a limited number of simple flow fields, governing differential equations can
only be solved numerically using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques.

• In the coming slides analytical solutions of Navier-Stokes equations for some simple
flows are studied.
146/303
6-37
 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 7
Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
147/303
7-1
 Dimensional Analysis
• Consider that we are interested in determining how the drag force acting on a
smooth sphere immersed in a uniform flow depends on other fluid and flow
variables.
• Important varibles of the problem are shown below (How did we decide on these?).
𝑉
𝜇, 𝜌
𝐹𝐷
𝐷

• Drag force 𝐹𝐷 is thought to depend on the following variables.

𝐹𝐷 = 𝑓(𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌)
• In order to find the actual functional relation we need to perform a set of
experiments.
• Dimensional analysis helps us to design and perform these experiments in a
systematic way. 148/303
7-2
 Dimensional Analysis (cont’d)
• The following set of controlled experiments should be done.
• Fix 𝐷, 𝜇 and 𝜌. Change 𝑉 and measure 𝐹𝐷 .
• Fix 𝑉, 𝜇 and 𝜌. Change 𝐷 and measure 𝐹𝐷 .
• Fix 𝐷, 𝑉 and 𝜇 . Change 𝜌 and measure 𝐹𝐷 .
Note : These are only illustrative
• Fix 𝐷, 𝑉 and 𝜌. Change 𝜇 and measure 𝐹𝐷 . figures. They do not correspond to
any actual experimentation.

𝐹𝐷 Constant 𝐹𝐷 Constant 𝐹𝐷 Constant 𝐹𝐷 Constant

𝐷, 𝜇, 𝜌 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜇 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜌

𝑉 𝐷 𝜌 𝜇

• We need to perform too many experiments.

• Also there are major difficulties such as finding fluids with different densities, but
same viscosities.
149/303
7-3
 Dimensional Analysis (cont’d)
• It is possible to simplify the dependency of drag force on other variables by using
nondimensional (unitless) parameters.
𝐹𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
= 𝑓1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷 2 𝜇

Nondimensional Nondimensional
drag force Reynolds number (𝑅𝑒)

𝐹𝐷
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷 2 Illustrative figure

𝑅𝑒
Flow over a sphere at 𝑅𝑒 = 15000 150/303
7-4
 Dimensional Analysis (cont’d)
• To find this new relation, we only need to change the Reynolds number.
• We can do it in any way we want, e.g. the simplest way is to change the speed of air
flow in a wind tunnel.
• All 𝑅𝑒 = 15000 flows around a sphere will look like the same and they all provide
the same nondimensional drag force. It does not matter what fluid we use or how
big the sphere is (be aware of very extreme cases).

• Dimensional analysis is used to formulate a physical phenomenon as a relation

between a set of nondimensional (unitless) groups of variables such that the
number of these groups is less than the number of dimensional variables.
• It is important to develop a systematic and meaningful way to perform experiments.
• Nature of the experiments are simplified and the number of required experiments is
reduced.

151/303
7-5
 Buckingham Pi Theorem
• Buckingham Pi theorem can be used to determine the nondimensional groups of
variables (Pi groups) for a given set of dimensional variables.
• For the flow over a sphere problem studied previously, dimensional parameter set is
(𝐹𝐷 , 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌) and this theorem helps us to find two Pi groups as
𝐹𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
Π1 = and Π2 =
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷 2 𝜇

• Let’s explain how this works using “the drag force acting on a sphere” problem.
• Step 1 : List all the dimensional variables involved in the problem.
• 𝑛 is the number of dimensional variables. 𝑛 = 5 for our example.
• These variables should be independent of each other. For example if the diameter of
a sphere is in the list, frontal area of the sphere can not be included.
• If body forces are important in a problem, gravitational acceleration should be in the
list, although it is a constant.
152/303
7-6
 Buckingham Pi Theorem (cont’d)
• Step 2 : Express each of the variables in tems of basic dimensions, which are
𝐿 : length , 𝑇 : time , 𝑀 : mass
• For problems involving heat transfer Θ (temperature) can also be a basic dimension.
• For the example we are studying basic dimensions of variables are
𝑀𝐿 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀
[𝐹𝐷 ] =
𝑇2
, 𝐷 = 𝐿 , [𝑉] =
𝑇
, [𝜌] =
𝐿3
, [𝜇] =
𝐿𝑇

• Our example involves 𝑟 = 3 primary dimensions. For most fluid mechanics problems
𝑟 will be 3.

• Variables having only 𝐿 in their dimension are called geometric variables.

• Variables having only 𝑇 or both 𝐿 and 𝑇 are called kinematic variables.
• Variables having 𝑀 in their dimension are called dynamic variables.
• For our example 𝐷 is a geometric, 𝑉 is a kinematic and 𝐹𝐷 , 𝜇 and 𝜌 are dynamic
variables.
153/303
7-7
 Buckingham Pi Theorem (cont’d)
• Step 3: Determine the repeating variables that are allowed to appear in more than
one Pi group.
• There should be 𝑟 many repeating variables.
• If 𝐿 is a primary dimension of the problem, we should select one geometric variable
as a repeating variable.
• If 𝑇 is a primary dimension of the problem, we should select one kinematic variable
as a repeating variable.
• If 𝑀 is a primary dimension of the problem, we should select one dynamic variable
as a repeating variable.
• Note that this selection is not unique and the resulting Pi groups will depend on our
selection. Certain selections are ‘‘better’’ than others.
• For the problem of interest we can select 𝐷 , 𝑉 and 𝜌 as repeating variables.
• If there is an obvious dependent variable in the problem, do not select it as a
repeating variable. In our example 𝐹𝐷 is a dependent variable. We are trying to
understand how it depends on other variables. 154/303
7-8
 Buckingham Pi Theorem (cont’d)
• Step 4: Determine (𝑛 − 𝑟) many Pi groups by combining repeating variables with
nonrepeating variables and using the fact that Pi groups should be nondimensional.
• For our example we need to find 5 − 3 = 2 Pi groups. Each Pi group will include only
one of the nonrepating variables.

Π1 = 𝐹𝐷 𝐷 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
We need to determine
𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
A nonrepeating
parameter Unknown combination
of repeating parameters

𝑀𝐿 𝐿 𝑀 𝑐
• Π1 should be unitless : − = [𝐿]𝑎 [ ]𝑏
𝑇2 𝑇 𝐿3

Π1 should have no 𝐿 dimension : 0 = 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐

𝑎 = −2 𝐹𝐷
Π1 should have no 𝑇 dimension : 0 = −2 − 𝑏 𝑏 = −2 Π1 =
𝜌𝐷 2 𝑉 2
𝑐 = −1
Π1 should have no 𝑀 dimension : 0 = 1 + 𝑐 155/303
7-9
 Buckingham Pi Theorem (cont’d)
• Now determine the second Pi group which has 𝜇 as the nonrepeating variable.
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌 𝑐

𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑐
• Π2 should be unitless : − = [𝐿]𝑎 [ ]𝑏
𝐿𝑇 𝑇 𝐿3

Π2 should have no 𝐿 dimension : 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐

𝑎 = −1 𝜇
Π2 should have no 𝑇 dimension : 0 = −1 − 𝑏 𝑏 = −1 Π2 =
𝜌𝐷𝑉
𝑐 = −1
Π2 should have no 𝑀 dimension : 0 = 1 + 𝑐

• Therefore the relation of nondimensional groups that we are after is

𝐹𝐷 𝜇
Π1 = 𝑓1 Π2 → = 𝑓1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷 2 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝜌𝑉𝐷
• It is better to write the second Pi group as because it is the well known
𝜇
Reynolds number. 156/303
7-10
 Important Nondimensional Numbers of Fluid Mechanics
• Following nondimensional numbers frequently appear as a Pi group.
𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
• Reynolds number : 𝑅𝑒 = = . Ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces.
𝜇 𝜈
Δ𝑝
• Euler number : 𝐸𝑢 = 1 . Ratio of pressure forces to inertia forces.
2
𝜌𝑉 2
𝑉
• Froude number : 𝐹𝑟 = . Squareroot of the ratio of inertia forces to gravitational
𝑔𝐿
forces.
𝑉 𝑉
• Mach number : 𝑀𝑎 = = . Squareroot of the ratio of inertia forces to
𝐸𝑣 /𝜌 𝑐
compressibility forces.
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿
• Weber number : 𝑊𝑒 = . Squareroot of the ratio of inertia forces to surface
𝜎
tension forces.
𝜔𝐿
• Strouhal number : 𝑆𝑡 = . Used for flows with oscillatory (periodic) behavior.
𝑉
𝑝−𝑝𝑣
• Cavitation number : 𝐶𝑎 = 1 . Used for possibly cavitating flows.
2
𝜌𝑉 2
157/303
7-12
 Model and Prototype
• In experimental fluid mechanics we sometimes can not work with real sized objects,
known as prototypes.
• Instead we use scaled down (or up) versions of them, called models.
• Also sometimes in experiments we use fluids that are different than actual working
fluids, e.g. we use regular tap water instead of salty sea water to test the
performance of a marine propeller.

www.boeing.com www.reuters.com

Wind tunnel tests of an airliner Race car being tested in a water tunnel
http://www.reuters.com/news/video/story?videoId=131255095
158/303
7-13
 Three Basic Laws of Similitude
• A similitude analysis is done to make sure that the results obtained from an
experiment can correctly be transferred to the real flow field.
• Three basic laws of similitude must be satisfied in order to achieve complete
similarity between prototype and model flow fields.
1. Geometric similarity : Model and prototype must be the same in shape, but
can be different in size. All linear dimensions of the model be related to
corresponding dimensions of the prototype by a constant length ratio, 𝐿𝑟 .
• It is usually impossible to establish 100 % geometric similarity due to very small
details that can not be put into the model. Modeling surface roughness exactly
is also impossible.

𝐿𝑝 𝐷𝑝
𝐿𝑟 = = Model
Prototype 𝐿𝑚 𝐷𝑚
𝐷𝑝
𝐷𝑚
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑚
159/303
7-14
 Three Basic Laws of Similitude (cont’d)
2. Kinematic similarity : Model and prototype flow fields are kinematically similar if
the velocities at corresponding points are the same in direction and differ only by a
constant factor of velocity ratio, 𝑉𝑟 .
• This also means that the streamline patterns of two flow fields should differ by a
constant scale factor.

𝑉𝑝 𝐴 𝑉𝑝 𝐵
𝑉𝑟 = = Model
B 𝑉𝑚 𝐴 𝑉𝑚 𝐵
A B
A
Prototype

160/303
7-15
 Three Basic Laws of Similitude (cont’d)
3. Dynamic similarity : Two flow fields should have force distributions such that
identical types of forces are parallel and are related in magnitude by a constant factor
of force ratio.
• If a certain type of force, e.g. compressibility force, is highly dominant in the
prototype flow, it should also be dominant in the model flow.
• How suitable would it be to use a water tunnel to study the aerodynamic
forces acting on a supersonic missile ?
• If a certain type of force, e.g. surface tension force, is negligibly small in the
prototype flow, it should also be small in the model flow.
• How suitable should it be to use a very light and very small model to test
the forces acting on a ship ?

• To establish dynamic similarity we need to determine the important forces of the

prototype flow and make sure that the nondimensional numbers related to those
forces are the same in prototype and model flows.

161/303
7-16
 Similitude (cont’d)
• The important question is how to decide on the important force types for a given
problem? In other words equality of which nondimensional numbers should be
sought?
• Reynolds number similarity is important for almost all flows.
• Froude number similarity is important for flows with free surfaces, such as ship
resistance, open channel flows and for flows driven by the action of gravity.
• Euler number similarity is important mostly for turbomachinery flows with
considerable pressure changes, for which cavitation may be a concern.
• Mach number similarity is important for high speed flows.
• Weber number similarity is important for problems involving interfaces between
two fluids and low weight objects.
• Strouhal number similarity is important for flows with an oscillating (time
periodic) flow pattern, such as von Karman vortices shed from bodies.

162/303
7-18
 ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 8
Viscous Flow in Pipes and Ducts

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
163/303
8-1
 Flow in Pipes and Ducts
• Flow in closed conduits (circular pipes and non-circular ducts) are common in
heating and cooling applications and fluid distribution networks.

164/303
8-2
 Flow in Pipes and Ducts (cont’d)
• We assume that pipes/ducts are completely filled with fluid. Other case is known as
open channel flow.
• Typical systems involve pipes/ducts of various sizes connected to each other by
various fittings, elbows, tees, etc.
• Valves are used to control flow rate.
• Fluid is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump.
• We need to perform frictional head loss (pressure drop)
calculations. They mostly depend on experimental results
and empirical relations.
• First we need to be able to differentiate
between laminar and turbulent flows.

165/303
8-3
 Laminar vs. Turbulent Flows
• Laminar flow is characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion.
Fluid flows as if there are immiscible layers of fluid.
• Turbulent flow is highly disordered. There are usually unsteady, random fluctuations
on top of a mean flow.
• Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flows occur in small pipes
(tubes) and with viscous fluids.
Movies
Laminar
Reynolds Experiment

Pipe 𝐷
Transitional
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 Laminar vs. Turbulent
𝜈
Velocity Profiles
Turbulent
𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝜈 𝜇
166/303
8-4
 Laminar vs. Turbulent Flows (cont’d)
• For pipe flow transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a critical Reynolds
number of 2300.
𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 2300 : Laminar Characteristic
velocity
𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 2300 : Turbulent
Characteristic
length
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2 𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜇𝑉𝐿 𝜇

• At large Reynolds numbers inertial forces, which are proportional to fluid’s density
and square of its velocity, is large relative to viscous forces. Viscous forces can not
regularize random fluctuations.
• At small Reynolds numbers viscous forces are high enough to suppress random
fluctuations and keep the flow in order.

Exercise : Estimate the typical range of Reynolds numbers of the flow inside the pipe
that supplies water to your shower.
167/303
8-5
 Pressure Loss (Pressure Drop, Head Loss) in Pipe Flow
• As a fluid flows in a straight, constant diameter pipe its pressure drops due to
viscous affects, known as major pressure loss.
• Additional pressure drops occur due to other components such as valves, bends,
tees, sudden expansions, sudden contractions, etc. These are known as minor
pressure losses.
• In Chapter 5 we studied analytical solution of Hagen-Poiseuille flow, which is the
steady, fully-developed, laminar flow in a circular pipe.
• Rate of pressure drop for this flow is shown to be constant. Pressure drop over a
pipe section of length 𝐿 is given by

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
Δ𝑝 = 𝑓
𝐷 2

Darcy friction Dynamic

factor pressure

where 𝑓 = 64/𝑅𝑒𝐷 for laminar flow.

168/303
8-6
 Major Pressure Loss in Laminar Pipe Flow
1 2
𝐿

flow 𝐷

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
Δ𝑝 = 𝑓
𝐷 2

• Consider the EBE between sections 1 and 2.

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

• Friction head is related to the pressure drop as

Δ𝑝 𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = = 𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔

• The above equation is known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation.

169/303
8-7
 Major Pressure Loss in Turbulent Pipe Flow
• Analytical solution of Hagen-Poiseuille flow is valid for laminar flows.
• It is not possible to solve Navier-Stokes equations analytically for turbulent flows.
• Instead we need to determine pressure drop values experimentally.
• For a turbulent pipe flow pressure drop depends on

Δ𝑝 = Δ𝑝 𝐿, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌

New parameter :
Surface roughness
• A Buckingham-Pi analysis yields the following relation
Δ𝑝 𝐿 𝜀
=𝐹 , 𝑅𝑒,
𝜌𝑉 2 /2 𝐷 𝐷

𝜀 𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
which is usually expressed as Δ𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑅𝑒,
𝐷 𝐷 2

170/303
8-8
 Major Pressure Loss in Turbulent Pipe Flow (cont’d)
• For turbulent pipe flows friction factor is a function of Reynolds number and relative
surface roughness.
𝜀
𝑓 𝑅𝑒,
𝐷
Relative surface
roughness

• In 1933 Nikuradse performed very detailed experiments to determine friction factor

for turbulent flows.
• Later Colebrook presented this experimental data as the following equation

1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
Colebrook Formula ∶ = −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 𝑓

• This equation is nothing but a fit to the following Moody diagram.

• Be careful in reading the logarithmic horizontal and vertical scales of the Moody
diagram.
171/303
8-9
 Moody Diagram to Read Friction Factor for Pipe Flows
0.1
Wholly
0.08 turbulent flow
0.05
0.06 0.03
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.006
0.03
𝑓 𝜀/𝐷
0.025
0.002
0.02 0.001
Laminar
flow 0.0004
0.015
Smooth
Critical 0.0001
range
0.01

0.00001
103 104 105 𝑅𝑒𝐷 106 107 108 172/303
8-10
 Moody Diagram (cont’d)
• To use the Moody diagram first we read the roughness of the pipe of interest from a
table. For example for a cast iron pipe it is 0.26 mm.
• Than we calculate the relative roughness and Reynolds number and read the friction
factor value.
• 𝑓 = 64/𝑅𝑒𝐷 relation for laminar flows appears in the Moody diagram as a straight
line.
• Even for very smooth pipes (𝜀 = 0) friction factor is not zero due to the no slip BC.
• For high 𝑅𝑒𝐷 values 𝑓 becomes independent of 𝑅𝑒𝐷 . This region is known as wholly
turbulent flow.
• For pipes which are in service for a long time,
roughness values given in tables for smooth pipes
should be used with caution.

173/303
8-11
 Minor Head Losses
• Pressure drop due to the flow through valves, bends, tees, sudden area changes,
etc. are known as minor pressure drops.
• Relates minor frictional head losses can be calculated as
𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑘
2𝑔
Head loss
coefficient
• Head loss coefficient is usually obtained from a figure or table, similar to the ones
given in the handout.
• For certain piping system elements minor losses are given in terms of a equivalent
length
𝐿𝑒 𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
where 𝐿𝑒 is the length of a straight pipe section that would create a major loss equal
to the minor loss created by the element.
174/303
8-12
 ME 306 Fluid Mechanics II

Part 1
Irrotational Flow

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
175/303
1-1
 Inviscid Flow
• Shearing stress in a fluid motion is related to viscosity and velocity gradient.
• All real fluids have a certain nonzero viscosity.
• But there may be regions in a flow field where change in velocity and therefore
shear stress is negligibly small.
• These regions are usually away from the solid walls (outside boundary layers).
• In these regions flow may be treated to be inviscid (frictionless).

Reference: Munson, Young, Okiiishi

176/303
1-2
 Inviscid Flow (cont’d)
• For an inviscid flow Navier-Stokes equation reduces to Euler’s equation.
• Further it is possible to use Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline.
• However, considering a flow field to be totally inviscid may result in unrealistic
results.
• For example, a body immersed in a uniform, inviscid flow will not experience any
drag force, which contraditcs with experiments (d’Alambert’s paradox).

• An inviscid flow disregards the no slip boundary

condition and therefore no boundary layer can
develop over the body.
• Also the separation and the wake behind the
body can not be predicted by considering the
whole flow field to be inviscid.
Boundary layer separation
over a body is the result of
viscous action.

177/303
1-3
 Inviscid Flow and Rotation
• For an inviscid flow there are no shearing forces.
• Only pressure and body forces act on a fluid element, neither of which can cause
the element to rotate.
• Although there are other ways to make a flow rotational (such as going through a
shock wave in compressible flow), viscous action is by far the most common one.
• Therefore in an inviscid flow, fluid elements originating from an irrotational region
will not posses any rotation.

In an inviscid flow a fluid element

that originates from an irrotational
flow region will remain irrotational.

Irrotational,
uniform
upstream
flow

178/303
1-4
 Irrotational Flow
• In this chapter we’ll study flow fields that are irrotational everywhere.
• This automatically tells that these flow fields are also inviscid everywhere.
• Although a completely irrotational flow field is not realistic, studying irrotational
flows is useful because
• real world flows contain large irrotational regions away from solid surfaces.
• they have very simple mathematics and can be studied analytically.
• they show us the importance of boundary layers, viscous forces and related
physics.
• they provide very valuable insight such as the generation of lift force by a
wing.

179/303
1-5
 Vorticity
• In ME 305 we studied vorticity to be a kinematic property of a flow field, which is
related to the angular velocity (rotationality) of fluid particles.

𝜉 = 2𝜔 = 𝛻 × 𝑉

Vorticity Angular velocity Curl of velocity

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Cartesian : 𝜉= − 𝑖+ − 𝑗+ − 𝑘
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Cylindrical : 1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝑧 1 𝜕 𝑟𝑉𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟

𝜉= − 𝑖 + − 𝑖 + − 𝑖
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑧

• For an irrotational flow angular velocity,vorticity and curl of velocity are all zero.
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1-6
 Circulation (Γ)
• Circulation is the line integral of a velocity field around a closed curve and it is
closely related to the rotationality of the flow.

𝑦 Closed
curve 𝐶 Γ= 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 [𝑚2 /𝑠]
𝐶
𝑑𝑠

𝑉 Differential vector
along the path of
Closed path of integration
integration

𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗
• For the 2D planar flow in the 𝑥𝑦
Γ= (𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦)
plane shown above 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 𝐶

181/303
1-8
 Relation Between Circulation and Vorticity
• Using Stokes’ theorem (studied in ME 210) line integral of circulation can be
transformed into a surface integral.

Γ= 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝛻 × 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶 𝐴 𝐴

Unit normal vector

of 𝐴 (not 𝐶)

𝑦 Closed • For the 2D flow in the 𝑥𝑦 plane

curve 𝐶
Γ= 𝜉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 (𝑛 = 𝑘)
𝐴

𝐴 Γ= 𝜉𝑧 𝑑𝐴
𝐴

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Γ= − 𝑑𝐴
𝑥 𝐴 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
182/303
1-9
 Velocity Potential (𝜙)
• For an irrotational flow : 𝛻 × 𝑉 = 0
• As studied in ME 210, curl of the gradient of any scalar function is zero.
𝛻 × 𝛻𝜙 = 0

• Using these two equations we can define a velocity potential function as

𝑉 = +𝛻𝜙
Some books use a minus sign so that 𝜙
decreases in the flow direction, similar to A scalar function called
temperature decreasing in the heat flow velocity potential
direction. But we use plus in this course.

• In an irrotational flow field, velocity vector can be expressed as the gradient of a

scalar function called the velocity potential.
• Due to the possibility of defining a velocity potential function, irrotational flows
are also called potential flows.
183/303
1-12
 Velocity Potential (cont’d)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
• For a 2D flow in the 𝑥𝑦 plane : 𝑉 = 𝛻𝜙 → 𝑢= , 𝑣=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙
• For a 2D flow in the 𝑟𝜃 plane : 𝑉 = 𝛻𝜙 → 𝑉𝑟 = , 𝑉𝜃 =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

• If the irrotational flow is also incompressible (In ME 306 we’ll NOT study
compressible potential flows)
Continuity Equation : 𝛻⋅𝑉 =0
𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜙 = 0
𝛻2𝜙 = 0

𝛻 2 : Laplace’s operator

• For an incompressible and irrotational flow velocity potential satisfies the

Laplace’s equation.
184/303
1-13
 Velocity Potential (cont’d)
𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙
In the 𝑥𝑦 plane : + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
• 𝛻2𝜙 = 0
1 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕2 𝜙
In the 𝑟𝜃 plane : 𝑟 + =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
Streamfunction

• Note that the relation between 𝑉 and 𝜙 is similar to that of 𝑉 and 𝜓.

Cauchy Riemann Equations

In the 𝑥𝑦 plane In the 𝑟𝜃 plane

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= 𝑣= 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝜃 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= 𝑣=− 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
185/303
1-14
 Bernoulli’s Equation for Incompressible Potential Flow
Incompressible and Potential Flow

Solve Laplace’s equation for the velocity potential.

Obtain velocity field using 𝑉 = 𝛻𝜙

Obtain pressure distribution using Bernoulli’s equation

Exercise : Show that for an incompressible potential flow BE is valid between any
two points of the flow field, not necessarily two point on the same streamline

1 2 𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
1 and 2 : + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
3
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝3 𝑉32
1 and 3 : + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧3
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 186/303
1-16
 Superposition of Elementary Potential Flows
• Laplace’s equation is a linear PDE.
• Superposition can be applied to both velocity potential and streamfunction.

Potential flow 1 Potential flow 2 Potential flow 3

+ =

• 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 = 𝜙3 , 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 = 𝜓3 , 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

• To obtain complicated flow fields we can combine elementary ones such as

• Uniform flow
• Source/sink
• Vortex
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1-17
 1. Uniform Flow
• Consider uniform flow in the 𝑥𝑦 plane parallel to the 𝑥 axis, in +𝑥 direction.
𝑢=𝑈 , 𝑣=0
• Let’s find the equation for velocity potential.
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= → 𝑈= → 𝜙 = 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝑑𝑓
𝑣= → 0= → =0 → 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦

• Taking 𝑓 = 0 for simplicity potential function turns out to be

𝜙 = 𝑈𝑥
• Constant 𝜙 lines correspond to constant 𝑥 lines, i.e. lines parallel to the 𝑦 axis.

Exercise : For this flow show that streamfunction equation is 𝜓 = 𝑈𝑦

188/303
1-18
 1. Uniform Flow (cont’d)
• Constant 𝜙 and constant 𝜓 lines are shown below.

𝑦
𝑥

𝜓 = 𝜓1
𝜓 = 𝜓0
𝜙 = 𝜙0
𝜙 = 𝜙1

Exercise : Find the equations for 𝜙 and 𝜓 for uniform flow in a direction making an
angle of 𝛽 with the +𝑥 axis.
189/303
1-19
 2. Line Source at the Origin
• Consider the 2D flow emerging at the origin of the 𝑥𝑦 plane and going radially
outward in all directions with a total flow rate per depth of 𝑞.

View from the top

𝑦
Streamlines

𝑞 : Source strength
Constant
𝜙 lines
• Velocity components are
𝑞
𝑉𝑟 = , 𝑉𝜃 = 0
2𝜋𝑟

• 𝑉𝑟 decreases as 𝑟 increases in accordance to the continuity equation.

190/303
1-20
 2. Line Source (cont’d)
• Let’s find the equation for velocity potential.
𝜕𝜙 𝑞 𝜕𝜙 𝑞
𝑉𝑟 = → = → 𝜙= ln(𝑟) + 𝑓(𝜃)
𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2𝜋

1 𝜕𝜙 1 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
𝑉𝜃 = → 0= → =0 → 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

• Taking 𝑓 = 0 for simplicity

𝑞
𝜙= ln(𝑟)
2𝜋
• Constant 𝜙 lines correspond to constant 𝑟 lines as shown in the previous slide.
𝑞
Exercise : Show that for a line source streamfunction equation is 𝜓 = 𝜃
2𝜋

Exercise : For a line source calculate the vorticity for a circular path around the
origin with radius 𝑅 and also for a square path with one side being equal to 𝐿.
191/303
1-21
 2. Line Source (cont’d)
• Consider a line source that is located NOT at the origin, but at a point A as shown
below
• Equations for 𝜙 and 𝜓 change slightly as
𝑞 𝑦
𝜙= ln 𝑟1
2𝜋
𝑟1
𝑞
𝜓= 𝜃
2𝜋 1 Source 𝜃1
𝑏 A
or equivalently using 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates
𝑞 𝑥
𝑎
𝜙= ln 𝑥−𝑎 2+ 𝑦−𝑏 2
2𝜋
𝑞 𝑦−𝑏
𝜓= arctan
2𝜋 𝑥−𝑎

• To study a line sink for which the flow is radially inward towards a point, we
simply use a negative 𝑞 value.
192/303
1-22
 3. Irrotational Vortex
• For an irrotational vortex located at the origin of the 𝑥𝑦 plane, origin is a singular
point.
• The flow field is irrotational except the origin. Circulation around any path that
does not enclose the origin is zero.
• We consider that all the circulation is squeezed into the origin.
• Velocity components are
𝐾
𝑉𝜃 = , 𝑉𝑟 = 0
𝑟
• In slide 1-11 we showed that for a path enclosing the origin, circulation is

Γ = 2𝜋𝐾

which is known as the strength of the vortex.

• Direction of the vortex is determined as Γ > 0 : CCW rotating vortex

Γ < 0 : CW rotating vortex 193/303
1-23
 3. Irrotational Vortex (cont’d)
• Using the given velocity components and the Cauchy-Riemann equations one can
determine
Γ Γ
𝜙= 𝜃 , 𝜓=− ln(𝑟)
2𝜋 2𝜋

𝑦
Streamlines

𝑥
Constant
𝜙 lines

194/303
1-24
 Superposition of a Source and Uniform Flow
(Flow Past a Half Body)
• Consider a source of strength 𝑞 at the origin and a uniform flow in +𝑥 direction.
𝑞 𝑞
𝑦 2𝜋𝑟 𝑈𝑖 + cos(𝜃)𝑖 +sin(𝜃)𝑗
𝑈 2𝜋𝑟
𝑈
𝜃 𝑥
𝑞

𝑞
• 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑈𝑥 + ln(𝑟)
2𝜋
where
𝑞
• 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑈𝑦 + 𝜃 𝑟= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜃 = arctan
𝑦
2𝜋 𝑥

𝑞 or
• 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑖 + cos(𝜃)𝑖
+sin(𝜃)𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
𝑞 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos(𝜃) , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin(𝜃)
= 𝑈+ cos(𝜃) 𝑖 + sin(𝜃)𝑗
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 195/303
1-26
 Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
• We expect to have a stagnation point with zero velocity on the negative part of
the 𝑥 axis.
𝑈 𝑦

𝑉𝑆, 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑆, 𝑢𝑛𝑖

𝑥
𝑆 Source
(𝑞)
𝑟𝑆 = ?

• At point 𝑆 velocity is zero : 𝑉𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝑉𝑆 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 0

𝑞 𝑞
𝑈𝑖 − 𝑖=0 → 𝑟𝑆 =
2𝜋𝑟𝑆 2𝜋𝑈

196/303
1-27
 Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
• Streamline passing through point 𝑆 is called the stagnation streamline.
• Value of the streamfunction of this stagnation streamline is
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝜓𝑆 = 𝑈𝑦𝑆 + 𝜃𝑆 = 0 + 𝜋 =
2𝜋 2𝜋 2
From slide 1-25

𝑞 𝑞
• Equation of the stagnation streamline is 𝑈𝑦 + 𝜃 =
2𝜋 2

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜃 = arctan
𝑥

𝑦
𝑈

Stagnation
𝑥
𝑆 𝑞 streamline

197/303
1-28
 Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
𝑦

𝑈 Movie
Flow Over Half Body

𝑥
𝑆 𝑞

• Flow outside the stagnation streamline resembles a flow over an body with a
blunt nose.
• Equation of the half body is given by the equation of the stagnation streamline.

198/303
1-29
 A Source and a Sink in Uniform Flow
(Flow Past a Rankine oval)
• Superposition of 𝑦
𝑈
• a source of strength 𝑞 at 𝑥 = −𝑐,
• a sink of strength −𝑞 at 𝑥 = 𝑐 and
𝑥
• uniform flow of magnitude 𝑈
in +𝑥 direction.
𝑐 𝑐

𝑞 𝑞
• 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑠𝑜𝑢 + 𝜙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 𝑈𝑥 + ln 𝑟1 − ln(𝑟2 ) 𝑦
2𝜋 2𝜋
A
𝑞 𝑞
• 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑠𝑜𝑢 + 𝜓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 𝑈𝑦 + 𝜃 − 𝜃 𝑟1
2𝜋 1 2𝜋 2 𝑟2
𝜃1
𝜃2
𝑞 𝑞
𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑖 𝑐
2𝜋𝑟1 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟2 𝑟

199/303
1-31
 Flow Past a Rankine oval (cont’d)
𝑦

𝑐 𝑐
𝑥
𝑞 −𝑞

Exercise : For 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑈 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝑞 = 10 𝑚2 𝑠 and 𝑐 = 0.5 𝑚

a) Determine the equation of the upper part of the half body and plot it.
b) Calculate the pressure distribution on the body for 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋 and plot
𝑝 vs 𝜃. Take the pressure away from the origin to be 𝑝∞ = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
c) Calculate the fluid speed on the body for 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋 and plot 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 vs 𝜃.
200/303
1-32
 Doublet
• Superposition of
• a source of strength 𝑞 at the orgin (moved from – 𝑥 axis to the origin),
• a sink of strength −𝑞 at the origin (moved from +𝑥 axis to the origin) ,
• Consider the limiting case of the source and sink of Slide 1-31 approaching to the
origin. Skipping the details we can get
𝑑 𝑑
𝜙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 = cos 𝜃 , 𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 =− sin 𝜃
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

where 𝑑 is the strength of the doublet, which is related to 𝑞.

𝑦
• Velocity field is given by Streamlines

𝜕𝜙 𝑑 Constant 𝜙 lines
𝑉𝑟 = =− cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑥
1 𝜕𝜙 𝑑
𝑉𝜃 = =− sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2𝜋𝑟 2
201/303
1-34
 A Doublet in Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Cylinder)
• Superposition of
• a doublet of strength 𝑑 at the origin with its axis aligned with the 𝑥 axis.
• uniform flow of magnitude 𝑈 in +𝑥 direction.

𝑦
𝑈

𝑥
𝑑

𝑑
• 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑈𝑥 + cos(𝜃)
2𝜋𝑟

𝑑
• 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑈𝑦 − sin(𝜃)
2𝜋𝑟

202/303
1-35
 Flow Past a Rotating Cylinder
• Superposition of
• a doublet of strength 𝑑 at the origin
• CCW rotating irrotational vortex of strength Γ at the origin
• uniform flow of magnitude 𝑈

• This will result in

𝑑 Γ
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑈𝑥 + cos 𝜃 + 𝜃
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
𝑑 Γ
𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝜓𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑈𝑦 − sin 𝜃 − ln 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋

203/303
1-37
 Flow Past a Rotating Cylinder (cont’d)
𝑦
𝑈

𝑑
𝑥
Γ

Exercise : For the flow shown above, obtain the velocity components in the
cylindrical coordinate system. Show that pressure distribution over a rotating
cyliner of radius 𝑅 is
2
𝜌𝑈 2 2
2Γ Γ
𝑝 = 𝑝∞ + 1 − 4 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 −
2 𝜋𝑈𝑅 2𝜋𝑈𝑅

which results in zero drag force and a downward lift force of

𝐹𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 = −𝜌Γ𝑈 𝑗 204/303

1-38
 Magnus Effect (Kutta-Joukowski Theorem)
• A rotating cylinder in a uniform flow will have a net lift force on it.
• Direction of the lift force depends on the direction of 𝑈 and Γ.

TOP
Low velocity
𝜌Γ𝑈
High pressure
𝑈 𝑈
Γ Γ

BOTTOM
High velocity
𝜌Γ𝑈
Low pressure

𝜌Γ𝑈

𝑈 Γ
𝑈
Γ

𝜌Γ𝑈 205/303
1-39
 Kutta Condition (Lift on an Airfoil)
• Magnus effect applies not only to cylinders but any closed shape.
• Consider the flow over a slender body with a sharp trailing edge, such as an
airfoil.
• An airfoil is designed to generate high lift force.

𝑠1
𝑠2

• There are two stagnation points, 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 .

• Experiments show that the streamlines leave the trailing edge smoothly as shown
above, known as the Kutta condition.
206/303
1-42
 Lift on an Airfoil (cont’d)
• Potential flow theory will predict an
unphysical location for point 𝑠2 . 𝑠2
• It is impossible for streamlines to make 𝑠1
such a sharp turn at the trailing edge.

• If we add the correct amount of CW vortex to this flow field we can bring point 𝑠2
down to the trailing edge and obtain the correct streamline pattern of the
previous slide.

+ Γ
=

• The amount of vortex necessary (Γ) can be used to calculate the lift force
generated on the airfoil.
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝜌 Γ 𝑈 207/303
1-43
 ME 306 Fluid Mechanics II

Part 2
Viscous Flow over Immersed Bodies

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
208/303
2-1
 Boundary Layer (BL) Concept

Inviscid flow over a flat plate Viscous flow over a flat plate
𝑈
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈

Freestream Boundary
𝑈 velocity layers
𝑈

• In 1904 Ludwig Prandtl proposed the concept of boundary layer (BL).

• BLs are the regions where viscous effects are dominant. They are usually close to
solid surfaces or in the wake of bodies immersed in a free stream.
• Outside the BLs velocity gradients are low and the flow can be treated as inviscid
(frictionless).
209/303
2-2
 BL and Reynolds Number (𝑅𝑒)
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜌𝐿2 𝑈 2 𝜌𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝐿 = = = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜇𝑈𝐿 𝜇 𝜐

High 𝑅𝑒 flow Low 𝑅𝑒 flow

• Inertia forces are dominant over a • Viscous forces can be felt over a
large portion of the flow field. broader region.
• BLs are thin. • BLs are thick.

High 𝑅𝑒
Low 𝑅𝑒

𝐿 210/303
2-3
 BL and Reynolds Number (cont’d)
• For blunt (not streamlined) bodies, like a cylinder, formation of wake region and
BL separation depend on 𝑅𝑒.
Edge of the BL

𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 0.1 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 50

• Fluid inertia is too high to follow
• Viscous effects are important over a very large the contour of the cylinder.
domain. It is not proper to talk about a BL. • Separation occurs at point A.
• Streamlines are similar to those of potential Circulation bubble forms behind.
flow.

• BL is very thin and attached at

the front.
Wake • BL separates at the rear side.
• There is a large wake region
behind.
211/303
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 105 2-4
 BL over a Flat Plate
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈

Laminar BL Transition Turbulent BL

• As the BL grows, small disturbances in the flow also grow.

• At some point they can no longer be damped by the viscous action and transition
to turbulence takes place.
• Growth rate of turbulent BL is larger than that of laminar BL.
• In a turbulent BL, due to enhanced mixing, fluid with high momentum comes
closer to the flat plate. Velocity gradient and therefore shear stress at the plate
becomes higher compared to those of laminar BL. 212/303
2-6
 BL over a Flat Plate (cont’d)

Laminar BL Transition Turbulent BL

• Transition to turbulence can be checked with the local Reynolds number

𝑈𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑥 =
𝜈
• Critical 𝑅𝑒𝑥 for transition to turbulence on a flat plate is accepted to be 5 × 105 .
• Factors that affect turbulence transition are
• initial intensity of upstream turbulence
• roughness of the plate
• condition (sharpness, smoothness) of the leading edge
• flow unsteadiness
• any other disturbances such as vibrations, acoustic noise, etc. 213/303
2-7
 BL Thickness (𝛿)
𝑈 𝑈

0.99 𝑈

𝑥 0.99 𝑈
𝛿
𝛿

• BL thickness (𝛿) is the distance from the plate where the velocity reaches to 99 % of
the free stream velocity 𝑈.
• 𝛿 is a function of 𝑥. It increases with 𝑥.

Exercise : By considering a proper control volume inside the BL, show that the
dashed line denoting the edge of the BL is NOT a streamline. Draw streamlines on
the figure given above.
214/303
2-8
 BL Displacement Thickness (𝛿 ∗ )
• 𝛿 ∗ is the distance a solid surface should be imaginarily moved in an inviscid flow so
that the created mass flux loss is equal to that caused inside the BL of the
corresponding viscous flow.
𝑈 𝑈

𝑦 𝑢(𝑦) 𝛿 Surface is displaced

𝛿∗ imaginarily by 𝛿 ∗

𝛿
𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 𝜌 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑤 𝑑𝑦 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑈 𝛿 ∗ 𝑤
𝑦=0 Constant
width of
𝛿
𝑢 the surface
𝛿∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑈 215/303
2-9
 BL Momentum Thickness (𝜃)
• 𝜃 is the distance a solid surface should be imaginarily moved in an inviscid flow so
that the created momentum flux loss is equal to that caused inside the BL of the
corresponding viscous flow.
𝑈 𝑈

𝑦 𝑢(𝑦) 𝛿 Surface is displaced

𝜃 imaginarily by 𝜃

𝛿
momentum loss ≈ 𝜌𝑢 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑤 𝑑𝑦 momentum loss = 𝜌 𝑈 2 𝜃 𝑤
𝑦=0

𝛿
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃= 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑈 𝑈 216/303
2-12
 Prandtl’s BL Equations
• Consider steady, incompressible flow over a wide flat plate.
• Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations are

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Continuity ∶ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝑥 Navier−Stokes ∶ 𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝑦 Navier−Stokes ∶ 𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

• In 1904 Prandtl simplified these equations inside a BL using assumptions such as

(See the handout for details)
• 𝑅𝑒 number is high (𝑅𝑒𝐿 ≫ 1)
• BL is very thin 𝛿 ≪ 𝐿
• Vertical velocities are small (𝑣 ≪ 𝑢)
217/303
2-13
 Prandtl’s BL Equations (cont’d)
• Inside the BL continuity equation does not change.
• But the Navier-Stokes equations simplify as follows
small
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝑥 N−S ∶ 𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 2
+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
small small small small
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝑦 N−S ∶ 𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 2
+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

• Second equation says ‘‘Inside the BL pressure does not change in the 𝑦 direction’’.

• Therefore 𝑦 component of N-S drops.

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• Prandtl’s simplified BL equations are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑝 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦
218/303
2-14
 Pressure Change Inside a BL
• Pressure across the BL is constant (pressure does not change in the 𝑦 direction).
• In the BL, variation of 𝑝 in the 𝑥 direction depends on the outside inviscid flow.

𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑑𝑒
depends on 𝑈

𝑦 Pressure is
constant in 𝑦
𝑥

• If the freestream velocity (𝑈) outside the BL is constant

• BE for the outside flow tells that outside pressure is also constant.
• Pressure inside the BL is also constant. It is not a variable anymore.
• Inside the BL there is a balance of inertia and viscous forces.
• If the freestream velocity (𝑈) outside the BL changes in 𝑥 direction
• Pressure outside and inside the BL will also change in the 𝑥 direction.
219/303
2-15
 Pressure Change Inside a BL (cont’d)

Flat Plate Diverging Duct

𝑈 is constant 𝑈 is decreasing
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 is constant 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 is increasing
𝑝 inside the BL is constant 𝑝 inside the BL is increasing in
the 𝑥 direction
Inside the BL 𝑝 is still constant in
the 𝑦 direction
𝑦
𝑝 = constant
𝑥

𝑈 is decreasing
𝑦
𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑥)

𝑥
220/303
2-16
 Blasius’ Exact Solution of BL over a Flat Plate
• In 1908 Blasius, a student of Prandtl, obtained the analytical solution of the following
BL equations for a flat plate with zero pressure gradient.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 No pressure term

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

• He used the following boundary conditions

• At 𝑦 = 0 : 𝑢 = 0
• At 𝑦 = 0 : 𝑣 = 0
• As 𝑦 → ∞ : 𝑢 → 𝑈

• Blasius’ solution is valid for laminar flow over a flat plate with no pressure gradient.

• The solution is based on a similarity transformation. You are NOT responsible for its
details.
221/303
2-17
 Blasius’ Exact Solution (cont’d)
• Blasius cleverly used the fact that velocity profiles at all 𝑥 sections are similar if
proper nondimensional parameters are used.
𝑈
𝑈
𝑢1 (𝑦) 𝑢2 (𝑦)

𝜂 𝑢 reaches to 99 % of 𝑈
always at 𝜂 = 5.
Nondimensional 𝑦
5

𝑦
𝜂= 𝜈𝑥
is the nondimensional Nondimensional 𝑢
𝑈
similarity parameter 𝑢/𝑈
1 222/303
2-18
 Blasius’ Exact Solution (cont’d)
• Today it is possible to repeat Blasius’ similarity solution using numerical methods
and obtain tabulated results instead of closed form equations.

𝐺 𝑑𝐺 𝑢 𝑑2𝐺 1 𝑑𝐺
𝜂 = 𝑦 𝑈 (𝜈𝑥) = 𝜂 −𝐺
𝑑𝜂 𝑈 𝑑𝜂2 2 𝑑𝜂
Plate surface
(𝑦 = 0) 0.0 0.00000 0.00000 0.3321 0.00000
0.2 0.00664 0.06641 0.33198 0.00332
0.4 0.02656 0.13276 0.33147 0.01317
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
Edge of the BL
(𝑦 = 𝛿) 5.0 3.28327 0.99154 0.01591 0.8280
(Details of the above table are not important for ME 306)

where 𝐺 is a parameter Blasius used in his solution.

223/303
2-19
 Blasius’ Exact Solution (cont’d)
• 𝑢 approaches to 99 % of 𝑈 at 𝜂 = 5.
• In other words when 𝜂 becomes 5, 𝑦 becomes 𝛿.
• Using the definition of 𝜂, BL thickness at any 𝑥 location becomes

𝑈 𝑈 𝜈𝑥
𝜂=𝑦 → 5=𝛿 → 𝛿=5
𝜈𝑥 𝜈𝑥 𝑈

𝛿 grows with 𝑥
𝛿2
𝛿1

𝑥
𝑈𝑥
• Using local Reynolds number definition, 𝑅𝑒𝑥 =
𝜈

5𝑥 Most important result of

𝛿=
𝑅𝑒𝑥 Blasius’ solution 224/303
2-20
 Blasius’ Exact Solution (cont’d)
• BL displacement thickness at any section
From the Table
𝛿 of page 2-19
𝑢 1.721 𝑥
𝛿∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦 =
0 𝑈 𝑅𝑒𝑥
• Shear stress at the wall From the Table
of page 2-19
𝑑𝑢 0.332 𝜌𝑈 2
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=0 𝑅𝑒𝑥

• As 𝑥 increases 𝜏𝑤 decreases. 𝜏𝑤 ~ 1/ 𝑥
• At 𝑥 = 0, 𝜏𝑤 shoots to infinity, which is unphysical. This is because at the leading
edge of the plate Prandtl’s BL simplifications are not valid.

𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
High → High 𝜏𝑤 Low → Low 𝜏𝑤
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 225/303
2-21
 Blasius’ Exact Solution (cont’d)
• Local skin friction coefficient (dimensionless wall shear stress)
𝜏𝑤 0.6642
𝐶𝑓𝑥 = =
𝜌𝑈 2 /2 𝑅𝑒𝑥

• Drag force acting on one side of a plate of length 𝐿 and width 𝑏

𝐿
0.6642 𝜌𝑈 2 𝑏𝐿
𝐹𝐷 = 𝑏𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑈
𝑥=0 𝑅𝑒𝐿
𝑏
where 𝑅𝑒𝐿 = 𝑈𝐿/𝜈 𝐿

• Overall skin friction coefficient (dimensionless drag force)

𝐹𝐷 1.328
𝐶𝑓𝐿 = =
𝜌𝑏𝐿𝑈 2 /2 𝑅𝑒𝐿

226/303
2-22
 Von Karman’s Approximate Mometum Integral Approach (MIA)

Blasius’ Exact Solution

• laminar BL
• over a flat plate
𝑑𝑝
• for zero pressure gradient =0
𝑑𝑥

Momentum Integral Approach (MIA)

• both laminar and turbulent BLs
• over flat and curved surfaces
• for any known 𝑈(𝑥) and 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 (𝑥)
• but provides approximate results

• You are NOT responsible for the full derivational details of MIA, but you are strongly
advised to study it from a textbook. 227/303
2-23
 Mometum Integral Approach (cont’d)
• Consider 2D, steady, incompressible flow over a solid surface.
• MIA is based on the mass and momentum conservation for a differential control
volume inside the BL.

C
B
𝛿(𝑥)
𝑦
𝑥 𝜏𝑤 D
A

𝑑𝑥

• Continuity equation : 𝑚𝐴𝐵 + 𝑚𝐵𝐶 + 𝑚𝐶𝐷 = 0

• 𝑥–momentum equation : 𝐹𝑥 = Mom. flux𝐴𝐵 + Mom. flux𝐵𝐶 + Mom. flux𝐶𝐷

Sum of pressure and shear

forces in 𝑥 direction
228/303
2-24
 Mometum Integral Approach (cont’d)
• Using BE outside the BL, express the pressure gradient outside the BL (or inside,
they are the same) as a function of freestream velocity.
𝜌𝑈 2 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑈
𝑝+ = constant → = −𝜌𝑈
2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• Remember the definition of BL momentum thickness (see Slide 2-12)

𝛿
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃= 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑈 𝑈

• All the above equations are combined to get the following momentum integral
equation

𝜏𝑤 𝑑 𝑑𝑈
= 𝑈2𝜃 + 𝛿 ∗𝑈
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
Last term drops for =0
𝑑𝑥
229/303
2-25
 Using Mometum Integral Equation for a Laminar BL
• Step 1. Assume a suitable velocity profile for 𝑢(𝑦) inside the BL
• For laminar BLs polynomials of different degrees or sinusoidal profiles can be used.
• For example a quadratic polynomial profile inside a BL is

𝛿 𝑢 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2

Determine constants 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 as follows

• 𝑢 0 =0
• 𝑢 𝛿 =𝑈 𝑢 𝑦 𝑦 2
=2 −
𝑑𝑢 𝑈 𝛿 𝛿
• =0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=𝛿
230/303
2-26
 Using Mometum Integral Equation for a Laminar BL (cont’d)
• Step 2. Express 𝜏𝑤 in terms of the assumed velocity profile.
𝑑𝑢
• For laminar flows we can use 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=0

• Step 3. Use the assumed profile and related 𝜏𝑤 in the momentum integral
equation and determine 𝛿(𝑥)
• After finding 𝛿(𝑥) other flow details inside the BL can be computed.
• Following table provides a summary of results of MIA used with different velocity
profiles.

𝛿 𝑅𝑒𝑥 /𝑥 𝐶𝑓𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝐶𝑓𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝐿

MIA, Linear profile 3.46 0.578 1.156
MIA, Parabolic profile 5.48 0.730 1.460
MIA, Cubic profile 4.64 0.646 1.292
MIA, Sine profile 4.79 0.655 1.310
Blasius 5.00 0.664 1.328 231/303
2-27
 Using Mometum Integral Equation for a Turbulent BL
• For turbulent flows power law velocity profile is more appropriate
7 5 × 105 < 𝑅𝑒𝑥 < 107
𝑢 𝑦 1/𝑛
= where 𝑛= 8 107 < 𝑅𝑒𝑥 < 108
𝑈 𝛿
9 108 < 𝑅𝑒𝑥
• Power law profile represents time averaged profile of an unsteady turbulent flow.
• Compared to laminar velocity profiles power law profiles are more uniform, with
higher speed flow close to the wall.
1
Blasius
0.8 n=7

0.6
𝑦/𝛿
0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
232/303
𝑢/𝑈 2-29
 Using Mometum Integral Equation for a Turbulent BL (cont’d)
• Power law velocity profile gives infinite slope at the wall, therefore it can not be
𝑑𝑢
used to predict 𝜏𝑤 . Also 𝜏𝑤 is no longer equal to 𝜇 for turbulent flows.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=0

• Instead, experimentally obtained expressions are used such as

𝜈 1/4
𝜏𝑤 = 0.0233𝜌𝑈 2
𝑈𝛿

• Using power law profile with 𝑛 = 7 and the above 𝜏𝑤 relation in the momentum
integral equation one can obtain the following BL thickness relation
0.382 𝑥
𝛿= 1/5
𝑅𝑒𝑥
• Here it is important to note the difference between laminar and turbulent 𝛿
Laminar : 𝛿 ~ 𝑥 1/2
Turbulent : 𝛿 ~ 𝑥 4/5

233/303
2-30
 Friction Drag on a Flat Plate

• This figure is very similar to

the Moody diagram used for
pipe flow.
• It contains experimental data.
• It is used to determine the
drag force acting on a flat
plate. 𝐶𝑓𝐿
• Laminar flow curve represents
Blasius’ solution.
• Relative surface roughness
becomes a factor in the
turbulent regime .

𝑅𝑒𝐿
234/303
2-31
 Pressure Gradient Inside a Boundary Layer

𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑈 Separated flow
>0 =0 <0 going backward.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
<0 =0 >0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Favorable Zero Adverse
pressure pressure pressure
gradient gradient gradient
235/303
2-32
 Pressure Gradient Inside a Boundary Layer (cont’d)
𝑑𝑝
• = 0 : Fluid particles inside the BL slow down due to shear stress only.
𝑑𝑥

No flow separation can occur.

𝑑𝑝
• < 0 : Pressure decreases in the flow direction (favorable pressure gradient).
𝑑𝑥

Pressure force is in the flow direction. It helps the flow to attach to the
surface even stronger.
No flow separation can occur.
𝑑𝑝
• < 0 : Pressure increases in the flow direction (adverse pressure gradient).
𝑑𝑥

Pressure force is in opposite direction of the flow.

Fluid particles close to the wall with low momentum may come to a stop
or even move in opposite direction of the main flow, called backflow.

• Therefore, adverse pressure gradient is the necessary, but not sufficient, condition
for separation.
• BL calculations are no longer applicable after the separation point. 236/303
2-33
 Flow Separation
• Flow separation is generally undesired. It reduces lift force on an airfoil or
increases drag force on a blunt body.
• Turbulent BLs are more resistive to separation because, compared to a laminar
one, in a turbulent BL velocities close to the wall are higher.
• Turbulators are used in certain applications to make the flow turbulent and delay
separation.

Separation over an airfoil Separation over a tennis ball

http://wings.avkids.com/Tennis/Book/laminar-01.html http://www.swe.org/iac/lp/cycling_10.html

237/303
2-34
 Drag Force (𝐹𝐷 )
• Drag force is the component of force acting on a body acting parallel to the
direction of relative motion of the body and the surrounding fluid.
• In ME 305 we studied the dimensionless parameters for the calculation of drag
force on a smooth sphere.
𝑉
• Drag is a function of 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑓1 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌 𝜇, 𝜌
𝐹𝐷
• Buckhingham Pi analysis resulted in 𝐷
𝐹𝐷
2 2
= 𝑓2 𝑅𝑒
𝜌𝑉 𝐷

• Left hand side is a nondimensional drag force. It can be arranged as following

drag coefficient
𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒)
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝐴
2
where the area 𝐴 can be defined in different ways for different bodies. 238/303
2-35
 Drag Force (cont’d)
𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 =
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝐴
2

Frontal area Planform area Wetted area

• Previous slide says that 𝐶𝐷 is a function of Reynolds number only.

• When free surface, compressibility and surface roughness effects are included, 𝐶𝐷
becomes a more complicated function of
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝐹𝑟, 𝑀𝑎, 𝜀/𝑑)
239/303
2-36
 Drag Force (cont’d)
• First we’ll only consider the simple and common case of 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒) , for which
𝐹𝐷 is composed of two components.
𝐹𝐷

Friction drag Pressure drag (Form drag)

𝐹𝐷 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝐷 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Obtaining expressions for 𝜏𝑤 and 𝑝 for a general flow over a complex shaped body
is very difficult, if not impossible.
• 𝐹𝐷 (or 𝐶𝐷 ) calculations rely mostly on experimental data. 240/303
2-37
 Drag Force (cont’d)
• Flat plate, when aligned parallel to the flow, is a perfectly streamlined body.
• 𝐹𝐷 on such a plate is purely do to shear forces. Pressure drag is zero.

Streamlines are
almost straight
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐹𝐷 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 0

• When the plate is perpendicular to the flow the extremely blunt case is obtained.

𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐹𝐷 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0
241/303
2-38
 Drag Force on a Flat Plate
• For laminar flow over a flat plate, with length 𝐿 and width 𝑏, Blasius’ solution gives
𝐹𝐷 1.328
𝐶𝐷 = = valid for 𝑅𝑒𝐿 < 5 × 105 (Eqn 1)
1 2 𝑅𝑒𝐿
𝜌𝑈 𝑏𝐿
2

• For turbulent flow, assuming that the BL is turbulent from the leading edge, von
Karman’s approximate solution can be used to obtain (with 𝑛 = 7)
0.0742
𝐶𝐷 = 1/5
valid for 5 × 105 < 𝑅𝑒𝐿 < 107 (Eqn 2)
𝑅𝑒𝐿

• Schlichting’s formula can be used for turbulent flows with higher 𝑅𝑒 values (again
assuming that the BL is turbulent from the leading edge)
0.455
𝐶𝐷 = valid for 𝑅𝑒𝐿 < 109 (Eqn 3)
log 𝑅𝑒𝐿 2.58

242/303
2-39
 Drag Force on a Flat Plate (cont’d)
• Equations 2 and 3 of the previous slide can be modified if the BL is laminar at the
leading edge and transition occurs at 𝑅𝑒𝑥 = 5 × 105
0.0742 1740
𝐶𝐷 = 1/5
− valid for 5 × 105 < 𝑅𝑒𝐿 < 107 (Eqn 4)
𝑅𝑒𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝐿

0.455 1610
𝐶𝐷 = − valid for 𝑅𝑒𝐿 < 109 (Eqn 5)
log 𝑅𝑒𝐿 2.58 𝑅𝑒𝐿

0.010
0.008
Eqn 2
0.006

0.004
𝐶𝐷 Eqn 3
Eqn 5
0.002
Eqn 1
Adapted from Fox, Pritchard & McDonald’s textbook
0.001
105 2 5 106 2 5 107 2 5 108 2 5 109
𝑅𝑒𝐿 243/303
2-40
 Factors Affecting 𝐶𝐷
• 𝐶𝐷 depends on
• Shape of the body
• Reynolds number
• Surface roughness (for turbulent flows)
• Mach number (for compressible flows)
• Froude number (for free surface flows)

• Even if we start by considering only shape and 𝑅𝑒 dependency the discussion

becomes quite complicated.

• Be careful when comparing 𝐶𝐷 ’s of different flow configurations and/or different

bodies. A smaller 𝐶𝐷 not necessarily means a smaller drag force.

244/303
2-43
 Shape Dependency of Drag

Streamlined bodies Blunt bodies

• change the upstream uniform flow • change the upstream uniform
minimally flow considerably
• delay BL separation • cause early BL separation
• create smaller wake regions • create larger wake regions
• create less pressure drag • create more pressure drag

245/303
2-44
 Shape Dependency of Drag
• Streamlining the following body by decreasing 𝑡/𝑐 increases the dominance of
friction drag over pressure drag.

0.12 Adapted from Fox, Pritchard & McDonald’s textbook

0.08
𝑈 𝐶𝐷
Total
𝑡 Friction
0.04
𝑐 based on Pressure
0
𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
𝑡/𝑐

• Data is for 𝑅𝑒𝑐 = 4 × 105

• Minimum total 𝐶𝐷 is 0.06, which is equal to 20 % of the 𝐶𝐷 for a circular cylinder of
the same thickness.

246/303
2-45
 𝑅𝑒 Dependency of Drag (cont’d)
• 𝑅𝑒 dependency can be studied in three categories.
• very low 𝑅𝑒 (inertia forces are negligibly small)
• moderate 𝑅𝑒 (laminar BL)
• very high 𝑅𝑒 (turbulent BL)

• Flows with 𝑅𝑒 < 1 are called creeping flows.

• These flows are governed by a balance between pressure and viscous forces.
1
• For creeping flows, irrespective of the shape of the body 𝐶𝐷 ∝
𝑅𝑒

𝐷
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈 𝐷 𝑈
𝐷 𝐷

20.4 13.6 24 22.2

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑅𝑒𝐷
247/303
Adapted from Munson, Young & Okiishi’s textbook 2-46
 𝑅𝑒 Dependency of Drag (cont’d)
• For objects with sharp edges 𝐶𝐷 is almost constant for 𝑅𝑒 > 1000.
• Separation always occurs at the sharp edges independent of 𝑅𝑒.
• Laminar to turbulent transition has no considerable effect.

𝑈 ℎ 𝑈 𝑈 𝑈
ℎ
2.05 𝑏 ℎ=∞
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 = 1.17 𝐶𝐷 = 1.42 𝐶𝐷 = 0.38
1.05 𝑏 ℎ=1

𝐶𝐷 = 2.30 𝐶𝐷 = 1.20
248/303
Adapted from Fox, Pritchard & McDonald’s textbook 2-47
 Dependency of Drag to Turbulence Transition

Streamlined bodies Blunt bodies

• drag is mostly due to friction • drag is mostly due to pressure
• transition to turbulence increases • transition to turbulence delays
shear force and increases 𝐶𝐷 . separation, decreases size of the
wake region and decreases 𝐶𝐷 .

Flat plate
𝐷
Circle
1.0 𝐷
Ellipse
𝐹𝐷 𝐷/2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.1
1 2
𝜌𝑈 𝑏𝐷 𝐷
2
0.01 0.18 𝐷
width
𝐷
104 105 106 107 𝐷 249/303
Adapted from Munson, Young & Okiishi’s textbook 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑈𝐷/𝜈 2-48
 Drag Force on a Sphere and Cylinder
400
Adapted from Munson, Young & Okiishi’s textbook

100
A Cylinder
10
𝐶𝐷
24 C D
𝐶𝐷 = B
1 𝑅𝑒
E
Sphere
0.1
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
𝑅𝑒𝐷

A B C

No separation Steady separation bubble Oscillating von Karman vortex street wake

D E
Laminar boundary layer, Turbulent boundary layer,
250/303
wide turbulent wake narrow turbulent wake 2-49
 ME 306 Fluid Mechanics II

Part 4
Compressible Flow

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
260/303
4-1
 Compressibility and Mach Number
• Compressibility effects become important when a fluid moves with speeds comparable
to the local speed of sound (𝑐).
• Mach number is the most important nondimensional number for compressible flows
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑉 / 𝑐

• 𝑀𝑎 < 0.3 Incompressible flow (density changes are negligible)

• 0.3 < 𝑀𝑎 < 0.9 Subsonic flow (density affects are important, but shock waves
do not develop)
• 0.9 < 𝑀𝑎 < 1.1 Transonic flow (shock waves appear and divide the flow field
into subsonic and supersonic regions)
• 1.1 < 𝑀𝑎 < 5.0 Supersonic flow (shock waves are present and there are no
subsonic regions)
• 𝑀𝑎 > 5.0 Hypersonic flow (very strong shock waves and property
changes) 261/303
4-2
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics
• Ideal gas equation of state is
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
where 𝑅 is the gas constant.
• By defining specific volume as 𝑣 = 1/𝜌 ideal gas law becomes
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
• For an ideal gas internal energy (𝑢) is a function of temperature only.
• Ideal gas specific heat at constant volume is defined as
𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑑𝑇
• 𝑐𝑣 is also a function of temperature, but for moderate temperature changes it can be
taken as constant. In this course we’ll take 𝑐𝑣 as constant.
• Change in internal energy between two states is (considering constant 𝑐𝑣 )
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
262/303
4-3
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (cont’d)
• Enthalpy is defined as
𝑝
ℎ = 𝑢+ = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇
𝜌
• For an ideal gas enthalpy is also a function of temperature only.
• Ideal gas specific heat at constant pressure is defined as
𝑑ℎ
𝑐𝑝 =
𝑑𝑇
• 𝑐𝑝 will also be taken as constant in this course. For constant 𝑐𝑝 change in enthalpy is
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
• Combining the definition of 𝑐𝑣 and 𝑐𝑝
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = − = 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

263/303
4-4
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (cont’d)
• For air
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
1.005 0.287
𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔𝐾
0.718
𝑘𝑔𝐾
• Specific heat ratio is used frequently in compressible flow studies
𝑐𝑝
𝑘=
𝑐𝑣
which has a value of 1.4 for air.

• Combining the above relations we can also obtain

𝑅𝑘 𝑅
𝑐𝑝 = , 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑘−1 𝑘−1

264/303
4-5
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (cont’d)
• Entropy change for an ideal gas are expressed with 𝑇𝑑𝑠 relations
1 1
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝 𝑑 , 𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑑𝑝
𝜌 𝜌

• Integrating these 𝑇𝑑𝑠 relations for an ideal gas

𝑇2 𝜌1 𝑇2 𝑝2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 , 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑅 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1 𝜌2 𝑇1 𝑝1

• For an adiabatic (no heat transfer) and frictionless flow, which is known as isentropic
flow, entropy remains constant.

Exercise : For isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat values, derive
the following commonly used relations, known as isentropic relations

𝑘/(𝑘−1) 𝑘
𝑇2 𝜌2 𝑝2
= =
𝑇1 𝜌1 𝑝1 265/303
4-6
 Speed of Sound (𝑐)
• Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure pulse (wave) of infinitesimal
strength through a still medium (a fluid in our case).
• It is a thermodynamic property of the fluid.
• For air at standard conditions, sound moves with a speed of 𝑐 = 343 𝑚/𝑠

http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/demos.html

266/303
4-7
 Speed of Sound (cont’d)
• To obtain a relation for the speed of sound consider the following experiment
• A duct is initially full of still gas with properties 𝑝, 𝜌, 𝑇 and 𝑉 = 0

𝑝 𝑇
𝜌 𝑉=0

• Piston is pushed into the fluid with an infinitesimal velocity of 𝑑𝑉

• A pressure wave of infinitesimal strength will form and it’ll travel in the gas with the
speed of sound 𝑐.
• As it passes over the gas particles it will create infinitesimal property changes.

Moving wave front

𝑑𝑉 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑐 𝑝 𝑇
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑉 𝜌 𝑉=0
267/303
4-8
 Speed of Sound (cont’d)
• For an observer moving with the wave front with speed 𝑐, wave front will be stationary
and the fluid on the left and the right would move with relative speeds

𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑇
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑉 = 𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉 𝜌 𝑉=𝑐

Stationary wave front

• Consider a control volume enclosing the stationary wave front. The flow is one
dimensional and steady.

out in

Cross sectional area 𝐴

268/303
4-9
 Speed of Sound (cont’d)
• Continuity equation for the control volume
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜌𝐴𝑐 = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝐴(𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉)
𝜌𝐴𝑐 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 − 𝜌 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 + 𝐴 𝑐 𝑑𝜌 − 𝐴 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑉

Negligibly
small term
𝑐
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝜌
𝜌

• Linear momentum equation in the flow direction is (consider only pressure forces, but
no viscous forces since they are negligibly small for the process of interest)

𝐹 = 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉)

𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐

269/303
4-10
 Speed of Sound (cont’d)
• Momentum equation simplifies to
1
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑝
𝜌𝑐

• Combining continuity and momentum equation results

𝑑𝑝
𝑐= Propagation of a sound wave
𝑑𝜌 𝑠 is an isentropic process

Exercise : In deriving speed of sound equation, we did not make use of the energy
equation. Show that it gives the same result.

Exercise : What is the speed of sound for a perfectly incompressible fluid.

Exercise : Show that speed of sound for an ideal gas is equal to

𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇 270/303
4-11
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid
• Consider a point source generating small pressure pulses (sound waves) at regular
intervals.
• Case 1 : Stationary source
• Waves travel in all directions symmetrically.
• The same sound frequency will be heard everywhere around the source.

271/303
4-12
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d)
• Case 2 : Source moving with less than the speed of sound (𝑀𝑎 < 1)
• Waves are not symmetric anymore.
• An observer will hear different sound frequencies depending on his/her location.
• This asymmetry is the cause of the Doppler effect.

272/303
4-13
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d)
• Case 3 : Source moving the speed of sound (𝑀𝑎 = 1)
• The source moves with the same speed as the sound waves it generates.
• All waves concentrate on a plane passing through the moving source creating a
Mach wave, across which there is a significant pressure change.
• Mach wave separates the filed into two as zone of silence and zone of action.

Zone of Zone of
action silence

𝑉 = 𝑐

• First aircraft exceeding the speed of sound : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1 273/303

4-14
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d)
• Case 4 : Source moving with more than the speed of sound (𝑀𝑎 > 1)
• The source travels faster than the sound it generates.
• Mach cone divides the field into zones of action and silence.
• Half angle of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle 𝜇.

Zone of 𝜇 Zone of
action silence

𝑉>𝑐

274/303
4-15
 1D, Isentropic, Compressible Flow
• Consider an internal compressible flow, such as the one in a duct of variable cross
sectional area

• Flow and fluid properties inside this nozzle change due to

• Cross sectional area change
• Frictional effects
NOT the subject of ME 306
• Heat transfer effects

• In ME 306 we’ll only study these flows to be one dimensional and consider only the
effect of area change, i.e. assume isentropic flow.
276/303
4-17
 1D, Isentropic, Compressible Flow (cont’d)

1 2

• Conservation of energy for a control volume between sections 1 and 2 gives

𝑉12 𝑉22
ℎ1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 = ℎ2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 − 𝑞 − 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 − 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
2 2
Heat transfer is neglected for
adiabatic flow. There is no
shaft work and shear work is
zero for the selected CV.

• For gas flows potential energy change is negligibly small compared to kinetic energy
change.
𝑉12 𝑉22
• Energy equation reduces to ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2 2
277/303
4-18
 Stagnation Enthalpy
𝑉2
• The sum ℎ + is known as stagnation enthalpy and it is constant inside the duct.
2

𝑉2
ℎ0 = ℎ + = constant
2
stagnation
enthalpy

• It is called ‘‘stagnation’’ enthalpy because a stagnation point has zero velocity and the
enthalpy of the gas is equal to ℎ0 at such a point.

Fluid is sucked into the duct from

this reservoir, where it is almost
stagnant. This reservoir is said to
be at the stagnation state.

278/303
4-19
 Stagnation State
• Stgnation state is an important reference state used in compressible flow calculations.
• It is the state achieved if a fluid at any other state is brought to rest isentropically.
• For an isentropic flow there will a unique stagnation state.

State 1 State 2
𝑉1 , ℎ1 , 𝑝1 , 𝑇1 , etc. 𝑉2 , ℎ2 , 𝑝2 , 𝑇2 , etc.

1 2

Isentropic
Isentropic
deceleration
deceleration
0
Unique stagnation state
𝑉0 = 0, ℎ0 , 𝑝0 , 𝑇0 , etc.
279/303
4-20
 Stagnation State (cont’d)
• Isentropic deceleration can be shown on a ℎ − 𝑠 diagram as follows

ℎ
𝑝0 Stagnation state
𝑉0 = 0, ℎ0 , 𝑝0 ,
ℎ0 𝑇0 , 𝑠0 , etc.

Isentropic
𝑉2/2
deceleration
𝑝 Any state
ℎ 𝑉, ℎ, 𝑝,
𝑇, 𝑠, etc.
𝑠

• During isentropic deceleration entropy remains constant.

02 𝑉2 𝑉2
• Energy conservation: ℎ0 + =ℎ+ → ∆ℎ = ℎ0 − ℎ =
2 2 2
280/303
4-21
 Simple Area Change Flows (cont’d)
• Results of the previous exercise are

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 1
= , =−
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴 1 − 𝑀𝑎2 𝑉 𝐴 1 − 𝑀𝑎2

Subsonic Flow 𝑀𝑎 < 1 Supersonic Flow 𝑀𝑎 > 1

Diffuser

𝑑𝑝 > 0 𝑑𝐴 > 0 𝑑𝐴 < 0

𝑑𝑉 < 0

Nozzle

𝑑𝑝 < 0 𝑑𝐴 < 0 𝑑𝐴 > 0

𝑑𝑉 > 0
281/303
4-26
 Simple Area Change Flows (cont’d)
• Sonic flow is a very special case. It can occur
• when the cross sectional area goes through a minimum, i.e. 𝑑𝐴 = 0

Sonic flow may occur at the throat.

• or at the exit of a subsonic nozzle or a supersonic diffuser

𝑀𝑎 < 1

Sonic flow may occur at these exits.

𝑀𝑎 > 1
282/303
4-27
 Critical State
• Critical state is the special state where Mach number is unity.
• It is a useful reference state, similar to stagnation state. It is useful even if there is no
actual critical state in a flow.
• It is shown with an asterisk, like 𝑇 ∗ , 𝑝∗ , 𝜌∗ , 𝐴∗ , etc.

• Ratios derived in Slide 4-22 can also be written using the critical state.

𝑘/(𝑘−1) 𝑘/(𝑘−1)
𝑝𝑜 𝑘−1 𝑝𝑜 𝑘−1
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎2 = 1+
𝑝 2 𝑝∗ 2
𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1 𝑀𝑎 = 1 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
=1+ 𝑀𝑎2 =1+
𝑇 2 𝑇∗ 2
1/(𝑘−1) 1/(𝑘−1)
𝜌𝑜 𝑘−1 𝜌𝑜 𝑘−1
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎2 = 1+
𝜌 2 𝜌∗ 2
283/303
4-29
 Isentropic Flow Table
• It provides the following ratios at different Mach numbers for a fixed 𝑘 value.
𝑇 𝑝 𝜌 𝐴 𝑚 𝑅𝑇0
𝑇0 𝑝0 𝜌0 𝐴∗ 𝐴𝑝0

Aksel’s Fluid Mechanics textbook 284/303

4-31
 Shock Waves
• Waves are disturbances (property changes) moving in a fluid.
• Sound wave is a weak wave, i.e. property changes across it are infinitesimally small.
• ∆𝑝 across a sound wave is in the order of 10−9 − 10−3 atm.

• Shock wave is a strong wave, i.e. property changes across it are finite.
• Shock waves are very thin, in the order of 10−7 m.
• Fluid particles decelerate with millions of 𝑔’s through a shock wave.
• Shock waves can be stationary or moving.
• They can be normal (perpendicular to the flow direction) or oblique (inclined to the
flow direction).

• In ME 306 we’ll consider stationary normal shock waves for 1D flows inside ducts.

285/303
4-34
 Shock Waves (cont’d)

Normal shock wave in a supersonic

nozzle. Flow is from left to right. Extra
waves are due to surface roughness
Oblique shock wave ahead of a
bullet moving at supersonic speed

White’s Fluid Mechanics textbook

286/303
4-35
 Formation of a Strong Wave
• Strong wave are formed by the accumulation of weak compression waves.
• Compression waves are the ones across which pressure increase and velocity decrease
in the flow direction.
• Sound wave is an example of weak compression waves.

• Consider a piston pushed with a finite velocity 𝑉 in a cylinder filled with still gas.
• We can decompose piston’s motion into a series of infinitesimally small disturbances.
• Weak compression waves will emerge from the piston, one after the other.
• The first two of such waves are sketched below.

Second wave front First wave front

𝑉 𝑐2 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑐1 𝑝
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑉 𝑉=0
287/303
4-36
 Formation of a Strong Wave (cont’d)
• First wave will cause an increase in temperature behind it.
• Second wave will move faster and eventually catch the first one.
𝑐2 > 𝑐1
• A third one, which is not shown, will move even faster and catch the first two waves.
𝑐3 > 𝑐2 > 𝑐1
• Weak compression waves have a chance to accumulate into a strong wave of finite
strength.
• Weak expansion waves that’ll be generated by pulling the piston to the left will not
form such a strong wave.

Accumulated
strong wave

𝑉 𝑝 + ∆𝑝 𝑝
𝑇 + ∆𝑇 𝑇
∆𝑉 𝑉=0
288/303
4-37
 Normal Shock Wave
𝑦
• Consider a stationary normal shock wave in a 𝑥
duct of variable cross sectional area.
• Upstream and downstream states are denoted
by 𝑥 and 𝑦.

• Due to very sudden, finite property changes, the process across the wave is
considered to be non-isentropic. But it can be assumed to be adiabatic.
• There are two different stagnation states, state 0𝑥 for the flow before the shock and
state 0𝑦 for the flow after the shock.
𝑝0𝑥 ≠ 𝑝0𝑦 and 𝜌0𝑥 ≠ 𝜌0𝑦
• However, because of adiabatic assumption, stagnation temperatures and enthalpies
are the same.
𝑇0𝑥 = 𝑇0𝑦 = 𝑇0 and ℎ0𝑥 = ℎ0𝑦 = ℎ0
289/303
4-38
 Stagnation State of a Non-isentropic, Adiabatic Flow
• Stagnation state concept can also be used for non-isentropic flows, but there will be
multiple such states.
• If the flow is adiabatic ℎ0 , 𝑇0 and 𝑐0 will be unique, but not other stagnation
properties such as 𝑝0 or 𝜌0 .

State 1 State 2
𝑉1 , 𝑝1 , ℎ1 , 𝑇1 , etc. 𝑉2 , 𝑝2 , ℎ2 , 𝑇2 , etc.

Non-isentropic,
adiabatic flow Isentropic
Isentropic (such as the one deceleration
deceleration across a shock)
Stagnation state of state 2
𝑉0 = 0, 𝑝02 , 𝜌02 , ℎ0 , 𝑇0 , etc.
Stagnation state of state 1
𝑉0 = 0, 𝑝01 , 𝜌01 , ℎ0 , 𝑇0 , etc.
290/303
4-39
 Adiabatic Stagnation State
• Adiabatic stagnation is reached if the deceleration from a state is not isentropic, but
only adiabatic.

ℎ (Isentropic ) stagnation
𝑝0 𝑝0,𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 state
ℎ0
Adiabatic stagnation
Isentropic Adiabatic state
deceleration deceleration
𝑝
ℎ Any state

• During adiabatic deceleration entropy increases.

• But the achieved adiabatic stagnation state will have the same stagnation enthalpy ℎ0
and stagnation temperature 𝑇0 as isentropic stagnation state. 291/303
4-40
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave
• Governing equations for the 1D flow inside the control volume enclosing the shock
wave are

𝑦
𝑥

• Continuity : 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑦 𝐴 where 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑦
• Momentum : 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑝𝑦 𝐴 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑦 − 𝑉𝑥
𝑉𝑥2 𝑉𝑦2
• Energy : ℎ0 = ℎ𝑥 + = ℎ𝑦 +
2 2

• Second Law : 𝑠𝑦 > 𝑠𝑥

292/303
4-41
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d)
• For the flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats, these equations can be
simplified as follows

𝑘 − 1 𝑀𝑎𝑥2 + 2
• Donwstream Mach number : 𝑀𝑎𝑦 =
2𝑘𝑀𝑎𝑥 − (𝑘 − 1)

𝑘−1 2 2𝑘 2
𝑇𝑦 1+ 2 𝑀𝑎 𝑥 𝑀𝑎 𝑥 −1
𝑘−1
• Temperature change : =
𝑇𝑥 𝑘+1 2
𝑀𝑎𝑥
2(𝑘 − 1)
𝑝𝑦 2𝑘 2
𝑘−1
• Pressure change : = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 −
𝑝𝑥 𝑘 + 1 𝑘+1

𝜌𝑦 (𝑘 + 1)𝑀𝑎𝑥2
• Density change : =
𝜌𝑥 2 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑀𝑎𝑥2

𝑉𝑦 𝜌𝑥
• Velocity change : =
𝑉𝑥 𝜌𝑦
293/303
4-42
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d)
𝑘
𝑘+1 2 𝑘−1
𝑝0𝑦 𝑀𝑎 𝑥 2𝑘 𝑘−1
• Stagnation pressure change : = 2 𝑀𝑎𝑥2 −
𝑝0𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
1 + 2 𝑀𝑎𝑥2

𝐴∗𝑦 𝑝0𝑥
• Critical area change : =
𝐴∗𝑥 𝑝0𝑦

𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑥 𝑝0𝑦
• Entropy change : = −𝑙𝑛
𝑅 𝑝0𝑥

• According to the last equation for 𝑘 values of all known gases entropy increase occurs
only if 𝑀𝑎𝑥 > 1.
• Therefore in a 1D flow, a shock wave can occur only if the incoming flow is supersonic.

Exercise : Using 𝑀𝑎𝑦 relation of the previous slide and the above fact, show that the
flow after a shock wave must be subsonic, i.e. 𝑀𝑎𝑦 < 1
294/303
4-43
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d)
• All the relations of Slide 4-42 and 4-43 are given as functions of 𝑀𝑎𝑥 and 𝑘 only.
• Usually graphical or tabulated forms of them are used.

Aksel’s Fluid Mechanics textbook

295/303
4-44
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d)
• Across a normal shock wave
6
𝑝𝑦 𝐴∗𝑦 𝑝0𝑥 𝑀𝑎, 𝑉, 𝑝0 decreases
=
𝑝𝑥 𝐴∗𝑥 𝑝0𝑦
5 𝑝, 𝑇, 𝜌, 𝐴∗ , 𝑠 increases
𝑉𝑥 𝜌𝑦 𝑇0 remains the same
4 =
𝑉𝑦 𝜌𝑥

3 𝑇𝑦
• Kinetic energy of the fluid after the shock
𝑇𝑥
wave is smaller than the one that would
2 𝑝0𝑦
𝑝0𝑥 be obtained by a reversible compression
1 between the same pressure limits.
𝑀𝑎𝑦
0 • Lost kinetic energy is the reason of
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
temperature increase across the shock
𝑀𝑎𝑥
Adapted from White’s Fluid Mechanics book
wave.
296/303
4-45
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle
• Consider a converging nozzle.
• Gas is provided by a large reservoir with stagnation properties, 𝑇0 and 𝑝0.
• Back pressure 𝑝𝑏 is adjusted using a vacuum pump to obtain different flow conditions
inside the nozzle.
• We’ll differentiate between exit pressure 𝑝𝑒 and back pressure 𝑝𝑏. They are often
equal, but not always.

𝑇0
𝑝𝑏
𝑝0
𝑝𝑒

297/303
4-47
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle (cont’d)
• First set 𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝0 . There will be no flow.

• Gradually decrease 𝑝𝑏 . Following pressure distributions will be observed.

𝑝0 1 : No flow (𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝0)

2 : 𝑝∗ < 𝑝𝑏 < 𝑝0 Subcritical
regime
𝑝∗ 3 : Critical (𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝∗ )
Supercritical
4 : 𝑝𝑏 < 𝑝∗
regime
𝑥 298/303
4-48
 Choked Flow
• Flow inside the converging nozzle always remain subsonic.

• For the subcritical regime as we decrease 𝑝𝑏 mass flow rate increases.

• State shown with * is the critical state. When 𝑝𝑏 is lowered to the critical value 𝑝∗ , exit
Mach number reaches to 1 and flow is said to be choked.

• If 𝑝𝑏 is lowered further, flow remains choked. Pressure and Mach number at the exit
does not change. Mass flow rate through the nozzle does not change.

• For 𝑝𝑏 < 𝑝∗ , gas exits the nozzle as a supercritical jet with 𝑝𝑒 > 𝑝𝑏. Exit jet undergoes a
non-isentropic expansion to reduce its pressure to 𝑝𝑏 .

𝑝∗ 2 𝑘/(𝑘−1) 𝑝∗
• From slide 4-29 = . For air (𝑘 = 1.4) choking occurs when = 0.528.
𝑝0 𝑘+1 𝑝0

299/303
4-49
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle (cont’d)

Variation of 𝑝𝑒 with 𝑝𝑏 Variation of 𝑚 with 𝑝𝑏

𝑝𝑒 𝑚

𝑝0 1 4 3
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 2
4 3

𝑝𝑏 1 𝑝𝑏
𝑝∗ 𝑝0 𝑝∗ 𝑝0

• Case 1 is the no flow case.

• From case 1 to case 3 𝑝𝑒 drops and 𝑚 increases.

• Case 3 is the critical case with minimum possible 𝑝𝑒 and maximum possible 𝑚.
300/303
4-50
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle
• We first set 𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝0 and then gradually decrease 𝑝𝑏 .

Throat

𝑝0 1 : No flow (𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝0)

2 : Subsonic Flow
3 : Initial choked flow (𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 1)
4 : Flow with shock
5y : Shock at the exit Choked
𝑝∗
flow.
6 : Overexpansion Same 𝑚
7 : Design condition
8 : Underexpansion
𝑥 301/303
4-51
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d)
• Flow inside the converging section is always subsonic.
• At the throat the flow can be subsonic or sonic.
• The flow is choked if 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 1. This corresponds to the maximum 𝑚 that can pass
through the nozzle.
• Under choked conditions the flow in the diverging part can be subsonic (case 3) or
supersonic (cases 6, 7 ,8).
• Depending on 𝑝𝑏 there may be a shock wave in the diverging part. Location of the
shock wave is determined by 𝑝𝑏.
• Design condition corresponds to the choked flow with supersonic exit without a shock.
• Overexpansion (𝑝𝑒 < 𝑝𝑏 ): Exiting jet finds itself in a higher pressure medium and
contracts. Underexpansion (𝑝𝑒 > 𝑝𝑏 ): Exiting jet finds itself in a lower pressure
medium and expands. For details and pictures visit http://aerorocket.com/Nozzle/Nozzle.html
and http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0224.shtml 302/303
4-52
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d)
𝑝
Throat
𝑝0 1
2
3
4
5y
𝑝∗
6
7
8
𝑥

Variation of 𝑝𝑒 with 𝑝𝑏 Variation of 𝑚 with 𝑝𝑏

𝑝𝑒 𝑚
𝑝0 1
3 2 7 5y 3
4 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 8 6 4
5y
2
𝑝𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 5x
876
𝑝𝑏 1 𝑝𝑏
𝑝0 𝑝0 303/303
4-53
cen72367_appx1.qxd 11/17/04 4:34 PM Page 899

899
APPENDIX 1

k$1 TA B L E A – 1 3
Ma* ! Ma
B 2 $ (k " 1)Ma2 One-dimensional isentropic compressible flow functions for an ideal
0.5(k$1)%(k"1)
A 1 2 k"1 gas with k ! 1.4
! ca b a1 $ Ma2bd
A* Ma k $ 1 2 Ma Ma* A/A* P/P0 r/r0 T/T0
"k%(k"1)
P k"1
! a1 $ Ma2b 0 0 & 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
P0 2
0.1 0.1094 5.8218 0.9930 0.9950 0.9980
"1%(k"1)
r k"1 0.2 0.2182 2.9635 0.9725 0.9803 0.9921
! a1 $ Ma2b
r0 2 0.3 0.3257 2.0351 0.9395 0.9564 0.9823
T k"1 "1 0.4 0.4313 1.5901 0.8956 0.9243 0.9690
! a1 $ Ma2b 0.5 0.5345 1.3398 0.8430 0.8852 0.9524
T0 2
0.6 0.6348 1.1882 0.7840 0.8405 0.9328
0.7 0.7318 1.0944 0.7209 0.7916 0.9107
0.8 0.8251 1.0382 0.6560 0.7400 0.8865
0.9 0.9146 1.0089 0.5913 0.6870 0.8606
1.0 1.0000 1.0000 0.5283 0.6339 0.8333
1.2 1.1583 1.0304 0.4124 0.5311 0.7764
1.4 1.2999 1.1149 0.3142 0.4374 0.7184
1.6 1.4254 1.2502 0.2353 0.3557 0.6614
1.8 1.5360 1.4390 0.1740 0.2868 0.6068
2.0 1.6330 1.6875 0.1278 0.2300 0.5556
2.2 1.7179 2.0050 0.0935 0.1841 0.5081
2.4 1.7922 2.4031 0.0684 0.1472 0.4647
2.6 1.8571 2.8960 0.0501 0.1179 0.4252
2.8 1.9140 3.5001 0.0368 0.0946 0.3894
3.0 1.9640 4.2346 0.0272 0.0760 0.3571
5.0 2.2361 25.000 0.0019 0.0113 0.1667
' 2.2495 ' 0 0 0

3.0

A/A*

2.5
Compressible flow functions

2.0
Ma*

1.5

1.0

T/T0
0.5

r/r*
P/P0
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Ma
cen72367_appx1.qxd 11/17/04 4:34 PM Page 900

900
FLUID MECHANICS

T01 ! T02
TA B L E A – 1 4
(k " 1)Ma21 $ 2
Ma2 ! One-dimensional normal shock functions for an ideal gas with k ! 1.4
B 2kMa21 " k $ 1
Ma1 Ma2 P2/P1 r2/r1 T2/T1 P02/P01 P02/P1
P 2 1 $ kMa21 2kMa21 " k $ 1
! ! 1.0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.8929
P 1 1 $ kMa22 k$1
1.1 0.9118 1.2450 1.1691 1.0649 0.9989 2.1328
r 2 P 2%P 1 (k $ 1)Ma21 V1 1.2 0.8422 1.5133 1.3416 1.1280 0.9928 2.4075
! ! !
r1 T2%T1 2 $ (k " 1)Ma21 V2 1.3 0.7860 1.8050 1.5157 1.1909 0.9794 2.7136
T2 2 $ Ma21(k " 1) 1.4 0.7397 2.1200 1.6897 1.2547 0.9582 3.0492
! 1.5 0.7011 2.4583 1.8621 1.3202 0.9298 3.4133
T1 2 $ Ma22(k " 1) 1.6 0.6684 2.8200 2.0317 1.3880 0.8952 3.8050
P 02 Ma1 1 $ Ma22(k " 1)%2 (k $ 1)/[2(k" 1)] 1.7 0.6405 3.2050 2.1977 1.4583 0.8557 4.2238
! c d 1.8 0.6165 3.6133 2.3592 1.5316 0.8127 4.6695
P 01 Ma2 1 $ Ma21(k " 1)%2
1.9 0.5956 4.0450 2.5157 1.6079 0.7674 5.1418
P 02 (1 $ kMa21)[1 $ Ma22(k " 1)%2]k%(k"1) 2.0 0.5774 4.5000 2.6667 1.6875 0.7209 5.6404
!
P1 1 $ kMa22 2.1 0.5613 4.9783 2.8119 1.7705 0.6742 6.1654
2.2 0.5471 5.4800 2.9512 1.8569 0.6281 6.7165
2.3 0.5344 6.0050 3.0845 1.9468 0.5833 7.2937
2.4 0.5231 6.5533 3.2119 2.0403 0.5401 7.8969
2.5 0.5130 7.1250 3.3333 2.1375 0.4990 8.5261
2.6 0.5039 7.7200 3.4490 2.2383 0.4601 9.1813
2.7 0.4956 8.3383 3.5590 2.3429 0.4236 9.8624
2.8 0.4882 8.9800 3.6636 2.4512 0.3895 10.5694
2.9 0.4814 9.6450 3.7629 2.5632 0.3577 11.3022
3.0 0.4752 10.3333 3.8571 2.6790 0.3283 12.0610
4.0 0.4350 18.5000 4.5714 4.0469 0.1388 21.0681
5.0 0.4152 29.000 5.0000 5.8000 0.0617 32.6335
& 0.3780 & 6.0000 & 0 &

5.0

P02 /P1 P2 /P1

4.0
r2 /r1
Normal shock functions

3.0
T2/T1

2.0

1.0
Ma2

P02/P01
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Ma1